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Review of Thixotropy

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8/10/2019 Review of Thixotropy http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/review-of-thixotropy 1/33 ELSEVIER J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 70 (1997) 1-33 Jear~lof Nea-l~.wtmi~ l~id Medmks Review Thixotropy a review Howard A. Barnes Unilever Research Laboratory Bebington Merseyside L63 3JW UK Received 16 November 1996; received n revised form 16 December 1996; accepted 6 January 1997 Abstract The ensuing mechanical response to stressing or straining a structured liquid results in various viscoelastic phenomena, either in the linear region where the microstructure responds linearly with respect to the stress and strain but does not itself change, or in the nonlinear region where the microstructure does change in response to the imposed stresses and strains, but does so reversibly, The complication of thixotropy arises because this reversible, microstruc- tural change itself takes time to come about due to local spatial rearrangement of the components. This frequently found time-response of a microstructure that is itself changing with time makes thixotropic, viscoelastic behaviour one of the greatest challenges facing rheologists today, in terms of its accurate experimental characterisation and its adequate theoretical description. Here a history of thixotropy is given, together with a description of how it is understood today in various parts of the scientific community. Then a mechanistic description of thixotropy is presented, together with a series of applications where thixotropy is important. A list of different examples of thixotropic systems is then given. Finally the various kinds of theories that have been put forward to describe the phenomenon mathematically are listed. © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. Keywords: Microstructure; Stress; Strain; Viscoelastic 1. Introduction The growing use of clay-based structurants together with the increasing presence of floccu- lated structures in home, personal and chemical products and precursors has led to the appearance of thixotropy in a widening range of situations, quite apart from its presence in systems long known to display the phenomenon. Difficulties then arise in mixing and handling these materials because thixotropic structures progressively break down on shearing and slowly rebuild at rest. The time-scales involved can range from many minutes in the case of breakdown to many hours in rebuilding. 0377-0257/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII S0377-0257(97)00004-9
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E L S E V I E R

J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. , 70 (1997) 1-33

Jear~lof

Nea-l~.wtmi~

l ~ i d

Medmks

R e v i e w

T h i x o t r o p y a r e v ie w

H o w a r d A . B a r n e s

Unilever Research Laboratory Bebington Merseyside L6 3 3JW UK

Received 16 Novem ber 1996; received n revised fo rm 16 Decem ber 1996; accepted 6 January 1997

Abstract

The ensuing mechanical response to stressing or straining a structured liquid results in various viscoelastic

phen om ena, ei ther in the l inear region where the m icrostructure responds l inearly with respect to the s t ress and s t rain

but do es not i t sel f change, or in the non l inear region where the microstructure does change in response to the im posed

stresses and strains, but does so reversibly, The complication of thixotropy arises because this reversible, microstruc-

tural chang e i tsel f takes t ime to com e abou t due to local spat ial rearrang em ent of the compo nents . This frequent ly

foun d t ime-respon se of a micros tructure that is i t sel f changing with t ime m akes thixo tropic, viscoelastic b ehav iour one

of the greatest chal lenges facing rheologis ts today, in terms of i ts accurate experimental characterisat ion and i ts

adequate theoret ical descript ion. Here a his tory of thixotropy is given, together with a descript ion of how i t i s

understood today in various parts of the scient i f ic community. Then a mechanis t ic descript ion of thixotropy is

presented, togeth er with a series of appl icat ions where thixotro py is impo rtant . A l is t of di fferent examples of

thixotropic systems is then given. Final ly the various kinds of theories that have been put forward to describe the

phe nom eno n m athem atical ly are l isted. © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.

Keywords: Microstructure; Stress; Strain; Viscoelastic

1 . In t ro duc t io n

T h e g r o w i n g u s e o f c l a y - b a s e d s t r u c t u r a n t s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e in c r e a s i n g p r e s e n c e o f fl o c c u -

l a t e d s t r u c t u r e s i n h o m e , p e r s o n a l a n d c h e m i c a l p r o d u c t s a n d p r e c u r s o r s h a s le d t o t h e

a p p e a r a n c e o f t h i x o t r o p y i n a w i d e n i n g r a n g e o f s i t u a ti o n s , q u i t e a p a r t f r o m i t s p r e s e n c e i n

s y s t e m s lo n g k n o w n t o d i s p l a y th e p h e n o m e n o n . D i f f ic u l ti e s t h e n a r i se in m i x i n g a n d h a n d l i n g

t h e s e m a t e r i a l s b e c a u s e t h i x o t r o p i c s t r u c t u r e s p r o g r e s s iv e l y b r e a k d o w n o n s h e a r i n g a n d s l o w ly

r e b u i l d a t r e st . T h e t im e - s c a l e s i n v o l v e d c a n r a n g e f r o m m a n y m i n u t e s i n t h e ca s e o f b r e a k d o w n

t o m a n y h o u r s i n r e b u i l d i n g .

0377-0257/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V . All rights reserved.

P I I

S 0 3 7 7 - 0 2 5 7 ( 9 7 ) 0 0 0 0 4 - 9

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2 H.A. Bar nes /J . Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 70 1997) 1-33

T h i x o t r o p y h a s b e e n d e l ib e r a t el y b u i lt i n t o p r o d u c t s t o m a k e t h e m u s a b l e b y n o n - e x p e r t s - -

w i t h t h e b e s t - k n o w n e x a m p l e b e i n g th i x o t r o p i c p a i n t s - - h o w e v e r , a s w i l l b e s h o w n h e r e, w h a t is

u su a l ly w an ted in th ese cases i s ex t r em e sh ea r - th in n in g . H o w ev er th e w ay in w h ich th i s i s

b r o u g h t a b o u t u s u a l l y i n tr o d u c e s t h i x o t r o p y a s w e l l, w h i c h is t h e n a l m o s t a l w a y s a n u n w a n t e d

n u i sa n c e . H o w e v e r t h e p h e n o m e n a s t il l h a s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d , a n d h e n c e t h e n e e d f o r a n

u p - to -d a te r ev iew .

Majo r p o s t -w ar r ev iew s o f t h ix o t ro p y h av e b een p ro d u ced b y B au er an d C o l l in s , 1 9 6 7 [1 ] ,

Mew is , 1 9 7 9 [2 ], C h en g , 1 98 2 [3] , an d G o d f rey , 1 9 8 3 [4 ]. W h i l e th e g en era l a reas th ey co v er a re

a l so d ea l t w i th h e re , t h ey a re w e l l w o r th co n su l t in g fo r i n t e res t in g ex am p les o f t h ix o t ro p ic

sy s t em s n o t c i t ed h e re .

2. A history of thixotropy

2 1 Origins

I n 1 9 2 3 , S c h a l e k a n d S z e g v a r i f o u n d t h a t a q u e o u s i r o n o x i d e " g e l s h a v e t h e r e m a r k a b l e

p r o p e r t y o f b e c o m i n g c o m p l e t e l y l i q u i d t h r o u g h g e n t l e s h a k i n g a l o n e , t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t t h e

l iq u if i ed g e l is h a rd ly d i s t in g u i sh ab le f ro m th e o r ig in a l so l. T h e se so l s w ere l i q u i f i ed b y sh ak in g ,

so l id i f ied ag a in a f t e r a p e r io d o f t im e . .. t h e ch an g e o f s ta t e p ro cess co u ld b e r ep ea ted a n u m b e r

o f t im e s w i t h o u t a n y v i si b le c h a n g e i n t h e s y s t e m " [ 5 ] . T h e t e r m t h i x o t r o p y w a s t h e n c o i n e d b y

P e te r fi i n 1 92 7 [6 ] , i n t h e f i rs t p a p e r t h a t p r o p e r l y d e s c r i b e d t h e p h e n o m e n o n . T h e w o r k

c o m b i n e s t h e G r e e k w o r d s t h i x i s ( s t i r r i n g o r s h a k i n g ) a n d t r e p o ( t u r n i n g o r c h a n g i n g ) .

A l t h o u g h n o m e n t i o n o f t h e p h e n o m e n o n a p p e a r e d i n t h e s e m i n a l r h e o l o g y t e xt o f t h e d a y

'T h e V isco s i ty o f L iq u id s ' , b y E m i l H a t sc h ek [7 ], ( e sp ec ia l ly th e ch ap te r o n c o l lo id a l so lu tio n s ) ,

b y 1 9 3 5 F reu n d l i ch h a d p u b l i sh ed a b o o k ca l l ed 'T h ix o t ro p ie ' [8 ] d ev o ted to th e su b jec t, h av in g

b een th e f i r s t t o in t ro d u ce i t i n to th e t i t l e o f a p ap er w h en h e d esc r ib ed th e f lo w p ro p er t i e s o f

a l u m i n i u m h y d r o x i d e ge ls . F r e u n d l i c h a n d c o - w o r k e r s s o o n f o u n d t h i x o t r o p i c e f f ec t s m a n i f e s t e d

b y a w h o le v a r i e ty o f sy s t em s in c lu d in g v an ad i u m p en to x id e so l s, s t a rch p as t es , g e l a t in ge l s,

p e c t i n g e l s a n d m a n y m o r e .

T h ix o t ro p y o r ig in a l ly th e re fo re r e fe r red to th e r ev e r s ib l e ch an g es f ro m a f lo w ab le f lu id to a

so l id - lik e e l a s ti c ge l. P rev io u s ly th ese k in d s o f p h y s ica l ch an g e s h ad o n ly b een k n o w n to o ccu r

b y c h a n g i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e , w h e n s u c h g e l s w o u l d m e l t o n h e a t i n g a n d t h e n r e - s o l i d i f y o n

c o o l in g . I t w a s b e l ie v e d t h a t a n e w k i n d o f p h a s e c h a n g e h a d b e e n f o u n d .

2 2 Progress

E ar ly w o rk in th i s a rea in th e U S A i s ex em p l i f i ed b y a se r i e s o f t h ree p ap er s b y M cM i l l en in

1 93 2 [9 ], r ep o r t in g th e r e su l t s o f h i s d o c to ra l i n v e s t ig a t io n s in to th e th ix o t ro p y o f a l a rg e n u m b e r

o f f lo ccu la t ed p a in t s . H e sh o w ed th a t t h e f lu id i ty ( th e in v e r se o f v i sco s ity ) as a fu n c t io n o f r e s t

t i m e d e c r e a s e d i n s o m e c a se s b y f o u r o r d e r s o f m a g n i t u d e , s h o w i n g a l m o s t a q u a d r a t i c

d e p e n d e n c e o n r e s t t i m e .

W r i t in g in th e U K in 1 94 2, S co t t -B la ir [1 0 ] s t a t ed th a t ' t h e w h o le su b jec t [o f t h ix o t ro p y ] i s so

v ery n ew ' . B u t t h e n w en t o n to l is t o v e r 8 0 p ap er s o n th e su b jec t (see p p . 6 1 -6 4 ) . ( In th e seco n d

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H.A. Barnes /J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 70 1997) 1-33 3

e d i t io n o f th i s b o o k p u b l i s h e d i n 1 94 9, n e a r l y 1 20 p a p e r s o n t h i x o t r o p y a r e c it e d .) A m o n g t h e

e x a mp l e s o f t h i x o t r o p i c ma t e r i a l s h e g i v e s a r e c l a y s a n d s o i l s u s p e n s i o n s , c r e a ms , d r i l l i n g mu d s ,

f l o u r d o u g h s , f l o u r s u s p e n s i o n s , f ib r e g re a s e s , j e ll ie s , p a i n t s , c a r b o n b l a c k s u s p e n s i o n s a n d s t a r c h

p a s t e s. H e a l s o li st s a n u m b e r o f p a p e r s o n s o - c a l l e d t h i x o t r o m e t e r s , i n s t r u m e n t s s p e c i al l y

d e v i s ed t o c h a r a c t e r is e t h e p h e n o m e n o n . I n t h is r e s p e c t h e r a i s ed s o m e i n t e re s t in g p o i n t s, a m o n g

t h e m w h e t h e r t h i x o t r o p y o u g h t t o b e s t u d i ed a t c o n s t a n t r a t e o f s h e a r o r a t c o n s t a n t s tr es s? T h i s

i s s t i l l a mos t con t rovers ia l ques t ion .

S c o t t- B l a ir q u o t e s H a m a k e r ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i x o t r o p y a s b e i n g d u e t o t h e s e c o n d a r y

m i n i m u m s o t h a t ' p a rt ic l e s c a n f o r m a l o o s e a s so c i a ti o n w h i c h is e a si ly d e s t r o y e d b y s h a k i n g b u t

r e - e s ta b l i sh e s i t se l f o n s t a n d i n g ' . T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n s t il l s t a n d s . W i t h o u r p r e s e n t k n o w l e d g e o f

mi c r o s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s , i t i s p r o b a b l y s a f e t o s a y t h a t a l l ma t e r i a l s t h a t a r e s h e a r t h i n n i n g a r e

t h i x o t r o p i c , i n t h a t t h e y w i l l a l w a y s t a k e a f i n i t e t i me t o b r i n g a b o u t t h e r e a r r a n g e me n t s n e e d e d

i n t h e mi c r o s t r u c t u r a l e l e me n t s t h a t r e s u l t i n s h e a r t h i n n i n g . A s S c o t t - B l a i r c o n c l u d e d a l l t h o s e

y e a r s a g o " I f t h i s r e c o v e r y i s v e r y r a p i d , t h e p h e n o me n o n i s o b s e r v e d a s s t r u c t u r a l v i s c o s i t y

[ s h e a r t h i n n i n g ] ; i f s l o w , i t i s o b s e r v e d a s t h i x o t r o p y " . H o w e v e r e v e n S c o t t - B l a i r s o me t i me s

c o n f u s e d t h i x o t r o p y w i t h s h e a r t h i n n i n g , a s i n h i s e x a m p l e o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i x o t r o p y f o r

d r i ll i n g m u d s t h a t m u s t b e r u n n y [ s ic ] w h e n l u b r i c a ti n g t h e d r il l, b u t " o f a h i g h e n o u g h

c o n s i s t e n c y a t r e s t t o a v o i d s e t t l i n g o f s u s p e n d e d ma t t e r " .

A n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t h e m a d e c o n c e r n e d a s u g g e s t i o n t h a t c e r t a i n r e s u l t s o f f l o w i n c a p i l l a r y

t u b e s o f s u s p e n s i o n s - - t h a t w e n o w b e li ev e s h o w e d m i g r a t i o n o f p a r ti c le s a w a y f r o m t h e w a ll

a n d t h u s , h a v e a n e a s i e r f l o w i n s m a l l r a t h e r t h a n l a r g e t u b e s - - w a s d u e t o t h i x o t r o p y . H e

r e f u t e d t h i s b y s h o w i n g t h a t d o u b l i n g t h e t u b e l e n g t h h a l v e d t h e f l o w r a t e f o r a g i v e n d r i v i n g

pressure .

P r y c e - J o n e s [ 1 1 ] ( t h e f ir st w e l l - k n o w n We l s h r h e o l o g i s t ) s t u d i e d a b o u t 2 5 0 p a i n t s a l l i n a s t a t e

o f l ig h t f lo c c u l a t i o n , u s i n g h is o w n t h i x o t r o m e t e r [ 1 2 ]. H e n o t e d t h a t " I t i s a w e l l - e s t a b l is h e d f a c t

t h a t t h i x o t r o p y i s m o r e p r o n o u n c e d i n s y s t e m s c o n t a i n i n g n o n - s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e s " , t h i s i s

o b v i o u s l y s o b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e t o f i n d t h e ms e l v e s i n t h e b e s t 3 D s t r u c t u r e b y r o t a t i o n a s w e l l

a s m o v e m e n t , a n d p r o g r e s s f r o m a s o l id g el t o a f r e el y f l o w i n g l i q u i d d u e t o c o m p l e t e

mi c r o s t r u c t u r a l b r e a k d o w n , s e e F i g . 1 .

T h i x o t r o p y i s o n e o f t h e f e w o r i g i n a l t e c h n i c a l t e r m s u s e d i n p r e - w a r , E u r o p e a n r h e o l o g y

c i r c l e s t h a t h a s s u r v i v e d , u n l i k e ' s t r u c t u r a l v i s c o s i t y ' ( S t r u k t u r v i s k o s i t a e t , w h i c h w e n o w

u n d e r s t a n d a s s h e a r t h i n n i n g ) a n d ' f a l s e b o d y ' ( n o w u n d e r s t o o d a s e x t r e m e s h e a r t h i n n i n g w i t h

t h i x o t r o p y ) w h i c h h a v e f a l le n b y t h e w a y s i d e ~.

H o w e v e r , a s l a t e a s 1 95 3, R o s c o e [ 1 3] s ti ll r e f e r r e d t o ' f a ls e b o d y ' a s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h i x o t r o p y .

T h e ' f a l se b o d y ' h a d a n a p p a r e n t y i e l d s t re s s [s tr es s a t l o w s h e a r r a t e f o l l o w i n g s h e a r i n g a t a

h i g h s h e a r r a t e ] t h a t r e c o v e r e d q u i c k l y , w h i l e t h e t h i x o t r o p i c ma t e r i a l t a k e s s o me t i me s b e f o r e

r e la t iv e l y f a st r e c o v e r y t ak e s p l a c e . T o d a y w e u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e y a r e b o t h m a n i f e s t a ti o n s o f

t h i x o t r o p y . F a l s e b o d i e s w e r e t a k i n g a l o n g t i me t o d i e .

J o b l i n g a n d R o b e r t s i n 1 95 7 [1 4 ] c o m m e n t e d t h a t " t h i x o t r o p y n o w h a s a n e v e n l es s d i s ti n c t

c o n n o t a t i o n . E l e c t r o n ic m e t h o d s o f m e a s u r e m e n t h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e t im e - l a g r e q u i re d b e f o r e

R e a d e r s w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e r i v a t i o n o f s c i en t if i c e x p r e s s i o n s a r e d i r e c t e d t o S c o t t - B l a i r [ 1 0] , p . 5 2 .

A l l S c o t t- B l a i r' s b o o k s w e r e w r i t te n a s p e r s o n a l m e m o i r s a n d a r e v e ry e v o c a t iv e o f t h e m a n h i m s e l f f o r t h o s e w h o

k n e w h i m .

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4 H . A . B a r n e s / J . N o n - N e w t o n i a n F l u id M e c h . 7 0 1 9 9 7) 1 - 3 3

t h e o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e i s r e g a i n e d ma y b e v e r y s h o r t i n d e e d a n d i t t h e n b e c o me s d i f f i c u l t t o

d i s ti n g u is h b e t w e e n a t h i x o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l w i t h a v e r y s h o r t r e c o v e r y ti m e a n d a m a t e r i a l w h o s e

v i s c o s i t y f a l l s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g r a t e o f s h e a r a n d d e p e n d s f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s o n l y o n t h e

i n s t a n t a n e o u s r a t e o f s h e a r . T h e l a t t e r e f f e c t i s f r e q u e n t l y c a l l e d ' s t r u c t u r a l v i s c o s i t y ' " . T h e y

w e n t o n t o s a y " W e e n d o r s e P r y c e - J o n e s ' s p le a t h a t i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e d e f in i ti o n s ,

t e r m s s u c h a s . . . t h i x o t r o p y s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d u n l es s t h e i n t e n d e d m e a n i n g i s m a d e c l e a r " . I n

t h e D i s c u s s i o n s e c t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r , M a r c u s R e i n e r n o t e s t h a t ' s t r u c t u r a l v i s c o s i ty ' a n d

' t h i x o t r o p y ' a r e s e e n a s t h e s a me t h i n g b y s o me , w i t h s t r u c t u r a l v i s c o s i t y s e e n a s a ma t e r i a l w i t h

" n e a r l y z e r o t i m e o f r e c o v e r y " .

T h e f u l l e x t e n t o f t h i x o t r o p y w a s m a i n t a i n e d b y B a u e r a n d C o l l i n s i n t h e i r 1 9 67 r e v i e w [ 1] :

" W h e n a r e d u c t i o n i n m a g n i t u d e o f r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t ie s o f a s y s te m , s u c h a s e l as ti c m o d u l u s ,

y i e l d s t r e s s , a n d v i s c o s i t y , f o r e x a mp l e , o c c u r s r e v e r s i b l y a n d i s o t h e r ma l l y w i t h a d i s t i n c t t i me

d e p e n d e n c e o n a p p l i c a ti o n o f s h e a r s t ra i n , t h e s y s t e m is d e s c r ib e d a s t h i x o t r o p i c " . T h e y w e n t o n

t o s a y t h a t t h i x o t r o p y w a s " u s u a l l y c o n c e i v e d as a n u n u s u a l p r o p e r t y o f v e ry s p e ci al m a t e r ia l s ,

s o l - g e l s y s t e ms s u c h a s a q u e o u s i r o n o x i d e d i s p e r s i o n s , t h i x o t r o p y i n t h e s e n s e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e

h a s b e e n f o u n d t o b e e x h i b i t e d b y a g r e a t m a n y a n d a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f s y s t e m s . A l o n g w i t h t h e

b r e a k d o w n i n s t r u c t u r e , o t h e r n o n - r h e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s c h a n g e , s u c h a s c o n d u c t i v i t y a n d

d i e le c t ri c c o n s t a n t " . L a s t ly t h e y n o t e d t h a t " T h e t e r m s u s e d b y F r e u n d l i c h a r e n o w s e en t o b e

a r c h a i c , v i z l i q u e f a c t i o n , r e - s o l i d i f i c a t i o n , s o l . T h e s e h a d s o me o b v i o u s me a n i n g f o r t h e

q u a l i ta t i v e c h a n g e s b r o u g h t a b o u t i n lo w c o n c e n t r a t i o n d i s p e rs i o n s o f h i g h ly i n s o lu b l e o x id e s o f

n e e d le - li k e c r y s ta l s s u c h a s i r o n o x i d e a n d v a n a d i u m p e n t o x i d e i n l o w - v i sc o s it y a q u e o u s m e d i a " .

N o w a d a y s t h i x o t r o p y i s s o m e t i m e s u s e d t o i n c l u d e a l l t i m e e f f e c t s i n a m o v e m e n t t o

n o n - l i n e a r b e h a v i o u r , s e e f o r i n s t a n c e C h e n g [ 1 5 ], b u t e s p e c i a ll y L a p a s i n a n d P r i c l [ 1 6 ], w h o

i ll u s tr a te t h i x o t r o p i c b e h a v i o u r b y t h e t r a n s i e n t r e s p o n s e o f v i sc o s it y a n d n o r m a l f o r c e o f

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S k i , , .

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e l a s ti c , s o , d - , k e r e s p o n s e . I I . / .

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- k v is c o e la s ti c r e s p o n s e

i / , ~ ' ~ / - ~ / ' , . - , ~ - . , ~ # ~ , ~ ~i

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- th i nn ing r e s p o n s e

F i g . 1 . B r e a k d o w n o f a 3 D t h i x o t r o p i c s t r u c t u r e .

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H.A. Barnes / J. Non°Newtonian Fluid Mech. 70 1997) 1-33 5

p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s . T h e y t h e n n o t e d t h a t t h e s t r e s s o v e r s h o o t o n s t a r t - u p i n c r e a s e s w i t h

i n c r e a s i n g r e s t t i m e . T h i s i s a n i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t - - b u i l d u p i n p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s i s u s u a l l y

c o n s i d e r e d t o b e r a p i d , a n d r e s t t i me s a r e r a r e l y c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y . We a k l y c r o s s - l i n k e d g e l s

w o u l d g i v e t h e s a me t h i x o t r o p i c e f f e c t a s a f l o c c u l a t e d s y s t e m.

2 . 3 . H o w i s t h i x o t r o p y g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s to o d to d a y 7

O n e o f t h e f ir st d e f in i ti o n s o f t h i x o t r o p y w a s g i v e n b y F r e u n d l i c h a n d R a w i t z e r [ 1 7 ] w h o

s t a te d t h a t " B y t h i x o t r o p y is m e a n t t h e p h e n o m e n a o f c o n c e n t r a t e d g e ls . . . w h i c h s o l id i fy to g el s

w h i c h ma y a g a i n b e l i q u i f i e d t o s o l s . T h e r e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n o c c u r s r e p e a t e d l y , a t c o n s t a n t

t e m p e r a t u r e w i t h a c o n s t a n t s p e e d " . ( T h is w o u l d b e v e r y fa r f r o m t h e k i n d o f d e fi n i ti o n o ff e r e d

t o d a y . ) H o w e v e r , P r y c e - J o n e s [1 1 ] s o o n a f t e rw a r d s s t a te d t h a t t h e t r u e m e a n i n g o f t h ix o t r o p y

w a s " a n i n c r e a s e o f v i s c o s it y i n a s t a te o f re s t a n d a d e c r e a s e o f v is c o s i ty w h e n s u b m i t t e d t o a

c o n s t a n t s h e a r i n g s t r e s s " .

I t i s c l e a r t h a t p e o p l e u s i n g t h e w o r d t h i x o t r o p y t o d a y f a l l i n t o t w o c a mp s : f i r s t t h o s e w h o

u n d e r s t a n d i t in t h e l a t t e r ( P r y ce - J o n e s ) se n se a s t h e t i m e r e s p o n s e o f t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e b r o u g h t

a b o u t b y s h e a r i n g o r r e s t i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d t h e r h e o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s a r i s i n g t h e r e f r o m. I n t h e s e

c i r c l e s i t i s o f t e n u s e d i n a v e r y n a r r o w s e n s e o f v i s c o s i t y c h a n g e s o n l y , w i t h n o r e f e r e n c e t o t h e

r e v e r s i b l e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m g e l - l i k e t o f l u i d - l i k e b e h a v i o u r .

S e c o n d l y t h e r e ar e t h o s e - - o f t e n i n in d u s t r ia l c i r c l e s - - w h o u n d e r s t a n d t h i x o t r o p y i n it s

o r i g i n a l F r e u n d l i c h a n d R a w i t z e r s e n se , a s s t a t e d a b o v e , o f c o n f e r r i n g g e l- l ik e p r o p e r t i e s t o a

l i q u i d w h i c h d i s a p p e a r o n s h a k i n g b u t r e a p p e a r o n s t a n d i n g . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r p r o p e r t y a d d s

c o n s i d e r a b l e a d v a n t a g e t o t h e p r a c t i c a l u s e o f ma t e r i a l s s u c h a s p a i n t s , a d h e s i v e s a n d c o a t i n g s .

U n l e s s t h i s d i f f e r e n t u s e i s b o r n e i n mi n d , s e v e r e mi s u n d e r s t a n d w i l l a r i s e o n r e a d i n g t h e g e n e r a l

l i t e r a t u r e . T h e f o r m e r g r o u p w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e u s e o f t h i x o t r o p y b y t h e l a t t e r g r o u p a s

c o n f e r r i n g e x t r e me s h e a r t h i n n i n g t o a l i q u i d b y , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e a d d i t i o n o f s o - c a l l e d

t h i x o p r o p e s o r b y i n d u c i n g f l o c c u l a t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e l a t t e r g r o u p o n l y s e e t h e

t e m p o r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h i x o t r o p y a s a n i r r i t a t io n , b e c a u s e t h e d e s i r e d re v e r s i b le g e ll e d s t a te t h e y

w a n t t a k e s s o m e t i m e t o d i s a p p e a r o n s h e a r i n g o r r e a p p e a r o n s t a n d i n g . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g

t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h i x o t r o p y h a s , o n o c c a s i o n s , b e e n c o n f u s e d w i t h s h e a r t h i n n i n g .

T h e r e a r e v a r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h i x o t r o p y o f f e r e d i n t h e c u r r e n t g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e ,

e . g . , s c i e n t i f i c d i c t i o n a r i e s a n d e n c y c l o p e d i a s , t h a t r e f l e c t t h e s e t w o p o i n t s o f v i e w . S o me a r e

mi s l e a d i n g , w i t h e v e n t h e b e s t b e i n g i n c o mp l e t e . T h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s e l e c t i o n t h a t i l l u s t r a t e t h e

s i tua t ion :

O x f o r d E n c y c l o p e d i c D i c t i o n a r y o f P h ys ic s , [ 1 8 ] - - " T h i x o t r o p y : C e r t a i n m a t e r i a ls b e h a v e a s

s o l i d s u n d e r v e r y s ma l l a p p l i e d s t r e s s e s b u t u n d e r g r e a t e r s t r e s s e s b e c o me l i q u i d s . Wh e n t h e

s t r e s s e s a r e r e mo v e d t h e ma t e r i a l s e t t l e s b a c k i n t o i t s o r i g i n a l c o n s i s t e n c y . T h i s p r o p e r t y i s

p a r t i c u l a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n c o l l o i d s w h i c h f o r m g e l s w h e n l e f t t o s t a n d b u t w h i c h

b e c o m e s o ls w h e n s t ir r e d o r s h a k e n , d u e t o a r e d i s t r ib u t i o n o f th e s o l id p h a s e . "

C h a m b e r s D i c t i o n a r y o f S c ie n ce a n d T e c h n o l o g y [ 1 9 ] - - " R h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t y o f f l ui ds a n d

p l a s t ic s o l i d s c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a h i g h v i s c o s i ty a t l o w s t r es s , b u t a d e c r e a s e d v i s c o s it y w h e n a n

i n c r e a s e d s t r es s is a p p l ie d . A u s e f u l p r o p e r t y o f p a i n t s , b e c a u s e i t ma k e s f o r a t h i c k f il m w h i c h

i s n e v e r t h e l e s s e a s i l y w o r k e d . "

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6 H.A. Barnes/J . Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 70 1997) 1-33

M c G r a w - H i l l D i c t i o n a r y o f S c ie n ti fi c a n d T e c h n i c a l T e r m s [ 2 0 ] - - " P r o p e r t y o f c e rt a i n g el s

w h ich l iq u i fy w h en su b jec t ed to v ib ra to ry fo rces , su ch as u l t r a so n ic w av es o r ev en sh ak in g ,

an d th en so l id i fy ag a in w h en l e f t s t an d in g . T h ix o t ro p ic c l ay : a c l ay w h ich w eak en s w h en

d i s t u r b e d a n d i n c r e a s e s i n s t r e n g t h u p o n s t a n d i n g . "

V an N o s t ran d ' s S c ien t i f i c E n cy c lo p ed ia [2 1 ] - - " A th ix o t ro p ic f lu id i s a f lu id w h o se v i sco s i ty

i s a fu n c t io n n o t o n ly o f t h e sh ea r in g st re s s , b u t a l so o f t h e p rev io u s h i s to ry o f m o t io n w i th in

th e f lu id . T h e v i sco s i ty u su a l ly d ec reases w i th th e l en g th o f t im e th e f lu id h as b een in m o t io n .

S u c h s y s te m s c o m m o n l y a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d s o l u t i o n s o f s u b s ta n c e s o f h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t, o r

co l lo id a l su sp en s io n s . "

O x f o r d C o n c i s e S c i e n c e D i c t i o n a r y [ 2 2 ] - - " M o r e c o m m o n , h o w e v e r , i s t h e o p p o s i t e e f f e c t i n

w h ich th e v i sco s i ty d ep en d s n o t o n ly o n th e v i sco s i ty g rad ien t b u t a l so o n th e t im e fo r w h ich

i t h as b een ap p l i ed . T h ese l i q u id s a re sa id to ex h ib i t t h ix o t ro p y . T h e f as t e r a t h ix o t ro p ic l i q u id

m o v es th e l e s s v i sco u s i t b eco m es . T h i s p ro p er ty i s u sed in n o n d r ip p a in t s (w h ich a re m o re

v i s c o u s o n t h e b r u s h t h a n o n t h e w a l l ) a n d l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s ( w h i c h b e c o m e t h i n n e r w h e n t h e

p ar t s t h ey a re lu b r i ca t in g s t a r t t o m o v e) . "

C h a m b e r s 2 0 t h C e n t u r y D i c t i o n a r y [ 2 3 ] - - " T h i x o t r o p y : t h e p r o p e r t y o f g e ls o f s h o w i n g a

t e m p o r a r y r e d u c t i o n i n v i s c o s i t y w h e n s h a k e n o r s t i r r e d . "

D ef in i t i o n s g iv en in m o re sp ec ia l i sed d i c t io n a r i e s em p h as i se th e t im e asp ec t o f t h ix o t ro p y :

P o l y m e r T e c h n o l o gy D i c t io n a r y [ 2 4 ] - - " T h i x o t r o p y . A t e r m u s e d i n r h e o l o g y w h i c h m e a n s

th a t t h e v i sco s i ty o f a m a te r i a l d ec reases s ig n i f ican t ly w i th th e t im e o f sh ea r in g an d th en ,

in c reases s ig n i f i can t ly w h en th e fo rce in d u c in g th e f lo w i s r em o v ed . "

P o l y m e r S ci e nc e D i c t i o n a r y [ 2 5 ] - - " T i m e - d e p e n d e n t f l ui d b e h a v i o u r i n w h i c h t h e a p p a r e n t

v i sco s i ty d ec reases w i th th e t im e o f sh ea r in g an d in w h ich th e v i sco s i ty r eco v er s to , o r c lo se

to , i t s o r ig in a l v a lu e w h en sh ea r in g ceases . T h e r eco v ery m ay t ak e p l ace o v er a co n s id e rab le

t i m e . T h i s m a y s o m e t i m e s o c c u r w i t h p o l y m e r s y s t e m s , w h e n m o l e c u l a r d i s e n t a n g l e m e n t

in c reases w i th t im e o f sh ea r in g . "

T h e d e f in i t i o n o f t h ix o t ro p y in th e rh eo lo g ica l l i t e r a tu re h as ch an g ed o v e r th e y ea rs . T h e

( A m e r i c a n ) S o c ie t y o f R h e o l o g y w a s q u o t e d b y R e i n e r a n d S c o t t- B l a ir i n 1 94 9 [ 26 ] a s h a v i n g

d e f i n e d t h i x o t r o p y a s " t h a t p r o p e r t y o f a b o d y b y v i r t u e o f w h i c h t h e r a t io o f s h e a r s tr e ss t o r a t e

o f d e fo rm at io n [v i sco s i ty ] i s t em p o ra r i ly r ed u ced b y p rev io u s d e fo rm at io n " . S o m e t im e l a t e r

t h i x o t r o p y w a s d e f i n e d a s " a c o m p a r a t i v e l y s lo w r e c o v e ry , o n s t a n d i ng , o f t h e c o n s i s t e n c y l o st

t h r o u g h s h e a r i n g " . H o w e v e r , t h i x o t r o p y h a s r e c e n tl y b e e n d e f i n e d b y B a r n e s , H u t t o n a n d

W al t e r s [2 7 ] ( fo l lo w in g th e 1 97 5 B r i ti sh S tan d a rd s In s t i t u t io n d e f in i t i o n ) a s th e " d ec re ase [ in

t im e] o f . . . v i sco s i ty u n d er co n s tan t sh ea r s t r es s o r sh ea r r a t e , fo l lo w ed b y a g rad u a l r eco v ery

w h en th e s t r e s s o r sh ea r r a t e i s r em o v ed " . (A s w e sh a l l see , t h i s i s n o t a co m p reh en s iv e

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p h e n o m e n o n - - a b e t t e r d e s c r i p t i o n w o u l d c o v e r t h e t e m p o r a l r h e o l o g i c a l

r e sp o n se o f a m ic ro s t ru c tu re to ch an g es in im p o sed s t r e s s o r s t r a in r a t e . )

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I t i s o b v i o u s t h e n t h a t w h i l e m o s t r h e o l o g i s ts t a k e a g e n e r a l vi e w o f th i x o t r o p y w h i c h c o v e rs

a l l t im e e f fec t s r e su l t in g f ro m m ic ro s t ru c tu re ch an g es , i n th e p o p u la r im ag e , t h e o ld e r id ea o f a

g e l - so l t r an s i t i o n o n sh ea r in g - res t in g is s t il l o f t en h e ld . S t r i c t ly sp e ak in g , w h a t i s u su a lly m ea n t

b y t h i x o t r o p y i n t h a t c a s e w o u l d n o w b e t e r m e d ' e x t r e m e l y s h e a r t h i n n i n g ' , t o g i v e n e a r

so l id - lik e p ro p er t i e s a t r e s t b u t f lo w u n d er s t r es s , a s fo r i n s t an ce in th ix o - fo rm in g u s in g

s e m i - m o l t e n m e t a l s o r t h e a d d i t i o n o f s o - c al le d t h i x o t ro p e s t o p a i n ts .

A b e t t e r a n d e x t e n d e d d e f i n i ti o n o f t h i x o t r o p y i s c l e ar l y n e e d e d , a n d i t s h o u l d c o n t a i n t h e i d e a

o f b o th co n s id e rab le sh ea r th in n in g ( i.e ., g e l - f luid t r an s i t i o n ) an d a l so t im e ch an g es o v er an d

a b o v e t h o s e e n c o u n t e r e d w h e n i n i ts s t r u c t u r e d s t a te t h e t h i x o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l m i g h t b e

v i sco e las t i c w i th i t s a t t en d an t t im e e f fec t s .

3. Description of the phenomenon

3 I Ge nera l cons idera t ions

A l l l i q u id s w i th m ic ro s t ru c tu re c an s h o w th ix o t ro p y , b e cau se th ix o t ro p y o n ly r e fl ec ts th e f in i te

t i m e t a k e n t o m o v e f r o m a n y o n e s t a te o f m i c r o s t r u c t u r e t o a n o t h e r a n d b a c k a g a i n, w h e t h e r

f ro m d i f f e ren t s ta t e s o f f lo w o r to o r f ro m rest . T h e d r iv in g fo rce fo r m ic ro s t ru c tu ra l ch an g e in

f lo w i s th e r e s u lt o f t h e c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n b r e a k - d o w n d u e t o f lo w s t re s se s , b u i ld - u p d u e t o

i n - f l o w c o l l i s i o n s a n d B r o w n i a n m o t i o n . B r o w n i a n m o t i o n i s t h e r a n d o m t h e r m a l a g i t a t i o n o f

a t o m s a n d m o l e c u l e s t h a t r e s ul ts i n e l e m e n t s o f t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e b e i n g c o n s t a n t ly b o m b a r d e d ,

w h i c h c a u s e s t h e m t o m o v e t o a f a v o u r a b l e p o s i t i o n w h e r e t h e y c a n - - g i v e n t h e n e c e s s a r y

a t t r a c ti v e f o r c e - - a t t a c h t h e m s e l v e s t o o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e m i c r o s t r u c tu r e . V e r y o c c a s i o n a ll y

s i t u a t i o n s a r i s e w h e r e e x i s t i n g w e a k l y a t t a c h e d m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s - - b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r b y

c o l li s i on d u r i n g s h e a r - - a r e s l ow l y t o r n a p a r t b y th e c o n s t a n t a c t i o n o f t h e r a n d o m B r o w n i a n

m o t io n . In th a t case , t h e o p p o s i t e t o th ix o t ro p y i s seen , i . e . , an t i t h ix o t ro p y , w h ere f lo w

s t ru c tu res an d r es t d es t ru c tu res th e m a te r i a l .

T h e t e rm m ic ro s t ru c tu re , a s u sed h e re , w h i l e u su a l ly a s so c ia t ed in th ix o t ro p ic sy s t em s w i th

f lo ccu la t ed p a r t ic l e s , can a l so m ean a l ig n m en t o f f ib res; f av o u rab le sp a t i a l d i s t r ib u t io n o f

p a r ti c le s o r d r o p s , o r e n t a n g l e m e n t d e n s i ty o r m o l e c u l a r a s s o c i a t io n s i n p o l y m e r s o l u ti o n s . A l l

th ese d e te rm in e th e l ev e l o f v i sco s i ty an d e l a s t i c i ty , an d th ey a l l t ak e t im e to ch an g e f ro m o n e

s t a te t o a n o t h e r u n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f s h e a r a n d / o r B r o w n i a n f or c es . I n t h e s e c a se s , t h e m a x i m u m

m i c r o s t r u c t u r e i s se e n w h e n a l i g n m e n t a n d s p a ti a l d i s t r i b u ti o n a r e r a n d o m ( in t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s )

a n d e n t a n g l e m e n t d e n s i ty is a t a m a x i m u m . B o t h t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s r e s ul t i n th e g r e a t e s t v is c o u s

( a n d u s u a l l y e la s ti c ) r e s p o ns e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m i n i m u m m i c r o s t r u c tu r e i s w h e n t h e r e i s

m ax im u m a l ig n m en t w i th th e f lo w o f f ib res ; t h e d ro p o r p a r t i c l e sp a t i a l d i s t r ib u t io n i s

a s y m m e t r i c a l i n th e f l ow d i re c t i o n , o r t h e r e a r e a m i n i m u m n u m b e r o f e n t a n g l e m e n t s o r

a s s o c i a t i o n s - - a l l t h e s e le a d i n g to m i n i m u m v i s c ou s a n d e l a st ic r e s p o ns e .

W h e n t h e t i m e s c a l e s d i s p l a y e d i n t h e s e c h a n g e s b e c o m e l o n g c o m p a r e d w i t h e i t h e r t h e

r e s p o n s e t i m e o f a v i s c o m e t e r ( or r h e o m e t e r ) , o r t h e f l o w - t i m e in a p a r t i c u la r f lo w g e o m e t r y , w e

c a n s p e a k s e n s i bl y a b o u t t h i x o tr o p y . T h e s e t i m e s c a l e s o f t e n r a n g e f r o m s e c o n d s t o h o u r s , w i t h

r e b u i l d i n g u s u a l l y t a k i n g m u c h l o n g e r t h a n b r e a k d o w n .

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8 H . A . B a r n e s / J . N o n - N e w t o n i a n F l u i d M e c h . 7 0 1 9 9 7) 1 - 3 3

,a

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0 shea r ing t ime

Fig. 2 . Shear ing a thixot ropic l iquid af te r shor t and long rest t imes.

3 2 Typica l behaviour

I f w e p l a c e a t h i x o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l i n t o a v i s c o m e t e r (s e e F i g . 2 ) a n d a p p l y a c o n s t a n t s h e a r

r a t e , t h e me a s u r e d v i s c o s i t y w i l l d e c r e a s e w i t h t i me , b u t i t w i l l e v e n t u a l l y s t e a d y o u t t o a

c o n s t a n t v a l u e . I f w e t h e n s w i t c h o f f t h e s h e a r a n d a l l o w t h e m a t e r i a l t o r e s t f o r a l o n g t ime

( w i t h o u t d r y i n g o r a n y o t h e r a r t i f a c t s s u c h a s s e d i m e n t a t i o n o r s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r r i n g ) , a n d

s w i t c h t h e s h e a r o n a g a i n , t h e me a s u r e d v i s c o s i t y w i l l b e i n i t i a l l y h i g h e r , b u t i t w i l l t h e n a g a i n

d e c r e a s e a n d e n d u p a t t h e s a m e v a l u e a s t h a t w h i c h w a s s e e n a f t e r t h e o r i g i n a l l o n g - t e r m

s h e a r i n g . H o w e v e r , t h e l e v e l f o r t h e o r i g i n a l v a l u e w i l l n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e t h e s a me , b e c a u s e t h a t

w i ll d e p e n d o n h o w c a r e fu l l y o r v i g o r o u s l y t h e m a t e r i a l w a s i n i ti a ll y l o a d e d i n t o t h e v i s c o m e t e r

a n d h o w l o n g i t w a s l e f t t o r e s t b e f o r e s h e a r i n g .

I f o n t h e o t h e r h a n d a t h i r d e x p e r i m e n t is p e r f o r m e d w h e r e t h e m a t e r i a l is a ll o w e d t o c o m e

t o e q u i l i b r i u m a n d t h e n a l l o w e d t o r e s t f o r t h e s a me t i me a s b e f o r e , t h e r e s u l t s w i l l b e i d e n t i c a l .

I f n o w , a f t e r e q u i l i b r i u m i s a c h i e v e d , t h e s h e a r r a t e i s i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y d e c r e a s e d t o a l o w e r

v a l u e , t h e me a s u r e d s h e a r s t r e s s d r o p s i n s t a n t l y , b u t t h e r e a f t e r i t w i l l s l o w l y i n c r e a s e t o w a r d s a

n e w e q u i l i b r i u m .

( I f i n s t e a d o f a p p l y i n g a g i v e n s h e a r r a t e w e a p p l i e d a p a r t i c u l a r s h e a r s t re s s, t h e n t h e i n v e r s e

a p p l i e s - - t h e s h e a r r a t e w o u l d i n c r e a s e a s t h e s t r u c t u r e b r e a k s d o w n a n d t h e c h a n g e t o a n o t h e r

( l o w e r ) s h e a r s t r e s s w i l l r e s u l t i n a s u d d e n d e c r e a s e i n s h e a r r a t e f o l l o w e d b y a f u r t h e r d r o p , s e e

Fig. 3.)

I f w e n o w e n q u i r e w h a t i s h a p p e n i n g o n a m i c r o s ca l e , w e c a n i m a g i n e t h e p i c tu r e p r e s e n t e d

i n F i g . 4 , w h e r e t h e v i s c o s i t y / s h e a r - r a t e b e h a v i o u r o f a t y p i c a l t h i x o t r o p i c ma t e r i a l ( w h i c h f o r

t h e s a k e o f a r g u m e n t c o u l d b e a f l o c c u l a t e d s u s p e n s i o n ) i s p r e s e n t e d . W e s t a r t f r o m p o i n t a

w h e r e t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e a t r e s t is a s e r ie s o f la r g e fl o cs . T h e n i f t h e a p p l i e d s h e a r r a t e is

i n c r e a s e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y a n d s u f fi c ie n t t i me a l l o w e d , t h e f l o c si ze d e c r e a s e s u n t il a t a h i g h e n o u g h

s h e a r r a t e , t h e f l o c h a s d i s i n t e g r a t e d c o mp l e t e l y i n t o i t s c o n s t i t u e n t p r i ma r y p a r t i c l e s .

W e n o w i m a g i n e a n o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t w h e r e t h e s h e a r r a te i s i n c r e a se d s te p - w is e fr o m a t o e n d

u p a t p o i n t b . I n s t a n t a n e o u s l y , t h e f l o c s iz e w i l l b e t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e s h e a r s t r e ss c o n d i t i o n s

a t p o i n t a , b u t a s i t e x p e r i e n c e s t h e h i g h e r s h e a r r a t e a t p o s i t i o n a ' , i t b e g i n s t o e r o d e , u n t i l i t

r e a c h e s a n e q u i l i b r i u m s i z e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e h i g h e r r a t e . T h i s p r o c e s s c a n t a k e s o me t i me . I f

n o w t h e o p p o s i t e h a p p e n s - - t h e s h e a r r a t e i s i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y d e c r e a s e d - - t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s

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H.A. Barnes//J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 70 1997) 1-33 9

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Time

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Fig. 3. Tw o k inds of ste p experiment.

( w h i c h g a v e t h e l o w v i s c o s i ty ) b e g i n t o c o l l i d e a n d f l o c c u l a t e u n t i l t h e s i ze o f t h e f l o c s o - f o r m e d

i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e n e w , l o w e r s h e a r r a t e . T h i s p r o c e s s a l s o t a k e s t i m e , b u t t h e b u i l d - u p

p r o c e e d s a t a d i f fe r e n t r a t e t h a n d o e s b r e a k d o w n .

A n y c o n c e n t r a t e d s u s p e n s i o n o f p a r ti c le s i s s h e ar t h i n n i n g , t h u s w h e n w e c o n s i d e r f lo c s, t h e y

t o o w i l l s h o w t h e p h e n o m e n a a s i l lu s t r a t e d i n F i g . 4 . I f w e i m a g i n e t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e s in a f lo c

a r e p e r m a n e n t l y g l u e d t o g e t h e r a n d t h u s , t h e f l o c s i z e i s f i x e d , t h e f l o w c u r v e o f s u c h a

s u s p e n s i o n o f fi x ed - si z e f lo c s w o u l d f o l l o w t h e l i n es s h o w n i n t h e f i g u r e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f l o c

s iz e. I f t h e f l oc si ze is n o w d e c r e a s e d ( a n d t h e o v e r a l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n m a i n t a i n e d ) b u t a g a i n t h e

f lo c s iz e r e m a i n s u n c h a n g e d w h e n s h e a r e d , t h e f l o w c u r v e w i l l b e l o w e r a n d ( f o r a g i v e n

c o n c e n t r a t i o n ) t h e d e g r e e o f s h e a r t h i n n i n g d e c re a se s .

m

o

m

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s hear ra te ( log s ca le )

Fig. 4. M icrostructure and flow curves of a flocculated suspension.

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10

H . A . B a r n e s / J . N o n - N e w t o n i a n F l u i d M e c h . 7 0 1 9 9 7 ) 1 - 3 3

H o w e v e r b e c a u s e w e a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n s y s t e m s f l o c c u l a t e d i n a s e c o n d a r y m i n i m u m , t h e f l o c

s i z e i s n o t c o n s t a n t b u t d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g s h e a r r a t e ( o r s h e a r s t r e s s ) . B e c a u s e t h e

v i s c o s i t y d e c r e a s e s w i t h f l o c s i z e ( s e e a b o v e ) , w e n o w h a v e a d o u b l e s h e a r - t h i n n i n g e f f e c t . T h i s

m e a n s t h a t f l o c c u l a t e d s y s t e m s a r e v e r y s h e a r t h i n n i n g , s e e t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c u r v e i n F i g . 4 . T h i s

e x t r e m e s h e a r - t h i n n i n g a l s o r e s u l t s i n s u c h f l o c c u l a t e d , t h i x o t r o p i c s y s t e m s a p p e a r i n g t o h a v e a

y i e l d s t r e s s , s i n c e t h e s t r e s s o n l y d e c r e a s e s v e r y s l o w l y a s t h e s h e a r r a t e i s d e c r e a s e d .

T h e t r u e s t e a d y - s t a t e b e h a v i o u r o f a t h i x o t r o p i c l iq u i d is se e n b o t h a f t e r a n i n f i n it e s h e a r i n g

t i m e a t a n y s h e a r r a t e o r s h e a r s t r e ss o f i n t e r e s t o r i n f i n i te r e st t i m e . O f c o u r s e , a s a l l th e s e

e q u i l i b r i u m s t a te s a r e a p p r o a c h e d a s y m p t o t i c a l l y , o n e c o m e s c lo s e t o t h i s s ta t e a f t e r a r e a s o n -

a b l e r a t h e r t h a n a n i n f in i te ti m e , b u t e v e n t h e n , b r e a k d o w n t i m e s o f h o u r s a n d r e b u i l d in g t im e s

o f d a y s m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y t o f u l ly d e s c r ib e a v e r y t h i x o t r o p i c s y s t e m .

I n a f l o c c u l at e d s ys t em , b r e a k d o w n i s t o w a r d s a n e q u i l i b r iu m s i t u a t io n t h a t i s g o v e r n e d b y a

b a l a n c e o f h y d r o d y n a m i c s h e a r st re s se s p u l li n g s tr u c t u r e s a p a r t b y e r o s i o n , a n d a c o m b i n a t i o n

o f B r o w n i a n a n d s h e a r f o rc e s b u i l d i n g th e s t r u c t u r e u p b y c o l l is i o n a n d a c c r e t io n o f p ar t ic l e s

w h i c h a g g l o m e r a t e i n t o f l o c s . T h e f o r c e s h o l d i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e t o g e t h e r a r e c o l l o i d a l i n n a t u r e ,

a c t i n g o v e r s h o r t d i s t a n c e s ( ~ 1 0 n m ) w i t h i n t h e c o m p o s i t e p a r t ic l e . A t r e s t , o n l y t h e B r o w n i a n

r e b u i l d i n g f o r c e s a r e p r e s e n t , a n d t h e s e a r e q u i t e s m a l l c o m p a r e d t o t h e s h e a r i n g f o r c e s , b e i n g

o f o r d e r 1 k T . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e r e b u i l d i n g ti m e c a n b e v e r y lo n g , s i nc e th i s s m a ll , r a n d o m

f o r c e t a k e s a l o n g t i m e t o r e a r r a n g e l a r g e p a r t i c l e s t h a t a s f l o c s a r e g e t t i n g l a r g e r a n d l a r g e r a s

t h e y m o v e i n t o a m o s t f a v o u r a b l e s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h is th e n m a n i f e s t e d as a h i g h e r a n d h i g h e r

v i s c o s i t y .

T h e t y p i c a l r e s p o n s e t o a s t e p - w i s e c h a n g e f r o m o n e s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n t o a n o t h e r i s , i n

t e r m s o f t h e v is c o s it y , o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y t h e s o - c a l le d s t r e t c h e d e x p o n e n t i a l m o d e l :

F / = Y ] e , o Q - ~ - g / e , ~ - -

r / ~ , o ) 1 - -

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(1)

w h e r e r/e,0 i s th e v i s c o s i ty a t t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t o f s h e a r i n g , ~ /e .~ t h e v i s c o s i ty a f t e r s h e a r i n g f o r

a n i n f i n i te ti m e , z i s a t i m e c o n s t a n t a n d r i s a d i m e n s i o n l e s s c o n s t a n t ( w h i c h i n t h e s i m p l e s t c as e

i s u n i t y ) . T h i s e q u a t i o n c a n c o p e w i t h b u i l d - u p a n d b r e a k - d o w n i n s t e p - u p o r s t e p - d o w n t e s t s ,

w i t h t h e v a l u e s o f ~ a n d r d e p e n d i n g o n b o t h t h e l e ve l a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n , i .e ., g o i n g f r o m 1 0 t o

1 s - 1 w i l l n o t h a v e t h e s a m e v a l u e o f f f o u n d i n g o i n g f r o m 1 t o 1 0 s - 1. T h e v a l u e s o f r a ls o

v a r y w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e t e s t , as w e l l a s t h e p a r t i c u l a r s y s t e m b e i n g t e s t e d , a n d t h e y

d e c r ea s e l in e a rl y w i t h t h e l o g o f t h e s h e a r r a te , t y p i c al l y f r o m 0 . 7 - 0 . 9 a t l 0 - 2 s - 1 t o 0 . 3 - 0 . 4

a t 1 s - 1 i n M e w i s ' e x p e r i m e n t s [ 2 8] . H e a l s o s h o w e d t h a t f o r a t y p i c a l f lo c c u l a t e d s y s t e m ( f u m e d

s i l ica in pa r a f f in o i l ) , z i s a de c re as i ng fu nc t io n o f r/e.O ~ /~ /oon t, w he re qcon t i s the v i sc os i ty o f the

c o n t i n u o u s p h a s e, w h i c h w h e n t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , p r o p e r l y d e s cr i be s t h e e ff e ct o f t e m p e r a t u r e .

( H e a l s o r e p o r t s o p t i c a l , d i e le c t ri c a n d c o n d u c t i v i t y r e s u lt s o n t h e s e s y s te m s ) .

H e y m a n n e t a l. [ 2 9 ] i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e b u i l d - u p a f t e r s h e a r i n g o f t h e y i e l d s t re s s o f fi ve

n e w s p r i n t i n k s, w i t h t h e f o r m u l a t i o n c o n t a i n i n g c a r b o n b l a ck . A p e r i o d o f p r e - s h e a ri n g w a s

c a r r ie d o u t a t 1 50 0 P a , a n d t h e n t h e f lo w c u rv e s w e r e m e a s u r e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f t im e . F o r t h o s e

i n k s , j u d g e d t o h a v e a y i e ld s tr e s s ~ y, a n e q u a t i o n s i m i l a r t o E q . ( 1) w a s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e

r e b u i l d i n g :

rat = o

y + [ t r y - - o r ° ] 1 - - e - ~ t / ~ ) ) 2 )

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H.A. Barnes/J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 70 1997) 1-33 11

F o r t h e s e m a t e r i a l s s o d e s c r i b e d , t h e v a l u e s o f v w e r e f o u n d t o b e w e l l o v e r 1 0 0 s . F o r t h i s

r e a s o n , i t w a s j u d g e d t h a t t h e r e c o v e ry b e h a v i o u r h a d n o r e le v a n c e to t h e p r i n t i n g p r o c e ss ,

b e c a u s e t h e s e p r o c e s s t i m e s a r e o f t h e o r d e r o f a f e w s e c o n d s a t m o s t .

N o t o n l y c a n s h e a r b r e a k d o w n o r b u i l d u p f l o c s , b u t i t c a n a l s o c h a n g e t h e i r i n t e r n a l

m o r p h o l o g y . F o r i n s ta n c e , t h e w o r k o f M i l ls e t al . [3 0 ] s h o w e d t h a t s h e a r i n g f re s h ly p r e p a r e d

f l o c c u l a t e d s u s p e n s i o n s c a n d e n s i f y i n d i v i d u a l f lo e s , c a u s i n g r e o r g a n i s a t i o n w i t h i n t h e f lo c s. T h i s

s h o w s h o w i m p o r t a n t i t i s t o ' c o n d i t i o n ' s u c h s y s t e m s b e f o r e s h e a r i n g t h e m i n e x p e r i m e n t s t o

e l u c id a t e t h e ir t h i x o t r o p i c b e h a v i o u r . T h e y f o u n d t h a t f o l l o w i n g p r o l o n g e d s h e a r i n g , l o os e -

p a c k e d f lo c s b e c a m e t i g h t l y p a c k e d a n d m o r e m o n o d i s p e r s e d . T h i s c a n b e i n t e r p r e te d a s a

p e r m a n e n t l o ss o f s t r u c t u r e - - r h e o m a l a x i s o r r h e o - d e st r u ct i o n.

T h e e x p e r i m e n t s o f W o l t h e r s e t a l. [ 3 1] s h o w u s h o w i m p o r t a n t t h i x o t r o p y c a n b e i n a t y p ic a l

f l o c cu l a te d s y s t em s . T h e y e x a m i n e d t h e b e h a v i o u r o f a d e p l e t i o n - f l o c c u la t e d p o l y m e r l a t e x

s u s p e n s i o n a n d s h o w e d t h a t t h e s h e a r s t re s s d r o p p e d s i g n i f i ca n t l y w i t h t i m e , a n d w a s s ti ll

d e c r e a s i n g a f t e r 1 h . T h e v a l u e s o f t h e i n it i a l a n d f i n a l v is c o s it i es t h e y f o u n d w e r e a t l e a st a n

o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e d i ff e r en t . T h e y a l s o f o u n d t h a t t h e u n s h e a r e d s a m p l e s w e r e m o r e o p e n f l oc s

w h i l e s h e a r i n g m a d e t o f r e s h f l o c s m o r e d e n s e .

3 3 An t i t h i xo t ropy

A s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , g i v e n t h e r i g h t k i n d o f a t t r a c t i o n b e t w e e n p a r t ic l e s , s h e a r i n g c a n

p r o m o t e t e m p o r a r y a g g r e g a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n b r e a k d o w n , d u e t o t h e c o ll i si o n o f t h e s e a t t ra c t i v e

p a r t i c l e s - - t h i s r e su l ts i n a n t i- t h i x o t r o p y . D o r a i s w a m y e t al . [3 2 ] h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e a v e r a g e

a g g l o m e r a t e s iz e o f a s u s p e n s i o n i n s h e a r w a s g i v e n b y

r

-- = exp[(8~b~Et)/3Tc], (3)

F0

w h e r e E w a s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a c o l l i si o n o f p a rt i c le s w o u l d r e s u l t in a g g l o m e r a t i o n , a n d r a n d

r0 w e r e t h e r a d i u s o f t h e s h e a r e d a n d u n s h e a r e d f l o cs , r e s p e c ti v e l y . T h e y t h e n d e s c r i b e d a n

e x p e r i m e n t w h e r e a 1 2% p h a s e v o l u m e s u s p e n s i o n o f i n o r g a n i c p i g m e n t in a l o w m o l e c u l a r

w e i g h t p o l y m e r i c f l u id g r o w s f r o m 3 . 4 t o 8 8.1 ja m a f t e r fl o w i n g t h r o u g h a 5 0 m l o n g t u b e o f

d i a m e t e r 0 .0 3 8 m . T h i s m e a n t t h a t t h e v a l u e o f E w a s a s l ow a s 0 . 00 6 . T h e y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h i s

v a l u e w i l l t e n d t o z e r o a b o v e a c r i t i c a l s t r e s s w h e n t h e a g g l o m e r a t e s b e g i n t o d i s i n t e g r a t e . I n

s e p a r a t e e x p e r i m e n t s o n a 4 g m g l a s s b e a d s i n c o r n s y r u p s u s p e n s i o n i n a c o n e - a n d - p l a t e

v i s c o m e t e r , t h e y s h o w e d t h a t t h e a g g l o m e r a t e s i z e t e n d e d t o a s t e a d y v a l u e a f t e r s h e a r i n g f o r

m o r e t h a n a b o u t 2 h . C h a n g a n d S m i t h [3 3] s h o w e d t h a t t h i s k i n d o f b e h a v i o u r is se e n i n c er t a i n

n u c l e a r w a s t e s i m u l a t e s l u r r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y i f s i l i c a

(SiO4)

i s p r e s e n t .

A n t i t h i x o t r o p y c a n a l s o a r i s e b e c a u s e c e r t a i n f l o e s c a n b e c o m e l o o s e r a n d m o r e o p e n u n d e r

t h e a c t i o n o f s h e a r a n d t h u s t h e v i s c o s i t y i n c re a s e s . O n e g o o d e x a m p l e o f t h is n e g a t i v e ( o r a n t i- )

t h i x o t r o p y i s f e rr i c - o x id e s u s p e n s i o n s i n m i n e r a l o i l, s e e [ 3 4 ] . S u s p e n s i o n s o f a c i c u l a r , f i n e

m a g h e m i t e a re k n o w n t o s h o w a s t r o n g t e n d e n c y t o f lo c c u l at e d u e t o t h e m a g n e t i c p r o p e r t ie s o f

t h e p a r t ic l e s . L i k e o t h e r s u c h s u s p e n s i o n s , t h e r e i s a r a n g e o f fl o w c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h

s h e a r - e n h a n c e d c o l l i s i o n s m a k e s t r u c t u r e r a t h e r t h a n b r e a k i t . I n t h i s c a s e t h e o n s e t o f

a n t i t h i x o t r o p y i s a r o u n d 5 0 s 1. B e l o w t h a t r a n g e t h e s u s p e n s i o n s a r e t h i x o t r o p i c in t h e n o r m a l

w a y , w h i l e a b o v e t h i s c ri t ic a l v a lu e , s t r o n g a n t i - t h i x o t r o p y s e ts in . T h e y c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e s h e a r

l o o s e n s t h e f t o c s , w h i c h t h e n h a v e a h i g h e r e f f e c t i v e p h a s e v o l u m e .

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12 H.A. Barnes/J . Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 70 1997) 1-33

v i scoe last i c re spon se

~ 4

~ e q u ~

shearing time, t

in e lasti c , v i scou s re spon se

shearing time, t

F i g . 5 . D i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f t h i x o t r o p i c b e h a v i o u r o n s t a r t u p o f s h e a r a f t e r v a r i o u s d e g r e e s o f r e s t ( n e g l e c t i n g

i n s t r u m e n t i n e r t i a ) .

4. Viscoelasticity nd thixotropy

V i s c o e l a s ti c s y s t e ms s h e a r e d i n t h e i r l i n e a r r e g i o n s h o w t i me - d e p e n d e n c y b e c a u s e t h e mi -

c r o s t r u c t u r e t a k e s t i me t o r e s p o n d t o t h e f l o w / s t r e s s . A t s h o r t t i me s ( h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s ) t h e

s t r u c t u r e s c a n n o t r e s p o n d q u i c k l y , a n d w e s e e a n e l a s t i c r e s p o n s e , w h i l e g i v e n t i me ( l o w

f r e q u e n c i e s ) , th e s y s t e m c a n a d j u s t i t s e lf c o n t i n u o u s l y , i . e. , it c a n f l o w , s h o w i n g v i s c o u s e f f ec t s.

T h u s , w h e n o b s e r v e d o v e r a l l t i me ( a n d f r e q u e n c y ) s c a l e s , t h e s y s t e m i s v i s c o e l a s t i c .

F o r n o n - l i n e a r v i s c o e l a s t i c - - o r s i m p l y i n e l a s t i c b u t s h e a r - t h i n n i n g s y s t e m s - - n o t o n l y d o e s

t h e mi c r o s t r u c t u r e t a k e t i me t o r e s p o n d t o t h e f l o w , b u t i t i s a l s o c h a n g e d b y t h e f l o w a n d t h i s

c h a n g e w i l l i t s e l f t a k e t i me . T h i s i s t h e e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n l i n e a r v i s c o e l a s t i c i t y a n d

t h i x o t r o p y - - t h a t w h i l e b o t h a r e t i m e e f f e c t s , t h e f o r m e r i s i n t h e l i n e a r r e g i o n , w h e r e t h e

s t r u c t u r e r e s p o n d s b u t r e m a i n s u n c h a n g e d a n d t h e l a t t e r t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e n o n - l i n e a r r e g i o n

w h e r e t h e s t r u c t u r e i s b r o k e n d o w n b y d e f o r m a t i o n a s w e l l a s r e s p o n d i n g t o i t .

S h e a r t h i n n i n g c a n o c c u r f o r m a n y r e a s o n s , e . g . , :

• a l i g n m e n t o f r o d - l i k e p a r ti c l e s i n t h e f lo w d i r e c ti o n ;

• l o s s o f j u n c t i o n s i n p o l y m e r so l u t i o n s ;

• r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f m i c r o s t r u c t u r e i n s u s p e n s io n a n d e m u l s i o n f lo w a n d

• b r e a k d o w n o f f lo cs .

S i nc e c h a n g e s i n a n y o f t h e s e s ta te s t a k e s o m e t i m e t o c o m e a b o u t ( e it h e r f r o m r e st o r f r o m

s o me o t h e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n ) , t h i x o t r o p y i s a l w a y s ( i n p r i n c i p l e ) t o b e e x p e c t e d f r o m a n y s h e a r -

t h i n n i n g m e c h a n i s m . H o w e v e r t h i x o t r o p y b e c o m e s s ig n i fi c an t w h e n t h e t im e - s c a le o v e r w h i c h i t

i s s e e n b e c o me s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o n g e r t h a n t h e r e s p o n s e t i me s o f i n s t r u me n t s u s e d t o me a s u r e

r h e o l o g y o r l o n g e r t h a n s o me f l o w t i me i n a p r o c e s s , e . g . , t h e a v e r a g e t i me a l i q u i d t a k e s t o f l o w

t h r o u g h a p i p e . T h i x o t r o p i c t i me s c a l e s c a n b e l o n g e r t h a n v i s c o e l a s t i c t i me s c a l e s a n d a r e

p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t w h e n t h e s e t i m e s c a l e s b e c o m e m i n u t e s a n d l o n g e r f o r b r e a k d o w n . T h i s

w i ll i n e v it a b ly m e a n m a n y m o r e m i n u t e s o r e v e n h o u r s f o r r e c o v e r y o f t h e s t ru c t u r e . G i v e n t h e

n a t u r e o f mo s t mi c r o s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s w h i c h p r o d u c e t h i x o t r o p i c e f f e c t s ( s e e a b o v e ) , i t i s

o b v i o u s t h a t a t c o n d i t i o n s n e a r t h e f u l l y s t r u c t u r e d r e s t s t a t e , v i s c o e l a s t i c e f f e c t s w i l l a l s o b e

s e e n . T h e t y p i c a l r e s p o n s e t o a s t a r t u p e x p e r i me n t f r o m a r e s t e d s t a t e s h o w s t h i s , s e e F i g . 5 .

O n l y a f e w t h e o r i e s h a v e s o u g h t t o a c c o u n t f o r t h i s e f f e c t , w h i c h s h o w s c o n c u r r e n t l y a

b r e a k d o w n / r e b u i l d i n g o f b o t h v i sc o u s a n d e l as t ic r e s p on s e s .

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H.A. Barnes /J . Non-Newtonian Flu id M ech. 70 1997) 1-33 13

T h e p i c t u r e p r e s e n t e d b e c o m e s e v e n m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d w h e n w e c o n s i d e r t h e l i n e a r vi s co e la s -

t i c r e s p o n s e o f a r e b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e , w h e r e t h e t y p i c a l s t o r a g e a n d l o s s m o d u l i - - G ' a n d

G " - - c u r v e s e v o l v e w i t h t i m e . T h i s c a n b e u s e d a s a m e a s u r e o f t h e r e b u i l d i n g m o d e s i n c e t h e

t e s t i s c o n d u c t e d a t l o w - e n o u g h s t r e s s e s / d e f o r m a t i o n s t h a t t h e e v o l v i n g s t r u c t u r e i s u n a f f e c t e d

b y t h e d e f o r ma t i o n . T h e g r o w t h o f G ' p a r t i c u l a r l y i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o s t r u c t u r e r e b u i l d i n g . B a r u t

e t a l. [ 3 5 ] s t u d i e d a n a c r y l i c p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n i n a m i x t u r e o f s o lv e n t s , w i t h T iO 2 o r a m i x t u r e

o f T i O 2 a n d a l u mi n o - s i l i c a t e p a r t i c l e s . T h e s e w e r e p r e - s h e a r e d i n a c o n t r o l l e d - s t r e s s r h e o me t e r

a t 2 0 0 P a f o r 2 mi n a n d a f t e r t h i s c e a s e d , t h e l i n e a r o s c i l l a t o r y p r o p e r t i e s w e r e mo n i t o r e d f o r

1 0 m i n a t s t r a i n s le s s t h a n 0 .1 o v e r a f r e q u e n c y r a n g e 0 . 0 3 - 6 2 . 8 r a d s 1. T h e f o r m o f t h e

r e b u i l d i n g c u r v e o f t h e s t o r a g e m o d u l u s w a s o f a s t r e t c h e d e x p o n e n t i a l f o r m :

G ' = G k - ( G " - G ; )e xp ( - k t P) . (4)

W i l l ia m s a n d R e n [ 36 ] u s e d th e V i r tu a l G a p R h e o m e t e r o p e r a t i n g o v e r t h e r a n g e 2 5 0 - 8 0 0 H z

t o e x a m i n e t h e r e b u i ld i n g o f 0 .0 4 5 g m l - 1 a q u e o u s L a p o n i t e R D d i s p e rs i o n s (s y n t h e ti c

h e c t o r i t e - t y p e c l a y , c i rc u l a r d i sc s ,-- 3 00 x 1 0 A ) , a g a i n m e a s u r e d b y G ' b u t n o w d e r i v e d f r o m

t h e p h a s e v e l o c i t y . A t t h e s e h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s , G ' i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e me a s u r e o f s t r u c t u r e

a s t h e s o l i d - l i k e r e s p o n s e o f t h e c l a y . T h e y s h o w e d t h a t r e s t r u c t u r i n g w a s s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r t h e

f ir s t 1 0 m i n o r s o , b u t w a s s ti ll g o i n g o n a f t e r 2 0 m i n . V i e w e d o n a l o g s c a le t h e r e is a r is e f r o m

a n i n i t i a l v a l u e a t s ma l l t i me s a n d a f a s t b u i l d u p t h r o u g h a p o w e r - l a w r e g i o n , e v e n t u a l l y ( a s i t

mu s t ) f l a t t e n i n g o u t a t t i me s g r e a t e r t h a n 2 0 mi n .

B o u d a a n d M i k e g o vf i [ 3 7 ] s i m u l t a n e o u s l y m o n i t o r e d t h e A C c o n d u c t i v i t y a n d t h e s t o r a g e

m o d u l u s G ' t o e s ta b l is h t h e b u i l d u p o f a c a r b o n b l a c k n e t w o r k i n a p o l y e t h y l e n e m e l t . A f t e r a n

i n i t i a t i o n p e r i o d w h e r e t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y w a s c o n s t a n t , i t t h e n i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y . T h e t i me a 7 . 4

w e i g h t % s a m p l e t o o k t o s h o w t h e r a p i d i n c r e a s e w a s n e a r l y 2 0 0 r a i n . S i m i l a r b e h a v i o u r w a s

a l s o o b s e r v e d f o r G ' . T h e y e x p l a i n e d t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s a s r e s u l ti n g f r o m t h e s e t t i n g u p o f a

c o n t i n u o u s n e t w o r k , a n d u s i n g p e r c o l a t i o n t h e o r y s h o w e d t h a t t h e o b s e r v e d b e h a v i o u r w a s

e x p l a i n a b l e o n t h e b a s i s o f d i f f u s i o n - l i mi t e d a g g r e g a t i o n o f s ma l l c l u s t e r s o f p r i ma r y c a r b o n -

b l a c k p a r t ic l e s u n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f B r o w n i a n m o t i o n . A s t h e f lo c s c o l li d e a n d s t ic k t o g e t h e r t h e y

e v e n t u a l ly f o r m a n i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g n e t w o r k a s t h e p e r c o l a t io n t h r e s h o l d i s re a c h e d , a t w h i c h

p o i n t b o t h t h e e l e c t ri c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y a n d t h e s t o r a g e m o d u l u s G ' r o s e r a p i d l y , s e e a l s o [ 38 ].

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , G r e e n e r a n d C o n n e l l y [ 3 9 ] p o i n t o u t h o w e a s y i t is t o m i s i n te r p r e t

t h i x o t r o p i c l o o p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e r e i s v i s c o e l a st i c it y p r e s e n t i n t h e s a mp l e b e i n g t e s t e d . T h e y

c o m p a r e t h e s u p p o s e d t h i x o t r o p i c b e h a v i o u r o f a n a q u e o u s p o l y a c r y l a m i d e s o l u t io n w i t h t h e

p r e d i c t e d b e h a v i o u r o f th e W a g n e r m o d e l a n d s h o w t h a t a ll t h e e ff e ct s a r e a c c o u n t e d f o r b y t h e

n o n - l i n e a r v i s c o e la s t ic b e h a v i o u r , a n d n o t b y t r u e t h i x o t r o p y

5. Typical thixotropic experiments

5 . 1 . T h i x o t r o p i c / h y s t e r e s i s l o o p s

O n e o f t h e f a v o u r i te w a y s o f m e a s u r i n g t h i x o t r o p y is t o p e r f o r m a l o o p t e st ; t h a t i s t o s a y ,

t o l i n e a r l y i n c r e a s e t h e s h e a r r a t e ( o r s o me t i me s s h e a r s t r e s s ) f r o m z e r o t o a ma x i mu m v a l u e ,

a n d t h e n t o r e t u r n a t t h e s a me r a t e t o z e r o . T h i s t e s t c o u l d t h e n b e r e p e a t e d a g a i n a n d a g a i n ,

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14

H . A . B a r n e s / J . N o n - N e w t o n i a n F l u i d M e c h . 7 0 1 9 9 7) 1 - 3 3

u n t i l e v e n t u a l l y , a c o n s t a n t l o o p b e h a v i o u r i s s e e n , s e e F i g . 6 . T h e a r e a b e t w e e n t h e u p a n d

d o w n c u r v e i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y m e a s u r e d i n s o m e c o m p u t e r - b a s e d r h e o m e t e r s a s a m e a s u r e o f

t h i x o t r o p y .

T h i s k i n d o f t e s t i s t o b e d e p r e c i a t e d , f o r a l t h o u g h u s e f u l a s a q u i c k , q u a l i t a t i v e p r o c e d u r e i t

h a s a n u m b e r o f b a d p o i n t s . F i r s t , t h e l o o p t e s t i s o f t e n c a r r i e d o u t t o o q u i c k l y , a n d i n e r t i a

e f fe c t s d u e t o t h e m e a s u r i n g h e a d a r e i n t r o d u c e d b u t n o t a l w a y s r e c o g n i s e d . ( H o w e v e r , i n e rt i a l

e ff e ct s c a n n o w b e a c c o u n t e d f o r b y s o m e r h e o m e t e r s o f t w a r e p a c k a g e s . ) S e c o n d l y , a t e s t w h e r e

b o t h s h e a r r at e a n d t i m e a r e c h a n g e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , o n a m a t e r i al w h e r e t h e r e s p o n s e is it s e lf

a f u n c t io n o f b o t h s h e a r ra te a n d t i m e - - a s t h i x o t ro p y o b v i o u s ly i s - - i s b a d e x p e r im e n t a t i o n ,

b e c a u s e t h e r e s p o n s e c a n n o t t h e n b e r e s o l v e d i n t o t h e s e p a r a t e e f f e c t s a r i s i n g f r o m b o t h

v a r i ab l e s . H o w e v e r t h e p r o b l e m i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e l o o p i s e v e n m o r e d i f f i cu l t w h e n w e r e a li s e

t h a t t h e f i rs t p a r t o f t h e b e h a v i o u r o n s t a r t - u p i s e s s e n t ia l l y e l a st ic . A s t h e s t r a i n b e c o m e s l a rg e ,

t h i s m o v e s t o n o n - l i n e a r e l a s t ic r e s p o n s e . I f t h e b e h a v i o u r w e r e j u s t l i n e a r e l as t ic i ty , t h e n t h e

s t r a in i n a s i m p l e l o o p t e s t i n c r e as e s p a r a b o l i c a l l y , a n d t h e c u r v e i s c o n c a v e t o s t a r t w i t h , b u t

s o o n t u r n s o v e r . A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e v i s c o u s b e h a v i o u r c a n b e c o m e a p p a r e n t i n t h e f i r s t

t e n d e n c y t o f l at t e n o u t . T h e v i s co u s b e h a v i o u r t h e n i t se l f b e c o m e s n o n l i n e a r a s t h e s t r u c t u r e

b e g i n s t o b r e a k d o w n a t l a r g e s t r a i n s . A s t h e s t r a i n r a t e i n c r e a s e s f u r t h e r , t h e l i q u i d w o u l d l i k e

t o s h e a r - t h i n , b u t t h i s t a k e s t i m e s i n ce t h e s t r u c t u r e c a n n o t a d j u s t i t s e l f f a s t e n o u g h t o r e s p o n d

t o t h e i n c re a s i n g s h e a r r at e . W h e n t h e t im e i s l o n g e n o u g h a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e h a s b r o k e n d o w n ,

t h e d o w n c u r v e w i l l b e u n d e r t h e u p c u r v e . R e b u i l d i n g w i l l t h e n b e g i n t o t a k e p l a c e s l o w l y . E v e n

w i t h a n a p p a r a t u s t h a t r e s p o n d s p e r f e ct l y t o t h e s t re s s a n d s t r a in , i n t e r p r e t i n g th e d a t a t o o b t a i n

t h e p a r a m e t e r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a m o d e l is v e r y d i ff i cu l t i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e .

A s i m p l e r a n d m o r e s e n s i b l e t e s t f o r a t h i x o t r o p i c l i q u i d i s p e r f o r m i n g a n d d e r i v i n g r e s u l t s

f r o m s te p -w i s e e x p e r im e n t s w h e r e t h e s h e a r r a t e o r s tr es s i s c h a n g e d f r o m o n e c o n s t a n t v a l u e t o

a n o t h e r w i t h a c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d p r e h i s t o r y . E v e n s o , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o e l i m i n a t e a n e l a s t i c

r e s p o n s e a n d i n s t r u m e n t i n e r t i a .

5.2. Start up experiments

A n y e x p e r i m e n t t h a t s t a rt s f r o m r e st is a n o t h e r k i n d o f t h ix o t r o p i c t es t. T h e t y p ic a l b e h a v i o u r

o f s tr a i n - o r s t r e s s - c o n t r o l l e d e x p e r i m e n t s is s h o w n i n F i g . 7 . M o s t , i f n o t a l l , t h i x o t r o p i c

second loop

n th oop

shear rate, 1/s

F i g . 6 . A t y p i c a l t h i x o t r o p i c - l o o p t e s t .

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15

time of shearing

Fig. 7 . Various f low regimes af te r s ta r t up.

m a t e r i a l s t h a t h a v e b e e n a t r e st f o r s o m e t i m e s h o w v i sc o e la s ti c b e h a v i o u r , s o t h e i m m e d i a t e

r e s p o n s e i n s u c h t e s t s is el a st ic , t h e n d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n d i t i o n s , a t h i x o t r o p i c r e s p o n s e w i l l b e

s e e n e i t h e r a s a n o v e r s h o o t i n t h e s t r e s s i n s t r a i n - c o n t r o l l e d e x p e r i m e n t s o r a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e

s l o p e o f t h e s t r a i n - t i m e c u r v e i n c r e e p t e st s . T h i s s o m e t i m e s h a p p e n s a f t e r a c r i t i c al s t r a i n h a s

b e e n a c h i e v e d . T h i s i n i ti a l el a st i c r e s p o n s e g i v i n g w a y t o a t h i x o t r o p i c v i s c o u s r e s p o n s e m a k e s

t h e b e h a v i o u r q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d .

5 3 Ar tifac ts involved in measuring thixo tropy

T h e g r e a te s t d i f fi c u lt y i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d m o d e l l i n g th i x o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l s i s k n o w i n g t h e

e ff ec t o f t h e - - o f t e n u n k n o w n - - d e f o r m a t i o n p r e h i s to r y o n t h e l iq u id o f in te re s t. T h i s is

p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e a t h i x o t r o p i c l i q u i d i s s u b j e c t t o m i x i n g a n d p u m p i n g , o r

e v e n t h e s e e m i n g l y s i m p l e t a s k o f f il li n g a v i s c o m e t e r o r r h e o m e t e r . I n b o t h c a s e s i t w o u l d b e

i n t e r e s t i n g t o b e a b l e t o p r e d i c t t h e s u b s e q u e n t f l o w e v e n i f o n l y t h e i n i t i a l r e s p o n s e w a s k n o w n ,

s a y th e i n it i a l t o r q u e o n a v i s c o m e t e r o p e r a t i n g a t a c e r t a i n s h e a r r a te , o r t h e t o r q u e o n a m i x i n g

v e s s e l p r i o r t o t h e l i q u i d b e i n g p u m p e d o u t .

A n u m b e r o f m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n d e v i s e d t o e s t a b l i s h a c o n s i s t e n t i n i ti a l c o n d i t i o n : fi x e d r e s t

t i m e a f t e r s a m p l e l o a d i n g ; p r e - s h e a r a t a p r e s c r i b e d s h e a r r a t e f o r a p r e s c r i b e d t i m e f o l l o w e d b y

a s e t r e s t p e r i o d ; p r e - s h e a r i n g t o e q u i l i b r i u m a t a l o w s h e a r r a t e f o l l o w e d b y t e s t i n g a t a h i g h e r

s h e a r r a t e , e t c . T h e s e e l i m i n a t e t h e p r o b l e m i n c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , b u t t h e y c a n n e v e r c o m p l e t e l y

e l i m i n a t e t h e p r o b l e m i n p r a c t i s e, s i n c e t h e e f fe c ts o f p r e h i s t o r y o n a p r e v i o u s l y u n t e s t e d s a m p l e

i s a l w a y s u n k n o w n .

T h e m e c h a n i c a l i n er t ia o f t h e r o t a t i n g m e m b e r s i n v is c o m e t e r s a n d r h e o m e t e r s m e a n s t h a t i n

e x p e r i m e n t s w h e r e t h e s h e a r r a te o r s t re s s is c h a n g e d q u i c k l y o r i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y , t h e i n s t r u m e n t

r e s p o n s e i s d e l a y e d , a n d t h i s is o f t e n m i s t a k e n f o r t h i x o t r o p y , a n d , e v e n i f t h i x o t r o p y i s p r e s e n t ,

i t c a n c o m p l i c a t e it s m e a s u r e m e n t . S o m e t i m e s th e p r e s e n c e o f a l o w c o m p l i a n c e s p r i n g

c o m p l i c a t e s t h e m e a s u r e m e n t b e c a u s e t h e o u t p u t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t r e la t es t o t h e s p r i n g w i n d i n g

u p .

F o r t h i x o t r o p i c m a t e r ia l s , a s w e h a v e s e en , a ty p i c a l s o u r c e o f t h e p h e n o m e n o n is b r e a k d o w n

o f fl o cs . H o w e v e r t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a p p a r e n t s l i p a t t h e w a l l, e .g . , d e p l e t i o n , c a n a l s o a r i se f r o m

f lo c s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e l a rg e , s e e B a r n e s [ 41 ]. T h i s i s a c a s e w h e r e o b s e r v i n g t h e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t

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H . A . B a r n e s / J . N o n - N e w t o n i a n F l u i d M e c h . 7 0 1 9 9 7) 1 - 3 3

a l o n e w i l l n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e o r a c c o u n t f o r b o t h e f f e c t s . A d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a l

f l ow p r o f i le w i ll a l o n e s h o w w h a t i s h a p p e n i n g . A s w e l l a s p i p e f lo w s , t h e r e a r e ma n y a p p a r e n t l y

s i mp l e f l o w s w h e r e t h e s h e a r r a t e o r s h e a r s t r e s s i s n o t c o n s t a n t s p a t i a l l y , f o r i n s t a n c e w i d e - g a p

c o n c e n t r i c c y l i n d e r s a n d p a r a l l e l p l a t e s . T h e s e g e o me t r i e s a r e o f t e n u s e d i n t h e r h e o l o g i c a l

c h a r a c t e r i s a ti o n o f th i x o t r o p i c l iq u i d s, a n d u n w i t t i n g l y m a n y w o r k e r s a r e u n a w a r e o f th e

c o mp l i c a t i o n s .

6. Engineering consequences of thixotropy

6 1 F lo w in m ix e r s

E d w a r d s e t a l. [ 4 0] f o u n d t h a t t h e b e h a v i o u r o f a r a n g e o f t h i x o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l s i n a se r ie s o f

m i x e r s w a s q u i te e a s y t o c h a r a c t e r is e i f o n e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e m i x e r b e h a v e d i n t h e s a m e w a y a s

a v i s c o m e t e r r u n n i n g a t t h e s a m e s h e a r r a te a s t h e a v e r a g e s h e a r r a t e i n t h e m i x e r . T h e y u s e d

a n a v e r a g e s h e a r r a t e f o r t h e f l o w in a c y l i n d r i c a l v e s se l w i t h a n c h o r , h e l i ca l r i b b o n a n d h e l i c al

s c r e w i mp e l l e r s , g i v e n b y t h e i mp e l l e r r o t a t i o n a l s p e e d N ( r e v s - l ) t i me s a c o n s t a n t d e p e n d i n g

o n t h e i m p e l l e r g e o m e t r y , k , w h e r e v a l u e s o f k r a n g e d f r o m a b o u t 1 2 f o r t h e h e l ic a l s c r ew s ,

a r o u n d 2 0 f o r t h e a n c h o r t o 3 0 f o r t h e h e l i c a l r i b b o n . T h e y c o m p a r e d t h e t o r q u e p r o d u c e d i n

t h e m i x e r w i t h t h e s i gn a l f r o m a v i s c o m e t e r r u n n i n g a t t h e s a m e s h e a r r a t e , b o t h o f w h i c h c o u l d

h a l v e o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f t h e e x p e r im e n t . F o r s a l a d c re a m , t o m a t o k e t c h u p , y o g h u r t , p a i n t a n d

3 a n d 4 % a q u e o u s L a p o n i t e d i s p e rs i o ns , t h e y f o u n d t h a t t h e a v e r a g e v is c o si ty m e a s u r e d a s a

f u n c t i o n o f t i m e i n t h e m i x e r a t a g i v e n i m p e l l e r s p e e d c o m p a r e d w e l l w i t h t h a t f r o m a

v i s c o m e t e r r u n n i n g a t t h e s a m e s h e a r r a te . F o r t h e s a l ad c r e a m , t o m a t o k e t c h u p , y o g h u r t a n d

p a i n t , t h e v i s c o s i t i e s a g r e e d t o w i t h i n 1 0 %. T h e p r e d i c t e d v a l u e s f o r 3 a n d 4 % L a p o n i t e a g r e e d

r e a s o n a b l y w e l l f o r t h e a n c h o r a n d h e l ic a l r i b b o n , b u t w e r e b e t w e e n 2 0 a n d 4 0 % t o o l o w f o r t h e

h e l i c a l s c r e w s . T h i s l a t t e r f a c t w a s p r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e v e r y n o n - N e w t o n i a n a n d t h i x o t r o p i c

n a t u r e o f t h e L a p o n i t e d i s p e r s i o n s .

6 2 F lo w in p ip e s

Wh e n a t h i x o t r o p i c l i q u i d e n t e r s a l o n g p i p e f r o m a l a r g e v e s s e l w h e r e i t h a s b e e n a l l o w e d t o

r e s t , t h e d e v e l o p me n t o f t h e v e l o c i t y a n d p r e s s u r e f i e l d s i n t h e p i p e i s v e r y c o mp l i c a t e d . T h e

l a r g e p r e s s u r e i n v o l v e d i n th e s t a r t - u p o f fl o w o f a t h i x o t r o p i c l i q u i d c a n c a u s e s i g n if i c a n t

p r o b l e m s i n te r m s o f t h e n e c e s sa r y p u m p p e r f o r m a n c e . O f t e n c a v i t a ti o n c a n b e c a u s e d b e c a u s e ,

a l t h o u g h a p u m p c o u l d c o p e w i t h s h e a r e d m a t e r i a l , i t m i g h t b e u n a b l e t o i n i t i a t e f l o w o f

m a t e r i a l t h a t h a s b e e n a t r e s t f o r s o m e t i m e . C a v i t a t i o n i n t h e l i q u i d w i t h i n t h e p u m p c a n t h e n

ensue .

O n c e f l o w h a s s t a r t e d , t h e l i q u i d n e a r t h e p i p e w a l l i s s u b j e c t e d t o t h e h i g h e s t s h e a r r a t e b u t

t h e l o w e s t v e l o c i t y , h e n c e i t i s s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s h e a r f o r l o n g e r t h a n t h e f l u i d f l o w i n g a t t h e

mi d d l e o f t h e p i p e . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a v e r y f a s t a n d p r o l o n g e d b r e a k d o w n n e a r t h e w a l l , g i v i n g a

l o w v i s c o s i ty l a y e r t h a t e f f e ct i v el y l u b r i c a t e s t h e i n n e r , m o r e - v i s c o u s l a y e rs . I f t h e p i p e is l o n g

e n o u g h , t h e f l o w p r o f i l e w i l l e v o l v e s u c h t h a t e v e n t u a l l y t h e s t e a d y s t a t e p r o f i l e i s e s t a b l i s h e d .

H o w e v e r , f o r s h o r t p i p e s , c h a r a c t e r i s i n g t h e f l o w c a n b e q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d , w i t h a n o n - l i n e a r

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p ressu re p ro f i l e d o w n th e p ip e b e in g a d i s t in c t p o ss ib i l i t y . D i s t in g u i sh in g th ix o t ro p y f ro m a

d ev e lo p in g s lip l ay e r cau sed b y p a r t i c l e d ep le t io n can b e v e ry d i f fi cu lt ( see B arn es [41 ]) .

S i m p l e a p p r o a c h e s h a v e b e e n m a d e t o a n a l y z e t h i s p r o b l e m m a t h e m a t i c a l l y , s e e G o d f r e y ' s

s u m m a r y [ 4 ], b u t t h e o n e s w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g a re d u e t o K e m b l o w s k i a n d P e t e r a [ 4 2 ] a n d C h e n g

a n d c o - w o r k e r s [ 4 3 ] . T h e k i n d s o f i m p o r t a n t s i tu a t io n s a n a l y z e d i n c l u d e s ta r t - u p o f f u ll y

s t ru c tu red th ix o t ro p ic f lu id s an d th en s t ead y -s t a t e flo w , in b o th cases w i th e i th e r a co n s tan t f lo w

ra te o r a g iv en p ressu re d ro p . T h e an a ly s i s w as co m p lex an d r eq u i red ex ten s iv e n u m er ica l

c o m p u t a t i o n .

7. Examples of systems and studies from the l i terature

T h e r e i s a v e r y l a r g e n u m b e r o f s y s t e m s t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o b e t h i x o t r o p i c ; p r e v i o u s

rev iew s h av e l i s ted m a n y e x am p les ( see B au er a n d C o l l in s [1 ], M ew is [2 ] , C h en g [3 ], an d G o d f re y

[4] ). H e re a se t o f la rg e ly n ew e x am p les a re g iv en , w i th sp ec ia l em p h as i s o n h i th e r to u n rep o r t e d

e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n a n d o r i e n t a l st u di e s. I n o r d e r t o s a v e s pa c e , a l a r ge n u m b e r o f e x a m p l e s a re

p resen ted in t ab u la r fo rm in T ab les 1 an d 2 T ab le 3 T ab le 4 T ab le 5 T ab le 6 T ab le 7 T ab le 8

T a b l e 9 T a b l e 1 0, g r o u p e d a p p r o p r i a te l y , w i t h e a c h p a p e r s u m m a r i s e d in o n e p h a s e . R e f e r e n c e

c a n b e m a d e t o t h e m a t t h e r e a d e r ' s c o n v e n i e n c e . T h e n f o l lo w s a m o r e d e t a i l e d d is c u s s i on o f

so m e recen t ex am p les .

7.1. Thixo tropic paints, inks and coatings see Table 1)

Wh en co a t in g s a re ap p l i ed to v e r t i ca l o r i n c l in ed su r faces , t h e t im e t ak en fo r r eb u i ld in g to

o c c u r c a n c a u s e t h e m a t e r i a l t o d r a i n. T h i s is o b v i o u s ly u n d e s i ra b l e . T h e t h i x o t r o p i c b r e a k d o w n

o f p a in t s is i m p o r t a n t w h e n s u c h p a i n t s a r e b e i n g p u t o n t o t h e b r u s h o r b r u s h e d o u t . T h e

d e s i ra b l e p r o p e rt i e s o f n o n - d r i p m i g h t a p p e a r q u i t e q u ic k l y , b u t t h e p a i n t h a s t o b e w o r k e d t o

m a k e i t t h i n e n o u g h t o a p p l y e v e n l y .

7 .2 . Th ixo trop ic detergen t sys tem s see Tab le 2 )

T h i x o t r o p y i n c o m m e r c i a l d e t e r g e n t l i q u i d s c a n g i v e r i s e t o p r o b l e m s w h e n t h e y h a v e t o b e

p o u r e d f r o m c o n t a i n e r s o r p o u r e d i n t o m a c h i n e s . T h e n d i s p e r s i o n c a n b e a p r o b l e m . I f

r eb u i ld in g i s v e ry s lo w , p h y s ica l i n s t ab i l i t y can r esu l t d u e to sed im en ta t io n o r c ream in g .

7.3. Thixotropic clay suspensions see Table 3)

C l a y s a r e p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t k n o w n e x a m p l e s o f th i x o t r o p y , b e c a u s e o f th e e x t r e m e c h a n g e s

b r o u g h t a b o u t u n d e r s h e a r . A c l a y su s p e n s i o n c a n b e s h a k e n i n a b o t t le , a n d t h e s o u n d

g e n e r a t e d i s a l m o s t w a t e r - l i k e , b u t o n s t a n d i n g t h e c l a y c a n b e c o m e c o m p l e t e l y g e l l e d a n d

m an i fes t s a r in g in g so u n d i f t ap p ed in a g l ass co n ta in e r . C lay s su ch as th e n a tu ra l B en to n i t e s

a n d t h e m a n u f a c t u r e d a n d m o d i f i e d L a p o n i t e s , b e c a u s e o f th e e x t e n si v e n a t u r e o f t h e v e ry t h i n

sh ee t s f ro m w h ich th ey a re m ad e u p , g iv e a v e ry g o o d th i ck en in g e f fec t a t r e l a t iv e ly lo w

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , w i t h o u t g i v i ng u n w a n t e d v i sc o e la s ti c e f fe c ts f o u n d w i t h s o m e k i n d s o f p o l y m e r i c

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18

Table 1

Paints, inks and coatings

H.A. Bar nes/J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 70 1997) 1-33

Author(s) Ref. Details

Overdiep

Kuw ano e t a l .

I izuka and Na-

g an u m a

Cornelius

Galli

Ku t ik

Kerle

Pila

Papo and Sturzi

Parmentier

Dubyaga et al .

Alessandrini

W a l to n

Craw ord

Staus and Edser

Berry

Iizuka and Na-

g an u m a

Kobs and V oigt

Tsuritani

Toussaint

[44] Effect of thixotropy on f ilm forma tion

[45] Thixotrop y in automo bile paints

[46] Review of thixotropes for paints

[47] Thixo tropy in urethane modif ied alkyd resins

[48] Fum ed and precipitated si l ica, and clays as thixotropes for plastic coatings

[49 ] Am orph ous silica gel as thixotropes

[50 ] Th ixot ropy in polyester-based thixotro pic resins

[51 ] Thixotropes for vinyl resin thick layer systems

[52 ] Bentone as a thixotro pe for oxidised bitum en protective coatings

[53] Hydrogenated casto r o il as th ixo t rope fo r wood t rea tment coa t ing

[54] Effect of thixotropy on f ilm properties o f polyether polyurethanes

[55] M ontmo ril lonite thixoptrope in oxidised bitumen paint

[56] Production of thixotropic paints

[57] Review of advantages of thixotropy for al l coatings

[58 ] Thixotropic vinyl-based polym er hous ehold emulsion paint

[59 ] Thixotropic alkyd-resin and polyamide-based hous ehold paints

[60 ] Thixotropes for high-solids coatings

[61] Effect of thixotropy on thick f i lm screen printing

[62] Thixotrop y of printing suspension and paste inks

[63 ] Thix otrop y in organic coatings

t h i c k e n e r s . H o w e v e r b e c a u s e o f th e s i ze o f t h e c l a y p l a t e s t h e r a t e o f s t r u c t u r i n g i s v e r y s l o w a n d

a l s o t h e d i f fe r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e f u l l y f o r m e d s t r u c t u r e a t r e s t a n d t h e f l o w i n g d i s p e r s i o n i s v e r y

l a r g e .

7 .4 . Th ix o t ro p ic o i l s and lubr i can t s see Tab le 4 )

G r e a s e s a r e t h i x o t r o p i c b e c a u s e o f t h e f l o c c u la t i o n o f t h e d i s p e r se d m a t e r i a l s u s p e n d e d i n t h e

o il p ha s e . T h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n l u b r i c a t in g s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e g r e a s e h a s t o b r e a k d o w n

o n s h e a r i n g s o t h a t n o u n w a n t e d e x t r a d r a g i s e x p e r i e n ce d i n b e a ri n g s .

Table 2

Detergent systems

Author(s) Ref. Details

Wolff [64]

Rounds [65]

M oren o et al. [66]

M oren o et al. [67]

Thixotrop y in m icellar su rfactant solutions containing aro matic solubilisers

Thixotropic in rod-like micellar surfactant solutions

Thixotropy in systems containing anionic surfactant, ethoxylated alcohol, an d sod ium o r

tr iethanol-ammonium sulfate

Effect of ethanol, urea, or sodium silicate on thixotropic properties of commercial heavy

duty liquid detergents

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H.A. Barnes/J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 70 1997) 1-33

19

Tab le 3

Clay suspens ions

Author ( s ) Re f . De t a i l s

A r i p o v

L e g r a n d a n d

C o s t a

H a r e t a n d Z a r e a

Shevchuk and

Shishkevich

O r a z m u r a d o v e t

al.

R y a b c h e n k o a n d

A g a b a l ' y a n t s

Schulz

Egash i ra

Rosenqv i s t

N a k a i s h i a n d Y a -

su tomi

Bendukidze e t a l .

T x o p e r e n a

[68] Th ix o t rop y o f mon tmor i l l on i t e d i spe r sions

[69] E f fec t o f shea r ing on t h ixo t rop i c ben ton i t e mud s

[70] E f fec t o f v ib ra t i ons , e l e c tro ly te s and t empe ra tu re on t h ixo t ropy o f c l ays

[71] E f fec t o f o i l -wa t er emul s ions on t h ixo t ropy o f mon tmor i l l on i t e -ba sed mud s

[72] E f fec t o f e l ec tro ly t e and va r ious co ll o ids on t h ixo t ropy o f ben ton i t e c l ay suspens ions

[73] Or i en t a t i on- th ixo t rop i c e f fect i n aqueous d i spe rs ions o f montm or i l l on i t e cl ays

[74] Rev iew of modi f i ed Ben ton i t e (o rganoc l ay) o rganoph i l i c t h ixo t ropes fo r coa t i ngs

[75] E f fec t o f co l lo id chemis t ry on th ixo t ropy o f c l ays

[76] Th ixo t ropy i n qu i ck c l ay

[77] E f fec t o f t ime sca le o f measu rement o n fl ow of c l ay suspens ions

[78] E f fec t o f Ben ton i t e on s to rage p rope r t i e s o f ch lo r ina t ed rubbe r ename l s

[79] Th ixo t ropy in coa t i ngs fo r woo d pa in t s and va rn i shes

7 .5 . Th i xo t ro p i c co a l su sp en s i o n s see Ta b l e 5 )

C o a l - o il a n d c o a l - w a t e r s u s p e n s io n s s h o w c o n s i d e r a b l e t h i x o t r o p y , a n d p r o b l e m s

w i t h s t ar t u p o f p u m p s a f t e r s to p p i n g t h e fl o w c a n c a u s e p r o b l e m s . T h e p u m p

d u t i e s r e q u i r e d f o r f l o w o f s h e a r e d s u s p e n s i o n s a re v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m s t a r t u p o f a

r e s t e d s u s p e n s i o n . T h i s c a n r e s u l t i n p u m p f a i l u r e , s i n c e s t a r t u p t o r q u e s c a n b e v e r y

h i g h .

Table 4

Oi l s and l ubr i can t s

Author ( s ) Re f . De t a i l s

Wisl icki [80] Thi xot ro pic prop er t ies ester-base d synthet ic lubr ica t ing oi l s

Cza rny [81] Th ix o t rop y i n l i t h ium and ca l c ium-based g rea se s

Szi las [82] Th ixo t rop y in crude oi l s f lowing in pipe l ines

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20

Tab le 5

Coa l suspens ions

H . A . B a r n e s / J . N o n - N e w t o n i a n F l u i d M e c h . 7 0 1 9 9 7 ) 1 - 3 3

Author ( s ) Re f . De t a i l s

Usui [83]

De Jon g [84]

Chakrabor ty [85]

Sab adel l et al . [86]

Th ix o t rop y an d phys i ca l s t ab il i ty o f coa l s lu r r ie s

T h i x o t r o p y o f c o a l -w a t e r m i x t u r e s

Th ixo t rop i c coa l -wa te r suspens ions

Thixo t ropy o f coa l -o i l suspens ions

Tab le 6

Meta l s lushes

Author ( s ) Re f . De t a i l s

Erz

Vives et al .

Flemings e t a l .

M a d a a n d

Aje r sch

[ 8 7 ] T h i x o c a s t i n g - - a c a s ti n g p r o c es s f o r n e a r - n e t- s h a p e m a n u f a c t u r e a l u m i n i u m a l lo y s

[88] Th ix o t ropy o f two-phas e me ta l li c s l u rr i es

[89] Rev iew of t h ixo-ca s t ing

[90] Th ixo t rop i c o f semi - so li d a luminum -6% s i l icon ca rb ide a ll oy r e in fo rced wi th si l icon ca r -

bide par t ic les

7.6 . Th ix o trop ic m eta l s lushes see Table 6)

I f m e t a l s a re s h e a r e d j u s t b e l o w t h e i r m e l t i n g p o i n t , t h e y t a k e o n t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a

s h e a r - t h i n n i n g li q ui d . H o w e v e r , t h e y h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s t h i x o t r o p ic . W h i l e t h e y m i g h t s h o w

s o m e t h i x o t r o p y , t h e t i tl e is p r o b a b l y a m i s n o m e r b e c au s e s h e a r t h i n n i n g i s p e r h a p s e v e n m o r e

im p o r t an t t h an th ix o t ro p y . In f ac t , a s s t a t ed ab o v e , t h ix o t ro p y i s p ro b ab ly a n u i san ce , b ecau se

w h a t i s n eed ed is a f a s t - r e sp o n d in g , v e ry sh ea r - th in n in g , l iq u id - l ik e m a te r i a l fo r cas t in g .

7. 7 . Th ix o tro pic rubbers so lu t ions see Table 7)

T h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f b l a c k r u b b e r t y re s e t c. , u se s c a r b o n b l a c k. W h e n d i s p er s e d , t h e p a r t ic l e s

a r e a t t r a c t e d t o o n e a n o t h e r , a n d f o r m a n e t w o r k t h r o u g h o u t t h e r u b b e r s o l u t i o n . T h e r u b b e r

s o l u t io n i t se l f i s sh e a r t h i n n i n g , a n d t h e c a r b o n b l a c k n e t w o r k a l s o r e n d e r s a d e g r e e o f s h e a r

th inn ing , bu t i t i s a lso th ixo t rop ic .

Table 7

R u b b e r s y s t e m s

Author ( s ) Re f . De t a i l s

Ge nt and [91]

A l a n

Lo mo v e t a l . [92]

Ka t i s hono k e t [93]

al.

White [94]

Th ixo t ropy i n rubbe r s con t a in ing pa r t i cu l a t e f i l l e r s

Th ix o t rop y o f n it r il e rubbe r sy s t em wi th comb ined s t eady-s t a t e f l ow and v ib ra t i on

Thixo t rop i c fo r so lu t i ons o f ch lo r ina t ed rub be r

R e v i e w o f t h i x o t r o p y i n c a r b o n - b l a c k r u b b e r s

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H.A. Barnes/J. Non-Newtonian Fluid M ech. 70 1997) 1-33

Table 8

Foo d and biological systems

21

Author( s) R ef . De ta i l s

Benezech and Main- [ 9 5 ] Thixotropy in set , st irred and drinking yoghurts

gonnat

No ik et al. [96]

Ba ttisto ni et al. [97]

M orris et al. [98]

Baxter [99]

Divjak [100]

Thixotropy o f xanthan protein complexes obtained by fermen tation

Thixotropy of digested mun icipal solid-wastes

Thixotropy of acetan and related xanthan gum polysaccharide solutions

Thixotropy of sludge in anaerobic digestors

Thixotropy in xanathan-gum -based low-calorie may onnaises and salad dressings

7 . 8 . T h i x o t r o p i c f o o d a n d b i o lo g i c a l s y s t e m s s e e T a b l e 8 )

M a n y f o o d a n d b i o l o g ic a l s y st e m s a r e w e l l k n o w n e x a m p l e s o f t h i x o t r o p y . F o r i n s t a n c e,

s t i r r i n g y o g h u r t s m a k e s t h e m t h i n n e r , b u t l e a v i n g t h e m t o r e s t t h e r e a f t e r t h i c k e n s t h e m a g a i n .

T h i x o t r o p y i n f o o d t h i c k e n e r s su c h a s x a n t h a n g u m s c a n c a u s e p ro b l e m s i n t h a t t h e s u s p e n d i n g

p r o p e r t i e s t h e y g i ve to l i q u id s m a y t a k e t i m e t o a p p e a r a f t e r s h e a r i n g a n d t h is c o u l d c a u s e s o m e

i n it ia l s e d i m e n t a t i o n o r c r e a m i n g o f s u s p e n d e d m a t e r ia l .

7 .9 . T h i x o t r o p i c c r e a m s a n d p h a r m a c e u t i c a l s p r o d u c t s s e e T a b l e 9 )

C r e a m s a n d o t h e r p e r s o n a l - p r o d u c t a n d p h a r m a c e u t i c a l m a t e r i a ls a r e g iv e n ' b o d y ' b y u s i n g

m a t e r i a l s - - s o - c a l l e d t h i x o t r o p e s - - t h a t h a p p e n t o b e t h i x o t r o p i c . H e r e t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g o f

t h i x o t r o p y a s c o n f e r r i n g g e l - l i k e p r o p e r t i e s i s s t i l l v e r y o f t e n t h e c o n t r o l l i n g i d e a . T h e t i m e

e f fe c t s s e e n i n u s i n g t h e s e m a t e r i a l s a r e t h e r e f o r e a g a i n o n l y o f n u i s a n c e v a l u e .

7 . 1 0 . O t h e r th i x o t r o p i c s u s p e n s i o n s s e e T a b l e 1 0 )

S o m e o t h e r e x a m p l e s a r e c i te d w h e r e t h i x o t r o p y is s e en i n s t r u c t u r e d l i q u i d s o f d i f fe r e n t

k i n d s , m o s t o f w h i c h a r e f l o c c u l a t e d i n s o m e w a y , r a n g i n g f r o m f l o c c u l a t io n i n d u c e d b y

d e c r e a s i n g d r o p l e t s iz e i n e m u l s i o n s t h r o u g h t o t h e d e l i b e r a te a d d i t i o n o f th i x o t r o p e s .

Table 9

Creams and pharmaceuticals

Author(s) Ref. Details

Okor [101]

Junginger [102]

M atsumoto and Na kata [103]

Assmus [104]

Yamamura [105]

Effect of phenol on thixotropy of pharmaceutical gels

Thixotropy of cosmetic and dermatological cream bases

Effect of natural wax es on thixotropy o f cosmetics

Thixotropy in som e gelling cosme tic oils

Natural wax as a thixotrope for cosmetic pharmaceuticals

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22 H.A . Barnes /J . N on-Ne wtonian Fluid Mec h. 70 1997) 1 33

Table 10

Other thixotropic suspensions

Author(s) Ref. Details

Ueda

Faitel 'son

Nemets et al.

Shul 'man et

al.

Veliev and

Abdinov

Stepita

I to

Gao et al.

Arima and

Eguchi

Kruger and

Hulsenberg

Fedotova

Sakka and

Kozuka

Tretinnik

[106] Thix otropy in fine emulsions produ ced using a high-pressure homogenizer

[107] Thixo tropic properties of epoxy resin polymers

[108] Thix otropy in alum inum and zirconium oxides suspensions

[109] Thix otropy of electrorheological suspensions

[110] Th ixot rop y in magnetically active (ferromagnetic dust) liquids

[111] Alkali metal silicates and mo ntm orillo nite as thixotropes in limestone-based plaster

[112] Th ixot rop y in silica(Aerosil)-based adhesives

[113] Thixotropes (silicas, calcium carbonate or PVC) in unsatu rated polyester resin

[114] Aerosil as a thixotrope

[115] Effect of electrolyte on thixo trop y in ceramic slips

[116] Effect of additives on aqueous poly(vinyl alcohol) thix otro py

[117] Development of thixotropy in metal alkoxide solutions undergo ing hydrolysis and con-

densation reactions.

[118] Thixotropic in silicate suspensions

7 .1 1. M o r e e x a m p l e s i n d e t a i l

I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o se l ec t a g r o u p o f r e c e n t p a p e r s t o s t u d y t h e i r d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s . R a m s a y

a n d L i n d e r [1 19 ] s t u d i e d m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e c l a y - - a n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g c l ay f r o m C r o o k C o u n t y ,

W y o m i n g U S A . T h e s iz e o f t h e s e c l ay p l a te s i s c o n s i d e r a b l y b i g g e r t h a n L a p o n i t e a n d t h e ir

s h a p e i s l es s w e l l d e f i n e d . U s i n g s m a l l - a n g l e n e u t r o n s c a t t e r i n g ( S A N S ) , t h e y s h o w e d t h a t u n d e r

s h e a r , t h e s h o r t - r a n g e i n t e r a c t i o n s d i s a p p e a r e d . T h e y s h o w e d t h a t t h e a n i s o t r o p i c s t r u c t u r e

b r o u g h t a b o u t b y s h e a r i n g r e m a i n e d f o r m a n y h o u r s , e v e n d a y s , a f t e r t h e s h e a r w a s r e m o v e d .

T h i s w a s i n a c c o r d w i t h th e i r G ' m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e s e s h o w e d t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e b u i lt u p q u i c k l y

w h i l e t h e p a r t i c l e s w e r e s t i l l a l i g n e d . I t t o o k a l o n g t i m e b e f o r e c o m p l e t e i s o t r o p y w a s a c h i e v e d .

T h e y s u g g e s t t h a t m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e i s w e ll d e sc r i b e d b y t h is e x p l a n a t i o n , b u t t h e b r e a k u p o f f lo c s

i s a m o r e l i ke l y e x p l a n a t i o n i n L a p o n i t e w i t h i ts s m a l l e r p l a t e s. T h u s , t h e m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e

s a m p l e s a r e m o r e t h i x o t r o p i c . T h e r e b u i l d i n g i s d r i v e n b y B r o w n i a n f o r c e s w h i c h t a k e l o n g e r t o

a l i g n l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s l i k e m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e . T h e y a l s o n o t e i n p a s s i n g t h a t t h e l i n e a r e l a s t i c l i m i t

m o v e s t o h i g h e r s h e a r .

Z h a n g a n d N g u y e n [ 12 0] u s e d a t e c h n i q u e t o m e a s u r e t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e y ie l d s t re s s fo r

m a y o n n a i s e t h a t r e li ed o n t h e p o s i t i o n o f a p p a r e n t c e s s a t io n o f f lo w i n a w i d e - g a p c o n c e n t r i c

c y l i n d e r a p p a r a t u s . U p t o 1 0 00 s w a s n e e d e d b e f o r e t h e y i e ld - l in e c a m e t o a c o n s t a n t p o s i t i o n .

T a k e e s h i , W e i a n d S a t o [ 1 21 ] s t u d i e d t h e t h i x o t r o p i c r e s p o n s e o f f u m e d s i li ca s (A e r o s i l 2 0 0

a n d O X 5 0 ) s u s p e n d e d i n p o l y b u t a d i e n t e s o f v a r i o u s v i s c o si t ie s ( 1, 1 1 , 3 3 P a s ). A f t e r s h e a r i n g ,

t h e n o r m a l n e t w o r k s t r u c t u r e r e b u i l d s s l o w l y , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s s t i l l o c c u r r i n g a t 8

h , b u t i n t e r e s t i n g l y i f a 1 5 % s t ra i n w a s i m p o s e d f o r e v e n 2 m i n , t h e s t r u c t u r e b e c a m e s t if f e r s ti ll

f r o m r e st . T h i s i s a n e x a m p l e o f a s h e a r - e n h a n c e d f l o c c u l a t i o n i f t h e s h e a r i s l i m i t ed .

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H.A. Ba rnes/J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mec h. 70 1997) 1-3 3 23

B r e t o n - D o l l e t e t a l. [ 1 2 2 ] m e a s u r e d t h e t h i x o t r o p i c b e h a v i o u r o f m a i z e s t a r c h p a s t e s u s i n g a

l o o p - te s t m e t h o d , n o t i n g t h e a r e a u n d e r t h e c u r v e a s a m e a s u r e o f t h i x o t r o p y . I t r e m a i n e d f a i rl y

c o n s t a n t a s a f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e f o r t h e f i r s t l o o p f o r m a i z e , b u t w a s l o w e r a n d t h e r e a f t e r

d e c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s a f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e f o r t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d l o o p s . U n f o r t u -

n a t e l y in t h is c a s e, n o a t t e m p t s e em s t o h a v e b e e n m a d e t o e s t ab l is h a n y e q u i l i b r iu m d a t a . F o r

w a x y s t a r c h p a s te s , t h e t h i x o t r o p y w a s l o w e r a n d a d e c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e

n u m b e r o f lo o p s . T h e d i f f e r en c e in b e h a v i o u r w a s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a m y l o s e a n d

a m y l o p e c t i n i n t h e m a i z e s t a r c h .

B e r l a n d a n d L a u n a y [ 12 3 ] e x a m i n e d t h e th i x o t r o p i c b e h a v i o u r o f w h e a t f lo u r d o u g h s a n d

s h o w e d t h a t t h i x o t r o p i c e f f e c t s a r e s e e n i n f l o w s o t h e r t h a n s t e a d y s h e a r . T h e y me a s u r e d t h e

t h i x o t r o p i c r e c o v e r y o f t h e s t o r a g e m o d u l u s m e a s u r e d i n t h e l i n e a r r e g i o n ( 0 . 2 % s t r a i n ) a f t e r

s t r a i n i n g a t h i g h e r s t r a i n a m p l i t u d e s i n t h e n o n l i n e a r r e g i o n . R e c o v e r y i s c o m p l e t e - - a l t h o u g h

t a k in g m a n y m i n u t e s - - u p t o l ar g e a m p l i t u d e s ta in s o f a r o u n d 2 0 % . A b o v e t h a t v al u e,

i r r e v e r s i b l e c h a n g e s s e e me d t o o c c u r .

7 . 1 2 . B l o o d

T h i x o t r o p y i n b l o o d h a s b e e n r e c o g n i s e d f o r a l o n g t i m e , b u t a m a j o r p r o b l e m e n c o u n t e r e d

i n i n v e s t i g a t i n g r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l b l o o d c e l l s i n t o a g g r e g a t e s c a l l e d r o u l e a u i s t h a t

s e d i me n t a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e q u i t e q u i c k l y a s t h e a g g r e g a t e s f o r m. H e n c e t h e f u l l p o t e n t i a l o f

r e s t r u c t u r i n g i s n o t a l w a y s s e e n . O f c o u r s e t h e c i r c u l a t i o n t a k e s b l o o d t h r o u g h m a n y f l o w

r e g im e s , a n d t h e b r e a k d o w n a n d r e c o v e r y o f s tr u c t u r e is i m p o r t a n t e s p e ci a ll y i n b l o o d s e ns it iv e

t o a g g r e g a t i o n . A g e n e r a l r e vi e w o n t h e e x p e r im e n t a l w o r k o n h u m a n b l o o d v i s co e l a st ic i ty a n d

t h i x o t r o p y w a s p r e s e n t e d b y S t o l t z a n d L u c i u s [ 1 2 4 ] , w h o s h o w e d t h a t s o m e m o d e l s u s e d f o r

p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s c o u l d a l s o b e u s e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e p h e n o m e n a o b s e r v e d w i t h b l o o d

( t r a n s i e n t a n d p e r i o d i c f l o w ) . B e i n g m o r e s p ec i fi c , H u a n g e t a l. [ 1 2 5 ] s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t o f

h a e m a t o c r i t ( r e d ce ll c o n c e n t r a t i o n ) o n t h i x o t r o p i c p a r a m e t e r s . T h e y f o u n d t h a t t h e r a t e

c o n s t a n t o f t h i x o t r o p y - - i n t h i s c a s e a r i s i n g f r o m t h e b r e a k d o w n o f r o u l e u a x i n t o i n d i v i d u a l r e d

c e l l s - - w a s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e h a e m a t o c r i t .

8 . M a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r i e s

8 .1 . R e q u i r e m e n t s o f u s e f u l m o d e l s

T h e i d e a l m o d e l t o d e s c r i b e t h i x o t r o p i c b e h a v i o u r w o u l d s t a r t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t s o m e

f u n d a m e n t a l , r h e o l o g y - d e t e r m i n i n g p h y s i c al e n t it y t a k e s t i m e t o c h a n g e w h e n t h e f lo w f ie ld

a r o u n d i t h a s c h a n g e d o r i s c h a n g i n g . A s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s a i d , t h i s m i g h t b e f o r e x a m p l e t h e

s i z e o f a f l o c ; t h e o r i e n t a t i o n a n g l e o f a n a l i g n a b l e p a r t i c l e o r t h e d e n s i t y o f t r a n s i e n t

e n t a n g l e m e n t s . I n t h e s i m p l e s t m o d e l s , a l l s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l p a r a m e t e r s c h a n g e i n s t a n t l y w i t h ,

f o r i n s t a n c e , s h e a r , s h e a r r a t e o r s h e a r s t r e s s . F i r s t w e h a v e t o k n o w a t w h a t r a t e t h e s e c h a n g e s

t a k e p l a c e , a n d t h e n i f w e k n o w h o w t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e r e la t es t o t h e s tr es s, w e c a n p r e d i c t t h e

o v e r a l l b e h a v i o u r . Mo s t w o r k e r s i n t h i s f i e l d h a v e u s e d t h e o r i e s t o d e s c r i b e v i s c o u s t h i x o t r o p i c

p h e n o me n a , a n d o n l y a f e w h a v e a t t e mp t e d t o d e s c r i b e v i s c o e l a s t i c e f f e c t s . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e

e x a m p l e s o f c la s s es o f t h e o r i e s a r e d e s c r i b e d b e l o w a n d o t h e r s i n t h a t f i el d a r e n o t e d .

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24

H.A. Barnes/J . Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 70 1997) 1-33

8.2. Viscou s theories

C u r r e n t t h e o r i e s f o r t h i x o t r o p y f a l l i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s : f i r s t t h o s e t h a t u s e a v e r y g e n e r a l

d e s c r i p ti o n o f m i c r o s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d b y a n u m e r i c a l v a l u e o f a s c a la r p a r a m e t e r , t y p i ca l ly 2 ,

a n d t h e n u s e d 2 / d t a s t h e w o r k i n g p a r a m e t e r ; s e c o n d t h o s e w h o a t t e m p t s o m e d i re c t d e s c r i p ti o n

o f th e t e m p o r a l c h a n g e o f m i c r o s t r u c t u r e a s f o r i n st a n c e , t h e n u m b e r o f b o n d s , o r a n a t t e m p t

a t d e s c r i b i n g r e a l f l o c a r c h i t e c t u r e u s i n g f r a c t a l a n a l y s i s , a n d t h i r d t h o s e t h a t u s e t h e v i s c o s i t y -

t i me d a t a i t s e lf o n w h i c h t o b a s e a t h e o r y .

8.2 .1 . Ind i rec t micros t ruc tura l t heor i es

M o s t w o r k e r s i n t h i s a r e a h a v e d e v e l o p e d m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r i e s o f t h i x o t r o p y b a s e d o n t h e

n u me r i c a l s c a l a r me a s u r e o f s t r u c t u r e , o f t e n d e s i g n a t e d b y 2 . U s i n g t h i s s i mp l i s t i c c y p h e r ,

c o m p l e t e ly b u i lt s t r u c t u re i s r e p re s e n t e d b y 2 = 1 a n d c o m p l e t e ly b r o k e n - d o w n s t r u c tu r e a s

2 = 0. I n t h e s i mp l e s t c a se o f a t y p ic a l , in e l a s ti c , n o n - N e w t o n i a n l i q u i d w i t h u p p e r a n d l o w e r

N e w t o n i a n v i s c o s i t y p l a t e a u s , 2 = 1 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t/o a n d 2 = 0 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t / a , w i t h p o i n t s

b e t w e e n t a k i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e v a l u e s.

T h e n t h i x o t r o p y i s u s u a l l y i n t r o d u c e d v i a t h e t i m e d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e p a r a m e t e r ,

d 2 / d t , w h i c h is g iv e n b y th e s u m o f t h e b u i l d u p a n d b r e a k d o w n t e r m s , w h i c h , i n th e s i m p l e st

t h e o r i e s , a r e o n l y c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e s h e a r r a t e a n d t h e c u r r e n t l e v e l o f s t r u c t u r e 2 . T h e mo s t

g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t io n o f t h e r a t e o f b r e a k d o w n d u e t o s h e a r i n g is g i v e n b y t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e

c u r r e n t l e v e l o f s t r u c t u re a n d t h e s h e a r r a t e r a i s e d t o s o m e p o w e r , a n d t h e d r i v in g f o r c e f o r

b u i l d u p a s c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e d i s t a n c e t h e s t r u c t u r e i s f r o m i t s m a x i m u m v a l u e , i . e . , ( 1 - 2 ) ,

r a i s e d t o a n o t h e r p o w e r . T h e n

d 2

= g(~ , 2) = a(1 - 2) h -

c2~ d

(5)

w h e r e a , b , c a n d d a r e c o n s t a n t s f o r a n y o n e s y s t e m. I f th e v a l u e o f g ( ~ , 2 ) i s n e g a t i v e , t h e

s y s t e m is b r e a k i n g d o w n t o w a r d s e q u i l i b r i u m; i f it is p o s it i v e , it is b u i l d i n g u p t o w a r d s

e q u i l i b r i u m . A t e q u i l i b r i u m , f o r e v e r y v a l u e o f ~ t h e r e i s a p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e o f 2 w h i c h i n t h is

e q u a t i o n i s f o u n d b y s e t t i n g

d ~ /d t

to ze ro .

G o d f r e y [ 4 ] h a s s u m m a r i s e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e t w o - p r o c e s s m o d e l s b e g i n n i n g w i t h

G o o d e v e a n d W h i t fi e ld i n 1 9 3 8 [ 12 6 ] w h i c h l e d t o a n e a r l i e r v e r s i o n o f t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n d u e

t o M o o r e [ 12 7 ] w i t h b o t h b a n d d a s u n i t y , a n d p r o g r e s s in g t h r o u g h C h e n g a n d E v a n s [ 12 8 ] w h o

m a d e b u n i t y , b u t a l l o w e d d t o b e n o n - u n i t a r y , t h r o u g h t o t h e v e r y g e n e r a l ' s t r u c t u r a l k i n e t i c s '

m o d e l o f M e w i s , w i t h b o t h p o w e r s t a k i n g n o n - u n i t a r y v a l u e s . T h i s l a t t e r f o r m u l a t i o n w a s a l s o

u s e d b y L a p a s i n ' s g r o u p [ 1 2 9] . T h e n e x t s t e p i n t h i s k i n d o f a p p r o a c h i s t o r e l a t e th e s t r u c t u r e

2 - - a s c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g th e e q u a t i o n s a b o v e - - t o t h e s tr es s tr o r v i s co s i ty ~/ i n s o m e f lo w

e q u a t i o n . A s w e s h a l l s e e t h i s h a s b e e n d o n e i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s w h i c h r a n g e d f r o m a s i m p l e

B i n g h a m e q u a t i o n , t h r o u g h t h e C r o s s m o d e l t o a C r o s s - l i k e m o d e l c o n t a i n i n g a y i e l d s t r e s s .

M o s t o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t h e o r i e s i n t h i s a r e a a r e a c c o u n t e d f o r i n t h e v a r i o u s

c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h es e s t r u c t u r e c h a n g e a n d s t ru c t u re - v i sc o s i ty f o r m u l a t i o n s .

B a r a v i a n , Q u e m a d a a n d P a r k e r [ 1 3 0] r e c e n tl y p r o p o s e d a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e C h e n g a n d

E v a n s a p p r o a c h . T h e i r s t u d y i s w o r t h l o o k i n g a t i n d e t a i l f o r t w o r e a s o n s . F i r s t i t f o l l o w s t h e

t r a d i t i o n r o u t e t o d e s c r ib i n g th i x o t r o p y , a n d s e c o n d , it s h o w s h o w l o n g a n d s e e m i n g ly i n v o l v e d

t h e p r o c e d u r e t o d e s c r i b e t h i x o t r o p y b e c o m e s .

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25

T h e y p o s t u l a t e t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n v i s c o s i t y a n d s t r u c t u r e i s g i v e n b y

q(0-, t ) = q(2 ) = (1 K2)2 , K = 1 - (6)

\ r i o /

w h e r e % a n d ~ / ~ a r e t h e u s u a l l i mi t i n g v a l u e s o f v i s c o s i t y a t v e r y l o w a n d v e r y h i g h s h e a r

r a t e /s t r e ss , r e s p e c ti v e l y . T h i s a s s u me s t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f s t r es s o n t h e v i s c o s i t y i s a ls o a c c o u n t e d

f o r w i t h i n t h e c u r r e n t v a l u e o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l p a r a m e t e r 2 , w h i c h c a n i t s e lf b e w r i t t e n a s

w h e r e q i s t h e c u r r e n t v a l u e o f v i s c o s i t y . T h e n f o r a n y s y s t e m o n e h a s t o f i n d t h e v a l u e s o f %

a n d r / ~ ( a n d t h u s , K ) , a n d f r o m t h e s e , a l l v a l u e s o f r / c a n b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o v a l u e s o f R . T h e y

f o u n d t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m v a l u e o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l p a r a m e t e r 2 a n d t h e

shea r s t r e ss 0 - was g iven by

R e q u i t 0 - )

~ - - -

[1

I

0 - / 0 - c ) p ]

- - 1 8 )

F r o m a n y o n e p a r t i c u l a r e q u i li b r i u m p o s it i o n o f s tr es s, 1 P a ju m p s w e r e m a d e u p a n d d o w n

a n d p l o t s o f d R / d t v e r su s R w e r e m a d e . T h e s e w e r e o f t h e f o r m

dR 1 ~1

( 9 )

T h i s k i n d o f c u r v e w a s o b t a i n e d f o r m a n y v a l u e s o f e q u i l i b r iu m s tr es s. T h e v a l u e s o f t h e

c o n s t a n t s w e r e t h e n d e s c r i b e d b y t h e e q u a t i o n :

R(t) = Requi~+ (2ini- 2eq, i0exp -

t/ta2equi~

(10)

Thus , fo r a l l va lues o f s t r e ss , they cou ld now def ine 2 in~ ,

e q u i l

a n d 6 . U s i n g t h e s t r e s s - u p a s

w e l l a s s t r e s s - d o w n d a t a , t h e v a l u e s o f 6 w e r e t h e s a me a s a f u n c t i o n o f s t r e s s . T h i s t h e o r y w a s

a b l e t o d e s c r i b e a l o o p t e s t v e r y w e l l , o n c e i n s t r u me n t i n e r t i a h a d b e e n a c c o u n t e d f o r .

O t h e r v a r i a t i o n s o n t h i s t h e m e i n c l u d e t h a t o f D e K e e e t a l. [1 31 ], ( f o l l o w i n g T i u a n d B o g e r

[1 32 ]), w h o d e s c r ib e d t h e b r e a k - d o w n b e h a v i o u r o f v a r i o u s f o o d s y s te m s b y

dR

- - c ~ d ( R - - R e q u i l ) n . (1 1)

d t

T h e v i s c o s i t y w a s d e s c r i b e d b y a mu l t i p l e e x p o n e n t i a l - t y p e f l o w l a w

0( 9) = R(0-o + 9Z r/i ,e- 'P~). (12)

T h e t h e o r y w a s u s e d t o c h a r a c t e r i s e v i s c o s i t y d e c a y c u r v e s f o r y o g u r t a n d m a y o n n a i s e .

8 . 2 . 2 . D i r e c t s t r u c t u r e t h e o r i e s

D e n n y a n d B r o d k e y ' s a p p l i e d r e a c t i o n k i n e t i c s t o t h i x o t r o p y v i a a s i m p l e s c h e m e t h a t l o o k e d

a t t h e d i s tr i b u t i o n o f b r o k e n a n d u n b r o k e n b o n d s [ 13 3 ]. T h e n u m b e r o f t h e se b o n d s w a s la t e r

l i n k e d t o v i s c o s i t y . T h e f o r w a r d a n d r e v e r s e r a t e c o n s t a n t s k ' ~ a n d k 2 r e p r e s e n t e d t h e b r e a k d o w n

k i n e t i c s in f lo w , a n d t h e b u i l d u p k i n e t ic s , s ee f o r i n s t a n c e v a n d e n T e m p e l [ 1 3 4 ] w h o r e l a t e d

b o n d s t o f lo c c u l a te d s y st e m o f f a t g lo b u l es . D e n n y a n d B r o d k e y w r o t e d o w n t h e r a t e o f

s t r u c t u r e b r e a k d o w n a s ( c p . R u c k e n s t e i n a n d M e w i s [ 1 3 5 ] ) :

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26 H . A . B a r n e s / J . N o n - N e w t o n i a n F l u id M e c h . 7 0 1 9 97 ) 1 - 3 3

d ( u n b r o k e n )

- k l ( u n b r o k e n ) n -

k 2 b r o k e n ) m ,

(13)

d t

a n d s o l v e d t o g i v e t h e v i s c o s i t y b y a s s u mi n g i t i s l i n e a r l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a mo u n t o f

u n b r o k e n s t r u c t u re , w i t h a m a x i m u m v a l u e w h e n c o m p l e t e l y s t r u c t u r e d o f r/o a n d a m i n i m u m

v a l u e w h e n c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r u c t u r e d o f r /~ . T h e r a t e c o n s t a n t k2 is a s s u m e d t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t

o f s h e a r r a t e , b e i n g me r e l y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f B r o w n i a n c o l l i s i o n s l e a d i n g t o r e s t r u c t u r i n g , w h i l e

t h e r a t e o f b r e a k d o w n c o n s t a n t i s r e l a t e d t o s h e a r r a t e b y a p o w e r - l a w e x p r e s s i o n .

T h e w a y t h e w e l l - k n o w n C r o s s m o d e l w a s d e r i v e d is i n s tr u c t iv e [ 1 3 6] . A s s u m i n g t h a t a

s t r u c t u r e d l i q u id w a s m a d e u p o f f lo c s o f r a n d o m l y l i n k e d c h a i n s o f p ar ti c le s , C r o s s d e r i v e d a

r a t e o f e q u a t i o n o f t h e f o r m :

d N

= k 2 P - k o + k l ~ ) m ) N ,

(14)

d t

w h e r e N w a s t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f l in k s p e r c h a in , k 2 w a s a r a t e c o n s t a n t d e s c r i b i n g B r o w n i a n

c o l l i s i o n , k o a n d k l w e r e r a t e c o n s t a n t s f o r t h e B r o w n i a n a n d s h e a r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o b r e a k -

d o w n , P w a s t h e n u m b e r o f s i n g l e p a r t i c l e s p e r u n i t v o l u m e , a n d m w a s a c o n s t a n t l e s s t h a n

u n i t y . A t e q u i l i b r i u m

d N / d t

i s zero , so

k 2 P

N ~ = ( k , ) " ( 15 )

ko 1 +~o ~) m

T h e n a s s u mi n g t h a t t h e v i s c o s i t y w a s g i v e n b y a c o n s t a n t , r / ~ p l u s a v i s c o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n

p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e n u m b e r o f b o n d s A re , h e d e r i v e d h i s w e l l - k n o w n r e l at i o ns h i p :

F/e -- r/a, _ 1 (16 )

- - k l m

r/o r /~ 1 + ~ 7

C r o s s c o u l d o f c o u r se h a v e u s e d t h e n o n - e q u i l i b r i u m d a t a t o d e r i v e a t h i x o t r o p i c m o d e l a s

l a t e r o t h e r s d i d u s i n g h i s mo d e l .

L a p a s i n e t a l . [ 1 37 ] u s e d a f r a c t a l a p p r o a c h t o d e s c r i b e f l o c c u l a t e d s u s p e n s i o n s . T h e a n a l y s i s

o f f r a c t a l f lo c s u s i n g c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n s b a s e d o n t h e b a l li s ti c , c l u s t e r - c l u s t e r a g g r e g a t i o n

m e c h a n i s m s u g g e s t e d t h a t C fp i n Q u e m a d a ' s m o d e l , i .e ., 2/[ q] O m in t h e K D e q u a t i o n , is g i v e n b y

B + A ( N ~ + x I - 1 ) ( 1 7 )

C f p = B + N m a x - 1

w h e r e A a n d B a r e c o n s t a n t s , N ma x is t h e n u m b e r o f p r i ma r y p a r t i c le s i n a f lo c , a n d f l is g iv e n

b y

3 / D -

1 , w h e r e D i s t h e f r a c t a l d i me n s i o n o f t h e f l o c . T h e n L a p a s i n e t a l . a r g u e t h a t ( c f .

C h e n g a n d P a r k e r )

dNm,x

- - - a N - Nm ax) - b ~ r P N m a x - - Nmax~) (18)

d t

w h e r e N ma x .~ is t h e l o w e r l i mi t t o w h i c h N m a x t ends a s the she a r s t r e ss o - bec om es in f in i te ; a , b

a n d p a r e ma t e r i a l c o n s t a n t s . T h i s c a n b e s o l v e d f o r N

>> Nm ax

to g ive

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H.A. Ba rnes /J . Non-Newtonian Flu id M ech. 70 (1997) 1-33 27

a N

Nm ax = Nm ax,~ + _~_o- 1, (19)

w h i c h , o n c e w e h a v e r e p l a c e d t h e l u m p e d p a r a m e t e r ( a N / b ) L 'p by a c r i t i ca l s t r e ss oc and

s u b s t it u t e d i n t o t h e K r i e g e r - D o u g h e r y e q u a t i o n , g i v es

q - (1 /2 ) qb B + A N m ,~ x~ + a /s

- - = 1 ( 2 0 )

L r ~ J

~ b m a x B A - N m a x , ~ ~ - - ~ - ~ - - 1

\o - , . /

T h i s e q u a t i o n d e s c r i b e s t h e b r e a k d o w n o f fl o cs u n d e r f lo w , a n d p r e d i c t s a y i e l d s t re s s a n d a

f i n i t e h i g h - s h e a r - r a t e v i s c o s i t y . I t d e s c r i b e d v e r y w e l l t h e b e h a v i o u r o f b o t h T i O 2 a n d mi c a

d i s p e rs i o n s i n st e a d y s ta t e. ( A m u c h m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d th e o r y o f t h is k i n d h a d b e e n p r o p o s e d

by Eyr ing much ea r l i e r [ see [138] ] ) .

8 . 2 . 3 . S i m p l e v i s c o s i t y t h e o r i e s

F r e d e r i c k s o n [ 1 3 9] f o r m u l a t e d a n e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e r a t e o f c h a n g e o f f lu i d i t y ® ( t h e i n v e r se

o f v i s c o s i t y ) o f a n o n - N e w t o n i a n s y s t e m a s

an d used th i s express io n fo r s t ead y s ta te f low ( dO /d t = 0 ), r ec ove ry a t r e s t ( ?', = 0 ), the sud de n

a p p l i c a t i o n o f s t r e s s a n d t h e n a l o o p t e s t . L i k e t h e C r o s s mo d e l , t h i s mo d e l a l s o h a s h i g h e r a n d

l o w e r N e w t o n i a n p l a t e au s a t e q u i li b r i u m , a n d i f t h e q u a d r a t i c d e p e n d e n c e o n s h e a r - r a te i s

r e p l a c e d b y a p o w e r - l a w r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e y b e c o me s i mi l a r .

M e w i s a n d S c h r y v e r s [ 2 8] h a v e r e c e n t l y d e v i s e d a t h e o r y t h a t a l s o c i r c u mv e n t s t h e u s e o f a n y

s t r u c t u r a l p a r a me t e r s u c h a s 2 , a n d i n s t e a d u s e d t h e v i s c o s i t y a s a d i r e c t me a s u r e o f s t r u c t u r e .

T h e y p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e r a t e o f c h a n g e o f v is c o si ty r a t h e r t h a n r a t e o f c h a n g e o f s t r u c t u re b e

r e l a t e d t o t h e v i s c o s i t y d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s t e a d y s t a t e a n d c u r r e n t v a l u e s o f v i s c o s i t y ( n o t

the s t ruc tu re d i f fe rence ) , r e spec t ive ly , v iz :

d q

d t - K[~/s(~") - r/]" (22)

T h i s i n t e g r a t e s t o g i v e

q = q .... - [r/e ,~ - r/e,O][(q - 1)K t(r/ e -s_ qe,0)n - 1 + 1] ' ' ( l --") (23)

M e w i s a n d S c h r y v e rs t h e n m a d e t h e ( N e w t o n i a n ) a s s u m p t i o n t h a t r/e,0 = r /i ,~ w h i c h m a k e s t h e

u s e o f t h e e q u a t i o n s i mp l e r s i n c e i t is mu c h e a s i e r t o m e a s u r e t h e e v e n t u a l v i s c o s it y o f t h e i n i ti a l

s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n . T h i s a s s u me s t h a t t h e v i s c o s i t y a t t h e e n d o f t h e i n it i a l s t e a d y - s t a t e p e r i o d

i s t h e s a me a s t h a t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n e w s h e a r - r a t e t e s t , i . e . , t h a t t h e s y s t e m i s e s s e n t i a l l y

N e w t o n i a n b e t w e e n t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s i s r e a s o n a b l e u n d e r s o m e c o n d i t i o n s b u t a s M e w i s ' s

p r e v i o u s w o r k h a s s h o w n , i t i s o n l y s t r i c t l y t r u e f o r mo s t s y s t e ms a t h i g h e r s h e a r r a t e s . U s i n g

a v a l u e o f n o f 5 / 3 , th e y f i t te d e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a v e r y w e l l f o r c a r b o n b l a c k i n m i n e r a l o i l .

K r i s t e n s e n e t a l. [ 1 4 0] m o d e l l e d t h e t h i x o t r o p i c b r e a k d o w n b e h a v i o u r o f m a i z e s t a r c h p a s t e s

u s i n g t h e e q u a t i o n :

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28

H.A. Barnes,/J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 70 1997) 1-33

( J / - qoo) ' -m = [ (m -- 1 ) k t + 1]0/0 - qoo) ' -m

(24)

w h e r e r / 0 a n d q o o a r e t h e a s y mp t o t i c v a l u e s o f v i s c o s i t y r / ( r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f u l l y s t r u c t u r e d

a n d f u l l y d e s t r u c t u r e d s t a t e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) me a s u r e d a t t i me t a n y p a r t i c u l a r s h e a r r a t e , a n d k

a n d m a r e m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t s . T h i s a p p r o a c h h a d b e e n u s e d w i t h p r e v i o u s s u c c e s s f o r

mi n e r a l s a n d i n d u s t r i a l s u s p e n s i o n s ( s e e [ 1 4 1 ] ) . F o r t h e s t a r c h p a s t e s t u d i e d t h e y f o u n d t h a t

t h e d a t a w a s s a t i sf a c t o r i ly d e s c r i b e d b y m = 3 , th u s s u g g e s t i n g a t h i r d - o r d e r k i n e t i c mo d e l .

O v e r t h e s h e a r r a t e r a n g e t e s t e d , t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e f l o w c u r v e s c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d b y a

p o w e r - l a w m o d e l w i t h a n a p p r o x i m a t e h a l f -p o w e r .

8.3 . V i scoe las t i c theor ies

A l m o s t a n y v i s c o e l a s t i c t h e o r y c a n h a v e t h i x o t r o p y i n t r o d u c e d i f t h e p a r t i c u l a r p a r a m e t e r s

t h a t g i v e t h e v i s c o u s a n d e l a s t i c r e s p o n s e s a r e m a d e t o c h a n g e i n t h e w a y w e h a v e d e s c r i b e d

f o r p u r e l y v is c o u s b e h a v i o u r . P r o b a b l y t h e b e s t e x a m p l e o f th i s a p p r o a c h is g i ve n b y t h e

m o d e l d u e t o A c i e r n o e t a l. , [1 4 2 ] w h o c o n s i d e r e d a m o d e l b a s e d o n a s e r ie s o n M a x w e l l

e l e me n t s . T h e s e p a p e r s h a v e h a d a l a r g e i n f l u e n c e i n t h e f i e l d , a n d h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n c i t e d 4 9

a n d 1 0 4 t i m e s r e s p e c t i v e l y a t t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g . T h e n u m b e r o f e l e m e n t s i n t h e i r m o d e l w a s

s u c h t h a t t h e y c o u l d b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y a c o n t i n u o u s s p e c t r u m . S i m p l i fy i n g t h e m o d e l t o a

d i s c r e t e s e r i e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o w r i t e d o w n t h e b e h a v i o u r a s

a = Z , a ,, ~ + O , d t \ O J = 0;i (25)

w h e r e a ~ is t h e s tr e ss , G ~ t h e m o d u l u s , a n d 0 t h e r e l a x a t i o n t i me ( =

~Ii/G~

an d l abe l l ed 2g in

t h e i r p a p e r ) o f t h e i t h e l e me n t i n t h e d i s c r e t e s p e c t r u m.

T h i x o t r o p y i s i n t r o d u c e d v i a t h e w e l l - u s e d s t r u c t u r e p a r a me t e r 2 ( l a b e l l e d a s x ; i n t h e i r

paper ) :

G~ = Go,2;, 0~ = 00,2 ] 4 (26 )

T h e r a t e e q u a t i o n i s t h e n g i v e n b y

a F E

(27)

dt 0 i 0i L6;]

i / ~ /

w h e r e E i i s t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s e l a s t i c e n e r g y i n t h e i t h e l e me n t . T h i s i s t h e s a me a s t h e Mo o r e

l i n e a r mo d e l , e x c e p t t h a t n o w ~ i s r e p l a c e d b y t h e g e n e r a l i s e d e x p r e s s i o n E/Gi)~/2/Oi t h a t

a c c o u n t s f o r t h e e l a s t i c i t y a s w e l l a s t h e v i s c o s i t y . T h e t h e o r y g i v e s a n e x c e l l e n t d e s c r i p t i o n

o f m o s t o f t h e r h e o l o g i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f a l o w - d e n s i ty p o l y e t h y l e n e m e l t i n s h e a r a n d e x t en -

s i o n a l t r a n s i e n t a n d s t e a d y - s t a t e f l o w . T h e m o d e l i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e M o o r e m o d e l i f

r e d u c e d t o t h e v i s co u s c a se . S h o o n g a n d S h e n [ 1 4 3 ] i n t r o d u c e d a p o w e r - l a w d e p e n d e n c e o f

t h e b r e a k d o w n t e r m w h i c h t h e n c o m p a r e s w i t h t h e C h e n g a n d E v a n s ' i n e l a s t i c m o d e l . A n

o b v i o u s e x t e n s i o n i s t o r a i s e b o t h t e r m s t o n o n - u n i t a r y p o w e r s .

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H.A. B arn es/J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mec h. 70 1997) 1-3 3 29

9 . The break-down and bui ld -up of i so la ted f locs

T h e t w o k e y m e c h a n i s m s o f t h i x o t r o p y f o r t y p i c a l s y s t e m s a r e f l o c e r o s i o n a n d B r o w n i a n

c o l li s io n s . W o r k h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d o n t h e s e t o p i c s f o r d i l u t e d fl o c s a n d i t i s i n s t r u c t i v e t o r e l a t e

t h e s e s t u d i e s t o t h i x o t r o p i c b u i l d - u p a n d b r e a k d o w n o f s u s p e n s i o n s o f f l o c s .

T h e d i f f u s i o n r a t e o f i s o l a t e d f l o c s d e c r e a s e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s t h e i r s i z e g r o w s . R e y n o l d s a n d

G o o d w i n [ 1 4 4] m e a s u r e d t h e d i f f u s i o n c o ef f ic i e n ts o f is o l a t e d f lo c s a n d f o u n d a r a p i d d e c r e a s e

o f d i f f u s i o n r a t e w i t h f l o c s i z e , w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e f l o c g e o me t r y w h i c h

t h e y s t u d i e d a s l i n e a r o r c l u s t e r e d f lo c s. A s t h e s e a r e q u i t e m o d e r a t e f l o c s iz e s, it is o b v i o u s t h a t

v e r y l a r g e f l o c s o f h u n d r e d s o r t h o u s a n d s o f p r i ma r y p a r t i c l e s w i l l mo v e v e r y s l u g g i s h l y . T h e

e f f ec t o f p r i m a r y p a r t i c le s i ze o n t r a n s l a t i o n a l d i f f u s i o n c o e ff i c ie n t w a s w o r k e d o u t b y E i n s t e i n

w h o s h o w e d a s i m p l e in v e r se d e p e n d e n c e o n s iz e. H o w e v e r t h e r o t a t i o n a l d i f fu s i o n o f p a r ti c le s

s c a le s a s t h e i n v e r s e c u b e o f p a r t i c l e s i ze ( se e [ 1 45 ] ). T h i s b e h a v i o u r e x p l a i n s w h y e x p o n e n t i a l -

t y p e e x p r e s s i o n s f o r r e b u i l d i n g c o n t a i n a d r i v i n g f o r c e s u c h a s (1 - 2 ) , b e c a u s e r e b u i l d i n g s t a r t s

a t a g i v e n f l o c s iz e t h a t g r o w s a n d t h e n t h e d i f f u s i o n c o e f f ic i e n t d e c r e a s e s. T h i s m e a n s t h a t

c o l l i s i o n s b e c o me l e s s f r e q u e n t , a n d a s r e b u i l d i n g p r o g r e s s e s i t g e t s s l o w e r a n d s l o w e r , b u t

t h e o r e t i c a l l y n e v e r s t o p s .

T h e b r e a k d o w n o f i s o l a t e d f l o c s i n i m p o s e d s h e a r f i e l d s h a s b e e n s t u d i e d b y a n u m b e r o f

w o r k e r s . S o n n t a g [ 1 45 ] h a s s u m m a r i s e d t h e r e s u l ts a s d r = c ~ ~ w h e r e g h a s b e e n m e a s u r e d a s 0 .2

o r 0 . 5 . T h e s u r f a c e s h e a r s t r e s s e x p e r i e n c e d b y a n i s o l a t e d f l o c i s g i v e n b y df dqp , where d r i s the

f l oc s iz e , d t h e s i ze o f t h e p r i m a r y p a r t ic l e s , t / t h e v i s c o s it y o f t h e c o n t i n u o u s p h a s e a n d ~ i s t h e

s h e a r r a t e . I t is t h is s t r e ss w h i c h p r o d u c e s s u r f a c e e r o s i o n o f p r i ma r y p a r t i c le s i f i t i s g r e a t e r t h a n

s o m e b o n d s h e a r s t r e n g t h b e t w e e n t h e p r i m a r y p a r t ic l e s [s ee Mt i h l e [1 46 ]] . T h i s e x p r e s s i o n s h o w s

tha t f loc b reakdown in a g iven shea r f i e ld i s f a s te s t fo r the l a rges t s i zed f locs , i . e . , a t the shor te s t

t i me s , a s w e l l a s b e i n g p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s h e a r r a t e r a i s e d t o a p o w e r . T h e s e f a c t s a r e r e f l e c t e d

i n t h e s t r u c t u r e b r e a k d o w n c r i t e r i a n o r m a l l y u s e d , d 2 / d t Qc - 2 . ~ ",n.

I0 . Overa l l conc lus ions

T h i x o t r o p y c o m e s a b o u t f ir st b e c a u s e o f th e f i ni te t im e t a k e n f o r a n y s h e a r - i n d u c e d c h a n g e i n

m i c r o s t r u c t u r e t o t a k e p l a c e . T h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e is b r o u g h t t o a n e w e q u i l i b r i u m b y c o m p e t i t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e p r o c e s s e s o f te a r i n g a p a r t b y s t re s s a n d f l o w - i n d u c e d c o ll i s io n , i n a t i me t h a t c a n b e

m i n u t e s . T h e n , w h e n t h e f l ow c e as e s, B r o w n i a n m o t i o n is a b le t o m o v e t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e

m i c r o s t r u c t u r e a r o u n d s l ow l y t o m o r e f a v o u r a b l e p o s i t io n s a n d r e b u i l d t h e s t r u c tu r e . T h i s c a n

t a k e m a n y h o u r s t o c o m p l e t e . T h e w h o l e p r o c e s s i s c o m p l e t e l y r e v e r s i b l e .

T h e p o s i t io n o f v a r io u s a r e a s o f t h i x o t r o p y t o d a y i s w e ll s u m m a r i s e d b y t h r e e q u o t a t i o n s :

(1 ) A s t o t h e p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w o r d i ts el f, w e c a n d o n o b e t t e r t h a n q u o t e f r o m

L e w i s C a r r o l l ' s A l i c e i n W o n d e r l a n d , " W h e n I u s e a w o r d , " H u m p t y D u m p t y s a i d . . . " i t m e a n s

j u s t w h a t I c h o o s e i t t o m e a n - - n e i t h e r m o r e n o r l e s s " . " T h e q u e s t i o n i s " , s a i d A l i c e , " w h e t h e r

y o u c a n m a k e s o m a n y w o r d s m e a n s o m a n y d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s " .

(2 ) A s t o t h e s t a te o f e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h i x o t r o p y , w e q u o t e G o d f r e y [ 4 ] ,

" T h i x o t r o p y i s o n e o f t h e m o r e c o m p l e x c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b e h a v i o u r o f

n o n - N e w t o n i a n l i q u id s . .. m o s t o f th e a v a i l a b le [ e x p er im e n t a l] d a t a l e a ve s o m e t h i n g t o b e

d e s i r e d " .

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