Revision of the course

Dr Ayaz Afsar

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Topics of the courseWe have covered the following topics in this course:

1. The Nature of Research

2. Managing Time in Research

3. Getting Started

4. The Ethics of Educational and Social Research

5. Finding Information and Dealing with it

6. Literature Review

7. Research Methodology

8. Paradigms of Research

9. Sampling (1)

10. Sampling (2)

11. Sampling (3)

12. What is Plagiarism and how to avoid it?

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13. Validity in Research

14. Reliability in Research

15. Historical and Documentary Research

16. Case Studies

17. Action Research

18. Accounts Narrative

19. Using Questionnaire (1)

20. Using Questionnaire (2)

21. Using Interviews (1)

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22. Using Interviews (2)

23. Using Observation

24. Using Test (1)

25. Using Test (2)

26. Qualitative Data Analysis

27. Quantitative Data Analysis

28. Content Analysis and Grounded Theory

29. Narrative Analysis

30. Structuralism and analysis of literary tests

31. Using Corpus Linguistics in Research

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Developing research questions or hypotheses

Hypothesis

It means to suppose, or suggest, something that can then be tested

or tried out. Suggested explanation for a phenomenon or a

reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between

multiple phenomena. Testing of a scientific hypothesis which will

have been based on extensions of scientific theories. Research question the type of research you are undertaking research processes – questions and hypotheses kinds of research Ensuring that research ethics are followed

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The research process

(a) problem/ experience/ observation/ interest in a more scientific or social hypothesis, does this happen? What if this

was tried? It is expected that if this happens then this will happen, let us see …….

investigation and experimentation to test the hypothesis

(b) asking a research question – looks at effect of, interactions,

interpretations, how and why things happen and work (or not), how they might …. and so on

constructing knowledge and believing that knowledge is constructed rather than trying to prove it and believing it is provable, the world knowable and fixable

searching literature and engaging your own ideas and work in dialogue with theorists and experts

development of research design, choice of methodology/ies and the methods, vehicles that help you ask and address your question.

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Both forms of research therefore involve

data gathering

data analysis and interpretation of the findings

confirmation or disapproval of the hypothesis

or

addressing or answering the question

producing conclusions

advancing our understanding and our awareness of the interpretations of

meaning in the field, as well as our knowledge

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Stating your title

It is important that the title makes a statement or outlines an area of

study that can be explored, opened up, questioned. Suggest an area, an

idea, a part of a field of study that can be questioned; make a

suggestion or propose an innovation; and suggest that you will check for

its viability and success. Say all you can find out about, kind of title,

excite, suggest scope for enquiry and reflection, and indicate that it is

complex and ‘meaty’ or sufficiently extensive for your exploration.

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Research questions

Research focus and question prompts

Key stages – developing a hypothesis or research questions

State the research problem or issue or question: introduction – nature of

problem, why it is important, how research will contribute to its solution

State the research question or hypothesis, in the form of an interrogative

question asking the relationship between variables, phenomena, events,

and definitions of terms

Asking research questions – setting out to solve problem

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Operationalising’ a concept

Asking questions about a concept or an idea – moving further

Data, categories, theme, patterns, difference between elements explored

and discovered in relation to asking your question, elements of

knowledge, your findings, interpret your data, time frame, field by finding

out about numbers of students, study habits, developed work-related

skills, hypotheses (to be tested) or questions, relationship between the

variables of gender and subject choice, location of universities and

numbers of students.

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Boundaries and gaps Boundaries

Your research area and question your ‘slice of the cake’

Boundaries issues and areas you are now exploring

Whole cake (whole field or subject area): someone else can ask questions about or explore this area, or you might, later.

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From topic to title

Keep it tight and properly boundaries – your ‘slice of the cake’: others

can ask other questions and explore other areas and issues

Do not set up a purely descriptive dissertation/thesis

Set yourself

 a problem, or

a set of critical questions, or

a set of contrasts (for example, contrasting arguments about or

approaches to …..)

 You are contributing to ongoing debates and entering a dialogue in the

academic community

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Stages of asking the research question Topic – fascination – work directive or development

Research question – asking a question problematises and focuses your interests

Gaps: What has already been asked and discovered in relation to this area? How? Where can my work fit in and add new knowledge and meaning?

Ensure it addresses a gap in knowledge. Ensure it is significant – sufficiently important for the level (MA, MPhil,

PhD etc.) of the research.

Boundaries: Decide on which elements to focus and what to leave for later (either for

yourself or others).

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Summary

Turning fascinations, directives, topics, broad areas of interest into

research questions

Identifying suitable and appropriate, important and significant ‘gaps’ in

knowledge, so the research to address these is worth carrying out

Identifying what kind of research this will be

Identifying what the research cannot or will not cover, that is, the

boundaries (for someone else to address, or the researcher to look at

later)

Examples of moving forward, through focus on area of interest, to a

workable research question and design of study.

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Research Methodologies

Choosing research methodologies Methodology Methods Methodology Ontology Epistemology Methodology affects: the research questions you ask the kinds of research you carry out the methods used the modes of analysis used on your data what you can argue as findings from your data

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Positivistic paradigm Concerned with hypotheses

testing Uses large samples Data are highly specific and

precise Produces quantitative data High reliability Low validity Generalises from sample to

population

Postpositivistic paradigm Concerned with generating

theories Uses small samples Data are rich and subjective

Produces qualitative data Reliability is low Validity is high Generalises from one setting

to another

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Positivism

Interpretivism

Constructivism

Structuralism

Poststructuralism

Postmodernism

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Research approaches

Research approaches – which are yours?

Theoretical exploration Reflection on experience Empirical research Ethnographic Experimental Descriptive Exploratory Predictive Explanatory Practitioner – and/ or action – related Creative

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Ethics and Confidentiality

Typical procedures and their history

Ethics in research

Example

If the research involves contact with, observation of, or collection

and storage of confidential information about human subjects, then

you may need ethics approval. Complete the following questionnaire

and then follow the accompanying flow-chart to help you decide.

 Does the study involve participants who are unable to give informed

consent (e.g. children, people with learning disabilities, unconscious

patients)?

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Will participants be presented with painful stimuli or high intensities of

auditory, visual, electrical or other stimuli?

Is there any foreseeable risk of physical, social or psychological harm to

a participant arising from the procedure?

Will deception of participants be necessary during the study?

Will the study involve more than a minimal invasion of privacy, or

accessing confidential information about people without their

permission?

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Revising ethics in practice

Before you fill out an ethics form consider:

Will participants agree to take part? How are you asking them?

Can you share information and results with them?

How can you protect their interests?

How can you protect yourself?

Are there or could be any personal issues of access, interpretation, etc?

How can you manage these? Give and take advice.

How are you managing the information and data? Storing data

Analysing data drawing conclusions – how are ethics issues involved here?

What happens to your research afterwards? Are there any ethics issues

here?

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Using qualitative and quantitative research methods together

This course has considered research methodologies based on

worldviews, and looked at the ways in which you might approach

your research, the methods you might use, in relation to the

methodology you are using.

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The Quantitative Tradition

•The quantitative tradition is based on a belief that the study of society is

no different than the scientific study of any other element of our world.

•It premises scientific method, hypothesis testing, deductive logic,

objectivity and quantification.

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Hypothetico-deductive Method

•Involves hypothesis testing through collection and analysis of quantitative

data gathered through experimental design or survey research.

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Experimentation

•Experiments explore cause and effect by manipulating independent

variables to see if there is a corresponding effect on a dependent

variable.

•Pure experimentation requires controlled environments and randomly

assigned control groups (not always possible in social science

experiments often conducted in the field rather than a lab).

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Studying A Population

Exploring a population involves building an understanding of

knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) related to a particular topic

or issue.

Two broad methodological strategies are to:

1. explore existing data

2. generate primary data – primarily through survey research.

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The Qualitative Tradition

The qualitative tradition critiques quantitative assumptions and

premises inductive logic, subjectivity, multiple truths, the political

nature of research, and the value of depth over quantity.

Qualitative research strategies for achieving credibility

include thoroughness, i.e. saturation, crystallization, prolonged

engagement, persistent observation, broad representation and

peer review, and confirmation, i.e. triangulation, member

checking, and full explication of method.

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Ethnography

Exploring a cultural group by:

• discovering

• understanding

• describing

• and interpreting a way of life from the point of view of its

participants.

Ethnography is reliant on prolonged engagement, persistent

observation and analysis that demands a high level of reflexivity.

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Ethnography

Because ethnographic studies involve ‘immersion’ ethnographers

need to carefully manage their own subjectivities and thoughtfully

negotiate their relationship with the ‘researched’.

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Phenomenology

Exploring phenomena involves generating descriptions of lived

phenomena as they present themselves in direct experience.

Descriptions emerge through a dialogic process, and are

synthesized to offer a range of distinct possibilities for the experience

of a particular phenomenon.

While phenomenology offers a way to study phenomena,

something often neglected in the social science literature on

phenomenology is that it can be thick, divergent, and not ‘methods’-

oriented.

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Ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology explores the methods individuals use to make

sense of their social world and accomplish their daily actions.

Ethnomethodologists search for the collaborative and constantly

emerging nature of interaction through exploration of breaching

experiments, building of shared interpretations and interpretative

miscues.

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Ethnomethodology:

recognizes the interpretative work of the individual

offers a method for exploring ‘how’ questions

allows comparisons of divergent cultural norms

and allows exploration of specific forms of interaction.

However, it can be critiqued for not addressing ‘significant’

questions, and being too focused on verbal aspects of

communication.

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Feminist Approaches

While not a distinct methodology, feminist research is premised on the

belief that traditional ‘rules’ of research are imbued with unacknowledged

and unaddressed male bias.

Feminist researchers argue that research should be committed to:

◦ the empowerment of women

◦ overcoming inequity

◦ diverse representation of humanity

◦ empowerment of marginalized voices

◦ lessening the distinction between researcher and researched

◦ searching for multiple, subjective and partial truths.34

Mixed Methodology

“Mixed” studies traverse traditional divides and can help you capitalize on

the best of both traditions while overcoming their shortcomings.

“Mixed”approaches can be premised in the quantitative tradition with

acceptance of qualitative data; the qualitative tradition with acceptance of

quantitative data; or be driven by the questions themselves.

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Mixed Methodology

Challenges associated with mixed approaches include:

◦ needing to be familiar with and skilled in two traditions

◦ being mindful of overambitious design

◦ and not having the necessary time, resources, or supervisory support for a multi-mixed method approach.

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Writing a Research Proposal

What do you want to research? How you can draw up a good proposal

Abstract

Introduction

Theoretical perspectives/literature survey

Methodology and methods

Design of the study including what research is carried out when and how;

what analysis is carried out when and how

Timeline of work to be completed

Some sense of the outline of the draft chapters

Justification for the level of the award

Biography of major sources

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Drawing up your proposal Abstract Introduction Research question Gaps in the current knowledge Boundaries Theoretical perspectives/literature survey Conceptual framework Methodologies and methods Research design – design of study Decide on methods and vehicles Decide on timeline Decide on population/primary sources Decide on data collection and analysis Ethical considerations Outline plan of study Justification for the level of the award Bibliography – primary references 38

Draft proposal Indicative title Introduction – aim and focus of the study Questions Sub-questions Context for the research Theoretical perspectives and interpretations Research methodology and methods – design Research methods Research design (stages of your work – over time) Ethical considerations Outline plan of study Timeline for activities in the research from ……………………. to ……………………….. from ……………………. to ………………………. from ……………………. to ……………………….. from ……………………. to ……………………….. from ……………………. to ……………………….. Draft chapters and areas Justification for level of award Bibliography primary texts 39

We have considered how you go about putting together a research

proposal. At all levels, such proposals are needed, sometimes in a

formal (PhD, MPhil) and sometimes a shorter or less formal shape (MA).

Writing them helps you to be clear about how your research questions

and conceptual framework (of ideas, arguments, theories and methods)

run throughout your proposed research. For MPhil/PhD most

universities demand a lengthy proposal (about four pages), and this

could take up to six months to refine and perfect.

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You will be researching alongside this writing, but probably will have your

proposal agreed (and probably changed a little or a lot) by a research

degrees committee before your are formally and finally registered.

Sometimes you might have to resubmit the proposal. This is perfectly

normal. You need to get it right, as it informs all you do – so don’t be too

upset if it is sent back for rewriting – it will encourage you to clearer,

more coherent, and more likely to produce a successful piece of

research which matters.

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The Challenge of Writing Up

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The Challenge

Because your write-up will be a considerable piece of academic

work with major consequences attached to its quality, the writing

process can be intimidating.

There are, however, practical strategies that can improve the quality

of your work and make the task less daunting.

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Writing as ‘Conversation’

The goal of your write-up is to share your research with others.

Think of your write-up as a communication process or a ‘conversation’

that demands the consideration of your readers.

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Knowing Your Audience

To write effectively you need to know your audience, including:

• who they are

• what they know

• what they are likely to find useful

• what their expectations are

• and what reactions they may have to your work.

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The ‘Standard’ Structure

Your write-up can follow a standard structure that generally includes:

1. introduction

2. literature review

3. methods

4. findings

5. conclusion

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Alternate Structures

Your write-up can also follow an alternate structure that may better

suit a particular projects’ aims and objectives.

While alternate structures can allow for more creative expression,

the standard format gives readers what they tend to expect.

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Write As You Go

Preparing research accounts and deliverables often involves a relatively

unpractised form of writing.

So it’s well worth ‘writing as you go’. In fact writing is now commonly

recommended as a practice that should be incorporated throughout the

research process.

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Writing as Analysis

Writing itself can be a form of analysis and can be central to the

construction and interpretation of meaning.

It can also be instrumental in the development of significant, relevant,

logical, and coherent storylines.

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Your ‘Story’

Your research write-up should unfold as an interesting story.

As the author of that story you need to:

• think of writing as a conversation

• become familiar with the craft

• find a voice

• develop a structure

• create a story line

• make convincing arguments

• get down to the business of writing and rewriting.

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Writing Purposively

Because each section of your write-up serves a different purpose, the

writing required within each section varies.

Overall, however, you will need to write purposively and convincingly.

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Seeking Feedback

Incorporation of relevant feedback requires both specific and

appropriate requests and a willingness to accept, if not welcome,

criticality.

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Drafting and Redrafting

Moving from first to final draft is a multistage process that sees you

working systematically through the development of:

• logic and argument

• coherence and consistency

• fluency and readability

• and finally copy editing.

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Dissemination

The ultimate goal of any research project is to add to a body of

knowledge.

Once your project is complete, it’s worth thinking about broader

dissemination, including:

• attending conferences

• giving presentations

• and writing/submitting papers.

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Core Book

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. 6th ed. , New York: Routledge

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The End

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