Revision of the course
Dr Ayaz Afsar
1
Topics of the courseWe have covered the following topics in this course:
1. The Nature of Research
2. Managing Time in Research
3. Getting Started
4. The Ethics of Educational and Social Research
5. Finding Information and Dealing with it
6. Literature Review
7. Research Methodology
8. Paradigms of Research
9. Sampling (1)
10. Sampling (2)
11. Sampling (3)
12. What is Plagiarism and how to avoid it?
2
13. Validity in Research
14. Reliability in Research
15. Historical and Documentary Research
16. Case Studies
17. Action Research
18. Accounts Narrative
19. Using Questionnaire (1)
20. Using Questionnaire (2)
21. Using Interviews (1)
3
22. Using Interviews (2)
23. Using Observation
24. Using Test (1)
25. Using Test (2)
26. Qualitative Data Analysis
27. Quantitative Data Analysis
28. Content Analysis and Grounded Theory
29. Narrative Analysis
30. Structuralism and analysis of literary tests
31. Using Corpus Linguistics in Research
4
Developing research questions or hypotheses
Hypothesis
It means to suppose, or suggest, something that can then be tested
or tried out. Suggested explanation for a phenomenon or a
reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between
multiple phenomena. Testing of a scientific hypothesis which will
have been based on extensions of scientific theories. Research question the type of research you are undertaking research processes – questions and hypotheses kinds of research Ensuring that research ethics are followed
5
The research process
(a) problem/ experience/ observation/ interest in a more scientific or social hypothesis, does this happen? What if this
was tried? It is expected that if this happens then this will happen, let us see …….
investigation and experimentation to test the hypothesis
(b) asking a research question – looks at effect of, interactions,
interpretations, how and why things happen and work (or not), how they might …. and so on
constructing knowledge and believing that knowledge is constructed rather than trying to prove it and believing it is provable, the world knowable and fixable
searching literature and engaging your own ideas and work in dialogue with theorists and experts
development of research design, choice of methodology/ies and the methods, vehicles that help you ask and address your question.
6
Both forms of research therefore involve
data gathering
data analysis and interpretation of the findings
confirmation or disapproval of the hypothesis
or
addressing or answering the question
producing conclusions
advancing our understanding and our awareness of the interpretations of
meaning in the field, as well as our knowledge
7
Stating your title
It is important that the title makes a statement or outlines an area of
study that can be explored, opened up, questioned. Suggest an area, an
idea, a part of a field of study that can be questioned; make a
suggestion or propose an innovation; and suggest that you will check for
its viability and success. Say all you can find out about, kind of title,
excite, suggest scope for enquiry and reflection, and indicate that it is
complex and ‘meaty’ or sufficiently extensive for your exploration.
8
Research questions
Research focus and question prompts
Key stages – developing a hypothesis or research questions
State the research problem or issue or question: introduction – nature of
problem, why it is important, how research will contribute to its solution
State the research question or hypothesis, in the form of an interrogative
question asking the relationship between variables, phenomena, events,
and definitions of terms
Asking research questions – setting out to solve problem
9
Operationalising’ a concept
Asking questions about a concept or an idea – moving further
Data, categories, theme, patterns, difference between elements explored
and discovered in relation to asking your question, elements of
knowledge, your findings, interpret your data, time frame, field by finding
out about numbers of students, study habits, developed work-related
skills, hypotheses (to be tested) or questions, relationship between the
variables of gender and subject choice, location of universities and
numbers of students.
10
Boundaries and gaps Boundaries
Your research area and question your ‘slice of the cake’
Boundaries issues and areas you are now exploring
Whole cake (whole field or subject area): someone else can ask questions about or explore this area, or you might, later.
11
From topic to title
Keep it tight and properly boundaries – your ‘slice of the cake’: others
can ask other questions and explore other areas and issues
Do not set up a purely descriptive dissertation/thesis
Set yourself
a problem, or
a set of critical questions, or
a set of contrasts (for example, contrasting arguments about or
approaches to …..)
You are contributing to ongoing debates and entering a dialogue in the
academic community
12
Stages of asking the research question Topic – fascination – work directive or development
Research question – asking a question problematises and focuses your interests
Gaps: What has already been asked and discovered in relation to this area? How? Where can my work fit in and add new knowledge and meaning?
Ensure it addresses a gap in knowledge. Ensure it is significant – sufficiently important for the level (MA, MPhil,
PhD etc.) of the research.
Boundaries: Decide on which elements to focus and what to leave for later (either for
yourself or others).
13
Summary
Turning fascinations, directives, topics, broad areas of interest into
research questions
Identifying suitable and appropriate, important and significant ‘gaps’ in
knowledge, so the research to address these is worth carrying out
Identifying what kind of research this will be
Identifying what the research cannot or will not cover, that is, the
boundaries (for someone else to address, or the researcher to look at
later)
Examples of moving forward, through focus on area of interest, to a
workable research question and design of study.
14
Research Methodologies
Choosing research methodologies Methodology Methods Methodology Ontology Epistemology Methodology affects: the research questions you ask the kinds of research you carry out the methods used the modes of analysis used on your data what you can argue as findings from your data
15
Positivistic paradigm Concerned with hypotheses
testing Uses large samples Data are highly specific and
precise Produces quantitative data High reliability Low validity Generalises from sample to
population
Postpositivistic paradigm Concerned with generating
theories Uses small samples Data are rich and subjective
Produces qualitative data Reliability is low Validity is high Generalises from one setting
to another
16
Positivism
Interpretivism
Constructivism
Structuralism
Poststructuralism
Postmodernism
17
Research approaches
Research approaches – which are yours?
Theoretical exploration Reflection on experience Empirical research Ethnographic Experimental Descriptive Exploratory Predictive Explanatory Practitioner – and/ or action – related Creative
18
Ethics and Confidentiality
Typical procedures and their history
Ethics in research
Example
If the research involves contact with, observation of, or collection
and storage of confidential information about human subjects, then
you may need ethics approval. Complete the following questionnaire
and then follow the accompanying flow-chart to help you decide.
Does the study involve participants who are unable to give informed
consent (e.g. children, people with learning disabilities, unconscious
patients)?
19
Will participants be presented with painful stimuli or high intensities of
auditory, visual, electrical or other stimuli?
Is there any foreseeable risk of physical, social or psychological harm to
a participant arising from the procedure?
Will deception of participants be necessary during the study?
Will the study involve more than a minimal invasion of privacy, or
accessing confidential information about people without their
permission?
20
Revising ethics in practice
Before you fill out an ethics form consider:
Will participants agree to take part? How are you asking them?
Can you share information and results with them?
How can you protect their interests?
How can you protect yourself?
Are there or could be any personal issues of access, interpretation, etc?
How can you manage these? Give and take advice.
How are you managing the information and data? Storing data
Analysing data drawing conclusions – how are ethics issues involved here?
What happens to your research afterwards? Are there any ethics issues
here?
21
Using qualitative and quantitative research methods together
This course has considered research methodologies based on
worldviews, and looked at the ways in which you might approach
your research, the methods you might use, in relation to the
methodology you are using.
22
23
The Quantitative Tradition
•The quantitative tradition is based on a belief that the study of society is
no different than the scientific study of any other element of our world.
•It premises scientific method, hypothesis testing, deductive logic,
objectivity and quantification.
24
Hypothetico-deductive Method
•Involves hypothesis testing through collection and analysis of quantitative
data gathered through experimental design or survey research.
25
Experimentation
•Experiments explore cause and effect by manipulating independent
variables to see if there is a corresponding effect on a dependent
variable.
•Pure experimentation requires controlled environments and randomly
assigned control groups (not always possible in social science
experiments often conducted in the field rather than a lab).
26
Studying A Population
Exploring a population involves building an understanding of
knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) related to a particular topic
or issue.
Two broad methodological strategies are to:
1. explore existing data
2. generate primary data – primarily through survey research.
27
The Qualitative Tradition
The qualitative tradition critiques quantitative assumptions and
premises inductive logic, subjectivity, multiple truths, the political
nature of research, and the value of depth over quantity.
Qualitative research strategies for achieving credibility
include thoroughness, i.e. saturation, crystallization, prolonged
engagement, persistent observation, broad representation and
peer review, and confirmation, i.e. triangulation, member
checking, and full explication of method.
28
Ethnography
Exploring a cultural group by:
• discovering
• understanding
• describing
• and interpreting a way of life from the point of view of its
participants.
Ethnography is reliant on prolonged engagement, persistent
observation and analysis that demands a high level of reflexivity.
29
Ethnography
Because ethnographic studies involve ‘immersion’ ethnographers
need to carefully manage their own subjectivities and thoughtfully
negotiate their relationship with the ‘researched’.
30
Phenomenology
Exploring phenomena involves generating descriptions of lived
phenomena as they present themselves in direct experience.
Descriptions emerge through a dialogic process, and are
synthesized to offer a range of distinct possibilities for the experience
of a particular phenomenon.
While phenomenology offers a way to study phenomena,
something often neglected in the social science literature on
phenomenology is that it can be thick, divergent, and not ‘methods’-
oriented.
31
Ethnomethodology
Ethnomethodology explores the methods individuals use to make
sense of their social world and accomplish their daily actions.
Ethnomethodologists search for the collaborative and constantly
emerging nature of interaction through exploration of breaching
experiments, building of shared interpretations and interpretative
miscues.
32
Ethnomethodology:
recognizes the interpretative work of the individual
offers a method for exploring ‘how’ questions
allows comparisons of divergent cultural norms
and allows exploration of specific forms of interaction.
However, it can be critiqued for not addressing ‘significant’
questions, and being too focused on verbal aspects of
communication.
33
Feminist Approaches
While not a distinct methodology, feminist research is premised on the
belief that traditional ‘rules’ of research are imbued with unacknowledged
and unaddressed male bias.
Feminist researchers argue that research should be committed to:
◦ the empowerment of women
◦ overcoming inequity
◦ diverse representation of humanity
◦ empowerment of marginalized voices
◦ lessening the distinction between researcher and researched
◦ searching for multiple, subjective and partial truths.34
Mixed Methodology
“Mixed” studies traverse traditional divides and can help you capitalize on
the best of both traditions while overcoming their shortcomings.
“Mixed”approaches can be premised in the quantitative tradition with
acceptance of qualitative data; the qualitative tradition with acceptance of
quantitative data; or be driven by the questions themselves.
35
Mixed Methodology
Challenges associated with mixed approaches include:
◦ needing to be familiar with and skilled in two traditions
◦ being mindful of overambitious design
◦ and not having the necessary time, resources, or supervisory support for a multi-mixed method approach.
36
Writing a Research Proposal
What do you want to research? How you can draw up a good proposal
Abstract
Introduction
Theoretical perspectives/literature survey
Methodology and methods
Design of the study including what research is carried out when and how;
what analysis is carried out when and how
Timeline of work to be completed
Some sense of the outline of the draft chapters
Justification for the level of the award
Biography of major sources
37
Drawing up your proposal Abstract Introduction Research question Gaps in the current knowledge Boundaries Theoretical perspectives/literature survey Conceptual framework Methodologies and methods Research design – design of study Decide on methods and vehicles Decide on timeline Decide on population/primary sources Decide on data collection and analysis Ethical considerations Outline plan of study Justification for the level of the award Bibliography – primary references 38
Draft proposal Indicative title Introduction – aim and focus of the study Questions Sub-questions Context for the research Theoretical perspectives and interpretations Research methodology and methods – design Research methods Research design (stages of your work – over time) Ethical considerations Outline plan of study Timeline for activities in the research from ……………………. to ……………………….. from ……………………. to ………………………. from ……………………. to ……………………….. from ……………………. to ……………………….. from ……………………. to ……………………….. Draft chapters and areas Justification for level of award Bibliography primary texts 39
We have considered how you go about putting together a research
proposal. At all levels, such proposals are needed, sometimes in a
formal (PhD, MPhil) and sometimes a shorter or less formal shape (MA).
Writing them helps you to be clear about how your research questions
and conceptual framework (of ideas, arguments, theories and methods)
run throughout your proposed research. For MPhil/PhD most
universities demand a lengthy proposal (about four pages), and this
could take up to six months to refine and perfect.
40
You will be researching alongside this writing, but probably will have your
proposal agreed (and probably changed a little or a lot) by a research
degrees committee before your are formally and finally registered.
Sometimes you might have to resubmit the proposal. This is perfectly
normal. You need to get it right, as it informs all you do – so don’t be too
upset if it is sent back for rewriting – it will encourage you to clearer,
more coherent, and more likely to produce a successful piece of
research which matters.
41
The Challenge of Writing Up
42
The Challenge
Because your write-up will be a considerable piece of academic
work with major consequences attached to its quality, the writing
process can be intimidating.
There are, however, practical strategies that can improve the quality
of your work and make the task less daunting.
43
Writing as ‘Conversation’
The goal of your write-up is to share your research with others.
Think of your write-up as a communication process or a ‘conversation’
that demands the consideration of your readers.
44
Knowing Your Audience
To write effectively you need to know your audience, including:
• who they are
• what they know
• what they are likely to find useful
• what their expectations are
• and what reactions they may have to your work.
45
The ‘Standard’ Structure
Your write-up can follow a standard structure that generally includes:
1. introduction
2. literature review
3. methods
4. findings
5. conclusion
46
Alternate Structures
Your write-up can also follow an alternate structure that may better
suit a particular projects’ aims and objectives.
While alternate structures can allow for more creative expression,
the standard format gives readers what they tend to expect.
47
Write As You Go
Preparing research accounts and deliverables often involves a relatively
unpractised form of writing.
So it’s well worth ‘writing as you go’. In fact writing is now commonly
recommended as a practice that should be incorporated throughout the
research process.
48
Writing as Analysis
Writing itself can be a form of analysis and can be central to the
construction and interpretation of meaning.
It can also be instrumental in the development of significant, relevant,
logical, and coherent storylines.
49
Your ‘Story’
Your research write-up should unfold as an interesting story.
As the author of that story you need to:
• think of writing as a conversation
• become familiar with the craft
• find a voice
• develop a structure
• create a story line
• make convincing arguments
• get down to the business of writing and rewriting.
50
Writing Purposively
Because each section of your write-up serves a different purpose, the
writing required within each section varies.
Overall, however, you will need to write purposively and convincingly.
51
Seeking Feedback
Incorporation of relevant feedback requires both specific and
appropriate requests and a willingness to accept, if not welcome,
criticality.
52
Drafting and Redrafting
Moving from first to final draft is a multistage process that sees you
working systematically through the development of:
• logic and argument
• coherence and consistency
• fluency and readability
• and finally copy editing.
53
Dissemination
The ultimate goal of any research project is to add to a body of
knowledge.
Once your project is complete, it’s worth thinking about broader
dissemination, including:
• attending conferences
• giving presentations
• and writing/submitting papers.
54
Core Book
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. 6th ed. , New York: Routledge
55
The End
56