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Rising critical emission of air pollutants from renewable biomass based cogeneration from the
sugar industry in India
View the table of contents for this issue, or go to the journal homepage for more
2015 Environ. Res. Lett. 10 095002
(http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/10/9/095002)
Home Search Collections Journals About Contact us My IOPscience
1 CRER,National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan2 Indian Institute of TropicalMeteorology, Pune-8, India3 Asia Center for Air PollutionResearch,Niigata, Japan
Keywords: renewable biomass, cogeneration, bagasse, emissions, air pollution, sugarmills
AbstractIn the recent past, the emerging India economy is highly dependent on conventional as well asrenewable energy to deal with energy security. Keeping the potential of biomass and its plentifulavailability, the Indian government has been encouraging various industrial sectors to generate theirown energy from it. The Indian sugar industry has adopted andmade impressive growth in bagasse (arenewable biomass, i.e. left after sugercane is crushed) based cogeneration power to fulfil their energyneed, as well as to export a big chunk of energy to grid power. Like fossil fuel, bagasse combustion alsogenerates various critical pollutants. This article provides thefirst ever estimation, current status andoverview ofmagnitude of air pollutant emissions from rapidly growing bagasse based cogenerationtechnology in Indian sugarmills. The estimated emission from theworld’s second largest sugarindustry in India for particulatematter, NOX, SO2, COandCO2 is estimated to be 444±225 Gg yr−1,188±95 Gg yr−1, 43±22Gg yr−1, 463±240Gg yr−1 and 47.4±9 Tg yr−1, respectively in 2014.The studies also analyze and identify potential hot spot regions across the country and explore thepossible further potential growth for this sector. Thisfirst ever estimation not only improves theexisting national emission inventory, but is also useful in chemical transportmodeling studies, as wellas for policymakers.
Introduction
Energy is a basic fundamental need to drive industrialactivities and development. Rising demand of energyfollowed by its adverse impact on environment due tolarge use of fossil fuels drive the need for us to harnessrenewable energy across the globe. ‘Biomass’ refers toorganic matter stored energy during photosynthesisand is the fourth largest extensively used renewableenergy source after fossil fuels, such as coal, oil andnatural gas. Biomass is one of the most plentiful andwell-utilized renewable energy sources contributesnearly 10% of world’s primary energy supply mixwhich is likely to rise to 30 per cent by 2050(International Energy Agency 2011, Macqueen andKorhaliller 2011). So, biomass is being promotedworldwide as a means to provide additional energysecurity to nations highly depending on fossil fuel(Gheewala 2011). India is one of the fastest growing
economies in South Asia and has been facing the bigchallenge of energy security. The government of Indiais encouraging all forms of energy to deal the wideningenergy deficit due to rising industrialization, urbaniza-tion and infrastructure development. Like many othercountries, India has been promoting energy fromrenewable biomass. Bagasse is an important renewablebiomass. Nearly 1.34 Giga Tons (GT) of sugarcane in1999 was produced around the globe, which corre-sponds to 375 million tons (MT) of bagasse (Daset al 2004). Bagasse is burned in cogeneration technol-ogy, and is a concept which produces two differentforms of energy by using a single source of fuel. Acrossthe globe, biomass based cogeneration has become awidely used attractive alternative to the conventionalfossil based energy due to its low capital investment,heat generating option, low fuel consumption andassociated minimum pollution compared to fossilbased power. The cumulative potential of renewable
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energy from bagasse in India is highlighted by Purohitand Michaelowa (2007). The potential of biomassbased power generation could be approximately23 000 megawatt (MW), whereas bagasse alone couldcontribute nearly 5000 MW (Ministry of New andRenewable Energy 2015, Energy Statistic 2013). This islikely to increase to 9700MW by 2017 (KPMGReport 2007).
India is the second largest producer of sugarcanein the world, next to Brazil. The sugar industry is thesecond largest agro processing industry after cottontextiles in India (USAID 1993). Growing demand ofenergy has put India in an energy deficit, driving a risein power costs, causing interruptions to grid power,etc. These are the grim realities behind continuouspower shortage in India. Renewable energy technolo-gies are the best alternative to conventional andnuclear energy. India has plentiful renewable energysources. Traditionally, rural people are highly depen-dent on biomass for cooking. In order to fulfil the ris-ing energy demand, under the BOOT (build, own,operate and transfer) model initiative from the gov-ernment (Central Electricity Regulatory Commis-sion 2008), sugar industries are encouraged togenerate their own energy need using renewable bio-mass. In recent years, bagasse has become one of themost important biomass energy sources in the sugarprocessing industry, through cogeneration powertechnology. Sugar industries need both electricalenergy as well as stream (thermal energy) for theiroperation. The combustion of bagasse also releases airpollutants. However, the environmental benefit ofbagasse burning is very important due to its relativelylow emissions compared to conventional fossil fuels.The present study provides a first ever estimation and
overview of critical emission from rapidly growingbagasse based cogeneration (BBC) power in Indiansugar mills (ISM). The magnitude of emission fromthis sector has not been estimated nor analyzed before.We estimated some of the important air pollutants (i.e.particulate matter (PM), NOX, SO2 and CO) and CO2
from the world’s second largest sugar industry for2014. The study quantifies and identifies the emissionhot spot regions across the country and will contributeto improve emission inventories used for global/regional chemical transport modeling for air qualitystudies and other applications (Pawar et al 2012 andChate et al 2013).
Activity data andmethodology
Sugar industry in IndiaNearly 70% of the Indian population depends onagricultural practices for their livelihood. Sugarcane isthe world’s largest crop grown in the tropical andextra-tropical belt. In the recent past, India hasbecome the world’s second largest producer of sugar-cane with approximately 350 million tonnes (MT) in2014. The spatial distribution of the sugar producingstates is depicted in figure 1(a). Sugarcane is mostlyproduced in a few states like Utter Pradesh,Maharash-tra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and Haryana,which contributes more than 90% of the national totalproduction. ISM is confined of approximately 650sugarmills where nearly 582mills are operational as of2014 (Indian Sugar Mills Association 2015). Thepresent total sugarcane crushing capacity of all mills isapproximately 2.3 million tonnes crushed per day(TCD). Bagasse has a net calorific value of around 8–9MJ kg−1. Cogeneration is a cost effective technology
Figure 1. (a) State-wide sugarcane production and spatial location of BBC Indian sugarmills, (b) Its capacity inMWby 2014.
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to generate electricity along with thermal energy(steam), simultaneously. This technology has beenadopted by Indian sugar mills with a crushing capacitymore than 1500 TCD. There is a network of nearly 264cogeneration based sugar mills with a combinedcapacity of around 1.32 million TCD as of 2014,mainly confined over major sugarcane producingstates (SPSs) as shown in figure 1(b). It is noticed fromfigure 1(a) that these sugar mills are not uniformlydistributed across India.
Bagasse based cogeneration powerThe activity data for present studies are collected fromnumerous sources like government reports, scientificreports, individual sugar mill websites, publications,etc. Bagasse is the waste product from sugar processesand has a moisture content of approximately 48–50%by weight, responsible for combustion efficiency (BioEnergy Consult 2014). The typical characteristic ofbagasse is given in table 1. In the past few years, Indiahas had tremendous growth in bagasse based power.The total installed capacity of BBC sugar plants inIndia has increased from 484MW in 2003 to5614MW in 2014. There has been a ten fold growth inthe last decade (2004–2014). Until 2014, only 57%(1.32 million TCD) of the total capacity was utilized togenerate 5614MW of renewable energy. The spatiallocation of these sugar mills with capacity is shown infigure 1(b). It is clearly seen that the highest sugarproducing states have major BBC mills. Figure (2)shows the state level total BBC mills capacity. UtterPradesh has the most bagasse based produced energyfollowed by Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.Nearly 60% of energy generated is being pumped intothe grid power, and the remaining 40% is beingutilized by sugar factories to fulfil their daily energyconsumption. In the sugar industry, efficient technol-ogy could save up to 35% of fuel use (Purohit andMichaelowa 2007, Smouse et al 1998).
Most large captive sugar mills are built over theseparticular regions for easy access to farmers. The aver-age operating days for sugar mills is around 150 daysper year (Indian SugarMills Association 2015, Singh etal 2007), but the bagasse generated during crushingcould be stored and easily used for fuel in plants foranother 50 days in a year. The bagasse to sugarcaneratio could vary from 23% to 37% (Mishra et al 2014and Quintero et al 2008) but we have considered 31%
in the present study. India is capable of producing upto 110 MT of bagasse. In the present study, the exist-ing cogeneration sugar mills produce approximately63.5 MT of bagasse out of 210 MT of sugarcane cru-shed. It is also seen that nearly 10% of total bagasseproduced in country is used as material in paper andother industries.
Efficiency of energy production BBC dependsmainly on two factors i.e. technology used and moist-ure content. Higher temperatures and pressures arecritical in order to increase the efficiency and energyoutput (Purohit and Michaelowa 2007, Mishraet al 2004). In general, Indian cogeneration sugar millsadopt a wide range of technologies to achieve effi-ciencies up to 95% in case of private mills and up to65% in case of government and cooperative mills(Indian Sugar Mills Association 2015). Some of theimportant extensively used technologies in the Indiansugar industry are back-pressure stream turbine,extraction-cum-condensing route and condensingroute based on a dual fuel system etc.
Emission estimationA ‘bottom up’ approach has been adopted in thepresent study. All emissions were estimated on thebasis of activated data at individual sugar mill level.Sugar mills are considered as stationary large pointsources. Activity data like exact geographical location,plant level bagasse use, capacity of cogeneration powerplant and corresponding tentative days of operationare few important parameters collected for each sugarmill. It is assumed that uncertainty in above activitydata is limited as compared to emission factor (EF).The present emission estimation is similar to proce-dure adopted two earlier paper (Ohara et al 2007, Sahuet al 2015). It is assumed that 10% of total bagasseproduced from industry is used in other industries.The total emission for bagasse used in sugar industrythus has been calculated using following equation (1)which is the product of activity, and the emissionfactor depending on emission controlmeasured.
å= ´ ( )TO FU EF 1ji
a
i j
Where, a=no. of sugarmills
TOj=Total emission for specific pollutant (j)
FUi=Bagasse amount for specific sugarmill (i)
EFj=Emission factor for specific pollutant (j)
As per the 2011 census, Indian geography is divi-ded into 36 major states and union territories whichare further divided into 672 districts.We havemappedthe state and district boundaries using the geo-graphical information system (GIS) environment. Thelocations of each sugar mills i.e. LPS are identify andmapped. The final emissions are estimated at0.25°×0.25° resolution for use inmodelling studies.
Table 1.Typical char-acteristics of Bagasse.
Fixed carbon 11.1%
Volatile 35.9%
Moisture 50%
Ash 3%
Source: (JanghathaikulandGheewala 2006).
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Environ. Res. Lett. 10 (2015) 095002 SK Sahu et al
Emission factorEF is a very sensitive parameter to the emissioninventory development process, because a change inEF a certain factor could change the entire sector bythe same factor. Bagasse is a biomass of varyingcomposition, heating value and consistency. The EFfor bagasse could vary with time and geography. In alimited literature, the given EF for bagasse is adivergent range. The uncertainty associated with EFmay be high. Unlike EF for other anthropogenicsectors, EF for bagasse combustion is very limited. It isdifficult to get an appropriate EF suit to the Indiansugar industry. We found some general scenarios ofemission control in sugar mills in India. As per theCentral Pollution Control Board (CPCB) complystandard, all sugar mills are supposed to install ESP/bag filter/high efficient scrubbers to control theparticulate matter emission (<150 mg Nm−3), but itseen that only 43 out of 118 sugar mills complied withthe standards, indicating there is lack of properemission control in various mills (CPCB 2006). It isassumed in the present study that emission controls inISM are not good enough to control emission due to alack of proper and regular maintenance. The emissionfactor in Kg MWh−1 adopted by Janghathaikul andGheewala (2006) gives unrealistic CO2 and SO2 emis-sion over India, so we did not consider this for thepresent study. In connection to adopted EFs, we haveadopted EFs which could be applied to availableactivity data for Indian sugar industry. Our firstpriority was to have EFs developed indigenously (i.e.Gadi et al 2003) followed by selection of EFs based on
fuel consumption pattern rather than power con-sumption pattern. Keeping the CPCB report in mind,we adopted EFs which is little higher side of availableEFs. The EF provided by Quintero et al (2008) appearsto be the more realistic one in terms of units (i.e. gkg−1) applicable to our activity data. We have adoptedan EF based on our best judgment and suitable toIndian condition. The adopted EF in the present studyis tabulated in table 2.
Result and discussion
The first ever estimated PM, NOX, SO2, CO and CO2
emissions from bagasse used in ISM during 2014 were444 Gg yr−1, 188 Gg yr−1, 43 Gg yr−1, 463 Gg yr−1
and 47.4 Tg yr−1, respectively. The spatial distributionof PM and NOx are shown in figures 3(a) and (b),respectively. It is clearly observed from figure 3(a) thata high emission of the order of 1000–9000 tons yr−1 isfound over the confined region over Indo-Gangatic-plain (IGP), Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Naduand some parts of Andhra Pradesh etc. High pollutionloading over the IGP region is always a matter ofdiscussion among international/national researchers(Kaushar et al 2009 and Sahu et al 2012). The presentfinding also indicate that bagasse is another emergingsource of pollution over IGP. IGP region, whichaccounts for 15% of Indian geography and nearly 440million inhabitants, is responsible for 34% (149 Ggyr−1) of PM emission from BBC. Relatively loweremission hot spots varying from 600–2000 tonsyr−1are well scattered over the north-western part of
Figure 2. State-wise BBCmills capacity in 2014 (MW).
0.18±0.02a 2.57±0.04a 937.0±9.0a 12.39±0.08a Irfan et al 2014
0.76 3.3±0.9 840.65 8.14 7.8 PresentWork
a g/kg−1,#NO2 asNOX, $ (kg/MWh), ( ) indicateNO2 instead ofNOX and PM instead of TSP.
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Environ. Res. Lett. 10 (2015) 095002 SK Sahu et al
the IGP region (i.e. adjoining part of northernHaryanaand Punjab), the southern part ofMaharashtra, north-ern Karnataka and amajor part of Tamil Nadu etc.Wecan also see some more intense emission hot spots ofaround 5000–9000 tons yr−1 situated over the westerntip of Utter Pradesh and northern part of Karnataka.Especially high captive private sugar mills over saidabove regions are among the best capacity utilizationmills in India. Moreover, bagasse is mostly used togenerate energy rather than for other purposes, whichleads to the export of surplus power to state/nationalgrid, therefore is a profitable business. We canconclude that emission from this sector is not so wellscattered across India due to the uneven distributionof sugarcane production. In terms of district levelanalysis, this indicates that just the top ten districtshave the highest cogeneration mills of nearly1956MW contributing to nearly 35% of the totalemission from this sector. Districts like Belgaum,Bagalkot, Solapur, Gadag, Dharmapuri, Rangareddi,Dharwad, Hardoi, Muzffarnagar and Bijnor areresponsible for 25.8 Gg yr−1, 25.1 Gg yr−1, 19.5 Ggyr−1,17.4 Gg yr−1, 12.1 Gg yr−1, 11.4 Gg yr−1, 11.3 Ggyr−1, 11.1 Gg yr−1, 10.4 Gg yr−1 and 9.9 Gg yr−1 of PMemission, respectively.
The state levels of bagasse used and correspondingemissions of various pollutants has been tabulated intable 3. In IGP, Utter Pradesh is a major source ofemissions due to its intense use of bagasse. Although,Utter Pradesh has the highest BBC, it is also the largestcontributer to total emission. Still Utter Pradesh pro-duces comparatively much less emission compared toother states like Karnataka, Maharashtra and TamilNadu where sugarcane production is much less com-pared to Utter Pradesh. This indicates that Utter Pra-desh has much more potential to utilize bagasse forenergy. Similarly, Maharashtra, Bihar and Andhra
Pradesh could even produce more energy out of avail-able bagasse. It is seen that at present, Karnataka andTamil Nadu are able to produce nearly 1423MW and739MW of renewable energy from 35 732MT and33 919MT of sugarcane, respectively. These two statescould utilize bagasse for energy in a more efficient waydrive. Until 2014, only 57% of capacity was utilized togenerate 5614MW of renewable energy. We foundthat the efficiency and utilization of capacities of sugarmills over Utter Pradesh, Maharashtra, and AndhraPradesh are underutilized compared tomills in Karna-taka and Tamil Nadu. This could be due to lack ofpenetration of co-generation technology in these areaswhich may link to financial issues or government sub-sidies. We are expecting more sugar mills over thisregion to adopt the present technology for energy pro-duction. Moreover, if you follow the KPMG Report(2007) of a 50% growth in sugar production from19.5 MT in 2007 to 28.5 MT in 2017 then the effi-ciency and capacity of co-generation mills is expectedto improve in the next couple of years. Another5000MW of bagasse based energy is achievable in thenext couple of years. In the future, states like UtterPradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra will con-tribute to renewable energy growth. We can concludethat states like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu havereached saturation point and have comparatively littlepotential to generate further renewable energy frombagasse. Although Bagasse generates considerableamounts of pollutants, it is the best alternative to uti-lize biomass to generate power and reduce the depen-dency on conventional fossil based energy. A greenrenewable energy like solar and wind could furtherreduce the emission from this emerging sugar sector.Adopting an improved emission control technologylike wet scrubber could reduce the PM emission up to90% and will reduce other gaseous pollutants too,
Figure 3.Emission of (a)PMand (b)NOx fromBBC in India.
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significantly. In the coming years, the contribution ofbagasse based emission could be increased to 6%of thenational total if other alternative energy sources arenot adopted in the sugar industry.
In the present emission inventory, EFs are themajor source of uncertainty, which could be as high oforder of 2. The fuel activity data and capacity haveminimum uncertainty which could be of order of±10%. Keeping the present emission control scenar-ios of the sugar industry in our mind, we have alreadyconsidered the higher side of EFs as well as EFs devel-oped indigenously. We do believe that the uncertaintywill be reduced to greater extent by considering theabove factor in our present estimation. For calculationof uncertainty, we have considered EFs provided byresearchers with minimum inconsistency and similarcategories in terms of units. This will not only reducethe uncertainty range but also increase accuracy ofemission estimation. The calculated uncertainty rangePM, NOX, SO2, CO and CO2 would be 444±225 Ggyr−1, 188±95 Gg yr−1, 43±22 Gg yr−1, 463±240Gg yr−1 and 47.4±9 Tg yr−1, respectively.
We compared our present estimation with nationalemissions to see the relative contribution of the presentsector to the national total. We found that present NOxemission contributed to nearly 2.5%of the national totalin 2011 (Sahu et al 2012) and nearly 2% of the nationaltotal estimated for 2008 (Kurokawa et al 2013). In thecase of PM, the emission accounts to 7% of the nationalPM estimation for 2008 (Kurokawa et al 2013). This PMemission could have been four times as big inmega citieslike Delhi and its surrounding region in 2010 (Sahuet al 2011). Although the magnitude of emissions issmall compared to the national total, the magnitude ofhot spots aremore confined over specific geography. Anaccurate spatial allocation of these emissions to emanatea particular region will have a much greater impact onair quality issues.
Conclusion
The objective of this first estimation of emissions fromthe Indian sugar industry, which is second largest in
world, has been achieved in the present work. Theemission of PM, NOX, SO2, CO and CO2 weredetermined to be 444±225 Gg yr−1, 188±95 Ggyr−1, 43±22 Gg yr−1, 463±240 Gg yr−1 and47.4±9 Tg yr−1, respectively. All potential emissionhot spots were identified and analyzed. The presentsector was found to be another emerging renewablebiomass sector responsible for detoriating air qualityover the IGP. The magnitude of bagasse relatedemission is very intense over some confined smallerregions, which need proper mitigation to curb thepollution. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are two stateswhich have optimized the use of bagasse resourcesmost effectively. It is found that there is still a hugepotential to generate another 5000MW renewableenergy from bagasse. The emission is likely to doublein the coming couple of years if no action is taken inthis direction. If better emission reduction technologylikewet scrubber is implemented then emissions couldbe reduced up to 90% in case of particulate matter andwill reduce gaseous pollutants significantly from thepresent level. The results of this study are importantnot only from a policy point of view, but are also usefulto improve the national emission inventory in terms ofpinpointing emerging emission sources. Apart frompollution point of view, these cogeneration mills areable to utilize the plentiful available biomass resourcesin the country and help the nation to deal with energydeficit and reduce dependency on conventional fossilbased energy.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the EnvironmentResearch and Technology Development Fund (S12) oftheMinistry of the Environment, Japan.
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