Rolf Toman - The Art Of Gothic.doc

8/11/2019 Rolf Toman - The Art Of Gothic.doc

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France. Initially confined to the cathedrals and the mostimportant abbeys of this regin, it was soon to be regarded

as a model for the rest of France and finally for Europe as a

whole. The new style was not solely confined to the sacral

domain, but rather increasingly invaded the secular and

prvate spheres. Gothic is the first arthistorical epoch from

which art wor!s of all genres have survived. "rominent

among these remar!able wor!s are the numerous richlyvaried cathedrals, the abbeys and town churches with their

se#uences of sculptures, colorful windows, wall paintings,

gold wor! and boo! illuminations. $longside these, the

diverse town sites, the castles and palaces with their elabrate and artistic furnishings, continu% to ama&e the modern

viewer.

The present volume describes the development of Gothic in

all its diversity. 'eginning with the initial flourishing ofGothic architecture in France, the boo! traces its early

reception in neighboring countries. Individual essays are

devoted to the specific formal development of Gothic

architecture in England, the (Germanspea!ing countries,(

Italy, )pain, "ortugal, northern and eastern Europe as well

as te*ts on late Gothic architecture in France and the


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The $rt of

GOTHICA r c h i t e c t u r e S c u l p t u r e P a i nt i n gEdited by 4olf Toman

or@ "hotography by $chim 'ednor&

K O N E M A N N

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"ro/ect coordinator and producer7 4olf Toman, Esp%ra&a0 'irgit

'eyer, -ologne0 'arbara 'orngsser, "ars "hotography7 $chim'ednor&, -ologne >iagrams7 "ablo de la 4iestra, Darburg "ictureresearch7 'arbara in&, )ylvia Dayer -over design7 -arol )toffel

5riginal title7Die Kunst der GotikI)'+ ;2;;883;2C

B 933C for the English edition=5+ED$++, an imprint of Tndem 6erlag Gmb?, =nigswinter

Translation from Germn7 -hristian von $rnim, "al $ston,?elen $t!ins, "eter 'arton, )andra ?arperEnglishlanguage editor7 -hris DurrayDanaging editor7 'ettina =aufmann"ro/ect coordinator7 Hac!ie >obbyne"roofreader7 )hayne DitchellTypesetting7 Goodfellow Egan "ublishing Danagement, -ambridge

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-ontents

4olf Toman

"ablo de la 4iestra

'runo =lein

'arbara 'orngsser

Kte Engel

-hristian Freigang

"eter =urmann

-hristian Freigang

"ablo de la 4iestra

"ablo de la 4iestra

Ehrenfried =luc!ert

'arbara 'orngsser

'arbara 'orngsser

$lic! Dcean

'arbara 'orngsser

Kwe Geese

4egine $begg

Ehrenfried =luc!ert

Ehrenfried =luc!ert

Ehrenfried =luc!ert

Ehrenfried =luc!ert

Ehrenfried =luc!ert

Ehrenfried =luc!ert

Ehrenfried =luc!ert

Ehrenfried =luc!ert

'rigitte =urmann)chwar&

Ehrenfried =luc!ert

?arald Aoltervon dem

=nesebec!

Introduction

Elements of 4eligious and )ecular Gothic $rchitecture

The 'eginnings of Gothic $rchitecture in France and its +eighbors

The -athar ?eresy in )outhern France

Gothic $rchitecture in England

Dedieval 'uilding "ractice

ate Gothic $rchitecture in France and the +etherlands

The "apal "alace in $vignon

Gothic $rchitecture of the (Germn ands(

Gothic $rchitecture in )candinavia and East-entral Europe

Dedieval -astles, =nights, and -ourtly ove

Gothic $rchitecture in Italy

Florence and )iena7 -ommunal 4ivalry

Dedieval -ities

ate Gothic $rchitecture in )pain and "ortugal

Gothic )culpture in France, Italy, Germany, and England

Gothic )culpture in )pain and "ortugal

Gothic "ainting

)ub/ectivity, 'eauty and +ature7 Dedieval Theories of $rt

$rchitectural Dotifs in "ainting $round 8C33

+arrative Dotifs in the Aor! of ?ans Demling

6isions of ?eaven and ?ell in the Aor! of ?ieronymus 'osch

Gold, ight and -olor7 =onrad Dit&

The >epictions of 6isions and 6isual "erception

The "ath to Individualism

Gothic )tained Glass

Dedieval earning and the $rts

Gothic Goldwor!

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'ourges, -athedral of )t.Ntienne,begun late 89th century$mbulatory

-hartres, -athedral of +otre>ame,begun after the fire of 88


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in his ownpoverty atnightwithoutbeing awarethat outside,

whethernear or far,he toopossessedriches.(

In thisobservationfrom hisOpen

Diary

199!19"9,the Italianwriter Elio6ittorinie*presses acommonlonging foran idealworld, anintact world

in whichmeaning isimplicit.The 8


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element7his boo!oncathedralsis closelylin!ed, in

date and inphilosophy, with hisultraconservative wor! onculturalcriticism,

Art inCrisis( #he

LostCenterQ8


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)t.>enis, former 'enedictine abbeychurch, detail of stainedglass windowwith $bbot )uger at the feet of the 6irgin

in +a&i Germany, and seemingly e*pressed in more civili&ed terms. In)edlmayrs summary of his deliberations on the origin of the Gothiccathedral we are told7 (For the complete structure of the cathedral, thenorth Germanic Q+ordic@ element provided the structural component,the s!eleton, as it were. The socalled -eltic QAestern@ element

provided the "oetic $nd the Dediterranean Q)outhern@ elementprovided the fully rounded, human component... ?istorically theseelements did not appear simultaneously during the construction of the

cathedral, but in this se#uence... The third element, however, wasalready in play from the beginning but initially superimposed on theothers and largely ineffective. 5nly after 8823 does it flourish,determining the classic phase of the cathedral, but from as early as89:3 onwards it was firmly suppressed again. The classic cathedral isthus one of the most magnificently successful fusions of the charactersof three peoples. In art it creates Frenchness, and in this very fusin isEuropean in the highest sense.( Today this biological, ethnic, and racialdelving orO as Ailhelm Aorringer named and practiced itOthisdelving into (the psyche of man!ind( in order to e*plain the (essenceof the cathedral( is considered obsolete.

$ ma/or obstacle in our attempt to understand the art and life of theDiddle $ges is the difficulty of putting ourselves into the intellectualand emotional world of the men and women of the period. The decisive

barrier to our understanding is presented by medieval -hristianity,which, embracing every aspect of life, completely determined thethin!ing and feeling of the period. Today we are even farther awayfrom this aspect of medieval life than the 4omantics were. This difficulty was noted by )edlmayr in his afterword published in 8enis. 5n this, at least, art historians are in agreement.

Abbot Suger of St.-Denis: Te Beginnings of Gotic Gothic is ofFrench origin. It emerged around 88C3 in the small !ingdom, whichalready bore the Same Francia, that occupied the rea between-ompi%gne and 'ourges, and that had "aris, the royal city, as its center.The territory on which the most impressive cathedrals in the newGothic style were to be built in #uic! succession was insignificantcompared with presentday France, and the power of the French !ingOthough not the prestigeOwas still slight. ?is political and economic

power too! second place to that of the du!es of +ormandy, who were at

the same time !ings of England, and also to


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that of his neighbors to the southwest and east, the counts of -hampagne. Ahat distinguished him from the other feudal lords, however,and gave him greater authority, was the sacred character conferred onhim when, at his coronation, he was anointed with holy oil.

This potential was something which )uger of )t.>enis Qca. 832888:8@, one of the leading figures of France in the 89th century, !new

how to e*ploit. $lthough of humble origin, he was a childhood friendof ouis 6I from the time of their common monastic upbringing in theabbey of )t.>enis, and he was a confidant, advisor and diplomat in theservice of both ouis 6I Q8832;1@ and ouis 6II Q88;123@. Ahenouis 6II and his #ueen too! part in the )econd -rusade from 88C1 to

88C< he appointed )uger his regent, a role )uger performed e*tremelywell. $s the mon! Aillelmus, )ugers biographer, reports, from thattime on )uger was !nown as (the father of the fatherland.( ?e made thestrengthening of the French monarchy his lifes wor!. $ware that thetemporal power of the French !ing was greatly restricted, he !new thatit was vital to increase the monarchys spiritual prestige. )ugers efforts

were aimed at e*actly this.Ahen he became abbot of )t.>enis in 8899, )uger, along with allhis other tas!s, doggedly pursued his dream of restoring the abbeysformer prestige by renovating the longneglected fabric of the church.The church had already been a royal burial place under the


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)t. 'ernard teaching in his monastery, from )ookof*ours of+tienne Chealier,ca. 8C:3L3-hantilly, Dus%e -onde

Derovingian dynasty, and under the -arolingians it had en/oyed theprestige of being one of the most important churches of the realm.

It was here, at a place important because of its historical significance, that $bbot )uger, through the wor! on his abbey Q88;1"CC@,

became the initiator of a new spatial order for church building. For thefirst time, and along with other innovative measures, he and hisarchitect closely united elements of 'urgundian architecture Qthe

pointed arch@ and +orman architecture Qrib vaults@. 'y doing so, he

became, in effect, the (creator of Gothic.(That this act, so important in art history, did not ta!e place in apolitical vacuum, and that it was at once religiously, aesthetically, andpolitically motivated, is made clear in more detail in the firstcontribution in this boo!, on the beginnings of Gothic architecture inFrance Qsee pages 9288:@. There 'runo =lein sets out the social,cultural, economic, and technical conditions that made it possible for)uger and his architect to cr%ate a new church architectureOan(architecture of light(Othat was to raise the observer (from thematerial to the immaterial.( It made it possible, a little later, for inno

vative architects, developing )ugers new concept of sacred architecture, to cr%ate the great Gothic cathedrals.'etween 8823 and 8913, the end of ?igh Gothic, about 23 cathe

drals were built in France alone. $nd this was /ust the urban episcopalbuildings, not including the far more numerous restorations of othertypes of church such as abbeys and collegiate and parish churches. Itwas in these cathedrals and episcopal churches that the new Gothicarchitecture found characteristic e*pression. $ppearing first in theFrench crown lands Qthe 4oyal >omain centered on "aris@ and thenwider afield, the cathedrals were highly visible demonstrations of

prestige and power. Their spread went hand in hand with thee*pansionist policy of the French monarchy during the late 89th and8;th centuries. Indeed some historians believe that the building ofGothic cathedrals was one of the !ey factors in the ascendancy ofmedieval France in Europe, achieved largely under =ing "hilippe$uguste Q"hilippe II, 8823899;@ and e*tended under ouis IM Q)t.ouis0 899L13@. From the 8993s other countries in Europe Qin Englandit had been as early as around 8813@ adopted the (French style(, usually,

but not solely, because it represented the latest in building technology.Gothic architecture became a European style.

$bbot )uger and )t. 'ernard$ portrait of $bbot )uger of )t.>enis is provided by the art historianErwin "anofs!y, who wrote a fascinating study of the relationship

between medieval art, philosophy, and theology entitled GothicArchitecture and Scholasticis& Q8


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offact in practical affairs and temp%rate in his personal habits0 hardwor!ing and companionable, full of good nature and -on sens, vain,witty, and irrepressibly vivacious.( )uger was certainly able to en/oylife, and was in particular !eenly sensitive to the radiance and wonder

of beautiful things.In all this, and in particular in his love of beautiful things, )uger

differed greatly from another ma/or figure of his time, )t. 'ernard of-lairvau* Q83


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-aesar the things which are -aesars. 'ut they do not render unto Godthe things which are Gods with the same conscientiousness.($dmittedly in 8891, in the si*th year of )ugers office as an abbot,'ernard congratulated his more worldly confr.re on having successfully (reformed( the abbey of )t.>enis. 'ut, as "anofs!y observes,(this reform, far from diminishing the $bbeys political importance,invested it with an independence, prestige and prosperity that permitted)uger to tighten and to formali&e its traditional ties with the -rown.(Ahat caused )t. 'ernard to show more tolerance toward conditions at)t.>enis than he usually showed toward monasteries that did not meethis e*acting standardsP Ahat caused him to treat $bbot )uger with fargreater consideration than he usually showed toward those with whomhe disagreedP "anofs!y concludes that there was a tacit agreement ofinterests by the two potential opponents7 (4eali&ing how much theycould hurt each other as enemiesOone the advisor of the -rown... theother the mentor of the ?oly )ee and the greatest spiritual forc% inEuropeO they decided to be friends.(

The opposition of $bbots )uger and 'ernard can also be seen in thecharacter of the renovations at the abbey of )t.>enis. $bbot )uger hada great passion for sacred pictures and for all !inds of churchdecoration, for gold, enameling, and precious stones, indeed all !inds of

beautiful gleaming ob/ects, and he was especially fond of stainedglasswindows. 'ernard, on the other hand, condemned such decoration, not

because he was unreceptive to its charm, but because he saw in suchthings a distraction from pious thoughts, prayer, and meditation. In thecase of the -istercian monasteries and churches being built in largenumbers everywhere in Europe in the 89th and 8;th centuries, this

meant that the builders had to adopt a style that observed the numerousrules and regulations inspired by )t. 'ernards austere aesthetics.+evertheless, the e*panding -istercian order played an important rolein the spread of Gothic throughout Europe, for it was receptive to thetechnical improvements of Gothic principies of construction, and wasitself often innovative, for e*ample in techni#ues of hydraulicengineering developed for the monasteries established in remotevalleys.

"eter $belard

In order to counter the view that the people of the Diddle $ges lac! adistinctive individuality, we can now, in this panorama of medievalculture, loo! briefly at another of $bbot )ugers contemporaries, a manwho also endured a problematic relationship with )t. 'ernard, and whoin fact carne into direct conflict with him7 the philosopher "eter$belard Q831ameOall of thirtyfive yearsod. )hortly afterward he met ?%loise. $belard himself relates in hisautobiographical Story of /y Adersities 0*istoria cala&i!tatu& howout of sensual passion rather than love he set about seducing this girl,his pupil. $fter she had had a child by him, they were wed in secret.(

The se#uel was the cruel revenge of ?eloises guardin, who had$belard beaten and then castrated. The famous, confident professor hadto ta!e refuge in a monastery. )t.>enis too! him in. This famous lovestoryOwhich cannot be followed up hereO did not end there. ?%loisewent into a convent, but we !now from their letters that the two lovers

preserved a remar!able spiritual friendship for the rest of their lives.In $belard we meet an early representative of a new type of scholar,

the professional thin!er or intellectual. ?e ma!es his appearance withthe rebirth of the towns in the 89th century, first as a master in theschools and then, in the 8;th century, as a professor in the universities.In his study of the early years of the Kniversity of Dodena, which wasfounded at the end of the 89th century as one of the earliest Italianuniversities, the Italian scholar Giovanni )antini writes7 (The birth ofthe intellectual as a new sociological type presupposes the divisin oflabor in the town, e*actly as the rise of the university institutions

presupposes a common cultural sphere in which these new cathedralsof !nowledge appear, flourish, and can freely debate with each other.(

$belard played a decisive part in the development of "aris as acenter of lively philosophical and theological debate. ?ere medieval

scholars found ampie opportunity to sharpen their intellectual weapons.$belard himself was the most important spo!esman of his age in theperennial debate over universals, one of the main themes of medievalphilosophy, and with his dialectical wor! Sic et non he was, togetherwith Hohn )cotus Erigena Q


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)ames -reus Q-atalonia, )pain@, -istercian abbey-loister, 8;3;C8

shows more concern with the human than the theological. $n e*ample ofthis is when, on the #uestion of ethics, he emphasi&es that there can be nosin without a conscious evil intent. In following our own conscience wemay err, but we cannot for that reason be deemed guilty0 we acted in goodfaith.

5n the #uestion of the relationship between faith and reason, a vitalissue at the time, $belard adopted a remar!ably progressive position,arguing that only unpre/udiced scholarly understanding ought to determinefaith. $belard, in other words, was an early representative of the urbanintellectual, his beliefs consistent with -hristian belief, but his mind openand en#uiring.

The >ominance of Faith over 4easonFor some, however, "aris was the modern 'abylon, a city of reprehensiblepleasures and intellectual pride. )t. 'ernard, the fiercest opponent of$belard, called out to the "aris teachers and students7 (Flee from the midstof this 'abylon, flee and save your souls. $ll of you, fly to the cities ofrefuge where you can repent for the past, live in grace in the present, andconfidently await the future that is, in the monasteriesU. Vou will findmuch more in forests than in boo!s. The woods and the roc!s will teachyou much more than any master.(

?ere an attitude #uite the opposite of $belards is being e*pressed. Theabbot of -teau* too! up a very different position in

the frontline of -hristianity. $s Hac#ues e Goff writes7 (That rural man,

who remained a medieval and foremost a soldier, was illsuited tounderstand the town intelligentsia. ?e saw only one course of actionagainst the heretic or the infidel7 brute forc%. The champion of the armed-rusade, he did not believe in an intellectual crusade. Ahen "eter the6enerable the last great abbot of -luny, who died in 88::U as!ed him toread the translation of the =oran in order to reply to Dohammed inwriting, 'ernard did not respond... That apostle of the reclusive life wasalways prepared to fight against innovations he deemed dangerous. >uringthe last years of his life he essentially governed western -hristian Europe,dictating his orders to the pope, approving military orders, dreaming of

creating a Aestern cavalry, the militia of -hrist0 he was a great in#uisitorbefore his time.()t. 'ernard hurled the words #uoted above against the (false teacher(

$belard who, sensing the spirit of -hristianity in Gree! philosophy, saw inthe philosophers )crates and "lato -hristians before -hristianity. 'ernardwas not convinced7 ('y ma!ing "lato into a -hristian you are onlyshowing that you yourself are a heathen.(

$belard was often prepared to challenge such warriors0 he was evenprepared to enter into a public debate with )t. 'ernard. 'ut though he wasconfident enough for such a debate, and considered himself superior to the

great abbot in intellectual astuteness, he was hopelessly inferior to )t.'ernard in the politics of power. ?e was

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never given the chance for a confrontation in which he could havefought with the weapons of his own choice. The night before the

planned debate, 'ernard passed to the assembled bishops a documentrepresenting $belard as a dangerous heretic. 'y so doing, he deftlytransformed the occasion from a debate into a trial in which $belardhad to establish his innocence. $ll $belard could do was challenge thecompetence of the assembly and appeal directly to the pope. In theevent, the bishops passed a mild /udgment on the alleged heretic andsent the case to 4ome. 'ernard learned of this and so was able tointervene and present his own point of view forcefully. The (dispute(ended with a condemnation of $belard by the pope, and his boo!s were

burned at )t. "eters. $belard sought refuge at -luny, where he wasta!en in with great !indness by the abbot, "eter the 6enerable. Thisabbot succeeded in having the e*communication imposed on $belard in4ome #uashed, and even brought about a reconciliation between$belard and 'ernard. $belard died in the monastery of )t.Darcel in-hlonssur)ane.

The dispute between $belard and 'ernard can be seen as representative of a much broader conflict. It was an early s!irmish in thelong war between understanding and faith, reason and authority, scienceand the -hurch, a conflict that began in the ?igh Diddle $ges and wasresolved only in the 82th century, when the Germn philosopherImmanuel =ant Q819C823C@ separated belief in God from !nowledgeof the world. The defeat of $belard by the influential abbot, and, aboveall, the way the defeat was brought about, illustrates a mar!edimbalance of power, an imbalance that began to change only at the

beginnings of the modern period. The e*ample of Galileo Q8:LC8LC9@,

who was summoned before the In#uisition because of his support forthe -opernican theory and there made publicly to deny the theory,shows how longdrawnout the process of intellectual emancipationwas.

>uring the 8;th century, when the universities emerged as the newpower in the towns and cities, and scholasticism reached its height,science Qat this early stage still lac!ing both method and ob/ectivity@was unable to develop a new worldpicture liberated from the bonds of-hristian dogma. In his3ntellectuals in the /iddle A'es Q8


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)t. >enis, former 'enedictineabbey churchAindows in nave and transept clerestory

developed a new line of interpretation inspired by 6iolletle>ucs tenvolumeDictionnaire raisonn. de l4architecture francaise Q82:CL2@, whichconsidered the development of the Gothic cathedral from a structural andtechnical point of view, an approach encouraged by the development ofiron construction during the 8


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to understand Gothic architecture as a reflection, or more precisely as therepresentation, of a supernatural reality.( Doreover, he does not agree withvon )imsons view that )uger sought (to lead visitors to the new sanctuaryon to the religious e*perience that art had revealed to )uger himself,( Sorwith his claim that (the design of his church, )ugers creation of Gothicform, originated in that religiousU e*perience.( 'inding thin!s that suchfaulty interpretations stem from the fact that von )imson, and "anofs!y

before him, too! individual statements in the sources out of conte*t, orinterpreted them in ways that were wrong, or at least biased. "ointing tothe fact that a long time before )uger the buildings described in scripture

+oah s ar!, the tabernacle of Doses, the temple of )olomon, E&e!iel svisin of the new !ingdom of God, and the +ew Herusalem of the$pocalypseO already possessed symbolic valu% for medieval patrons, heconcludes that (the sources used selectively by 5tto von )imson cannotestablish a theory of a new cathedral, namely of the Gothic choir of )t.>enis. They neither created Sor founded the Gothic cathedral, but areclearly to be assigned to the realm of the artes Qacademic disciplines@ andtheology, and interpreted in the traditional way !nown long before the89th century. That also goes for the attempts of Erwin "anofs!y... toestablish an analogy between Gothic architecture and scholasticism.(

8;

>omenico en&i


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-orn mar!et, from33 )iadaiolo8Cth centuryFlorence, 'iblioteca auren&iana

For 'inding the cathedral (is first and foremost the place of the divineepiphany and of structured ritual.( ?e regards the change in architectural construction occurring between 88uby e*amines )ugers architecture as whathe calis the abbots (monument of applied theology(. The newarchitecture created by )uger, he argRes, is a hymn of praise to the )onof God. In the boo! as a whole he develops a broadranging approachto the Gothic cathedral. ?is boo! is essentially a historical sociology of

artistic creation that attempts to set the cathedrals firmly within theirspecific social and intellectual conte*t. Ae have already seen that 89thcentury towns were developing into cultural centers, and that it wasthere that Gothic too! root. The Gothic cathedrals were some of themost e*#uisite fruits of this emergent urban culture, the universities ofthe 8;th century some of its most important institutions.

It is in this conte*t of this rebirth of towns that >uby views the art ofthe cathedral7 (Throughout the twelfth and thirteenth centuries townsUgrew both larger and more animated, while their outlying districtsstretched alongside the roads. They were lodestones drawing wealth.$fter a long period of obscurity they became the principal centers,north of the $lps, of the most advanced culture. 'ut for the time beingvirtually all of their vitality still carne from the surrounding fields. Dostof the manor lords decided at this time to shift their places of residenceto the city. ?enceforth the products of their estates converged in thecities. In those cities, the most active traders were the wheat, wine, andwool merchants. Thus, although cathedral art was urban art, it relied onthe nearby countryside for the ma/or factor in its growth, and it was theefforts of countless pioneers, clearers of land, planters of vinestoc!s,

diggers of ditches, and builders of di!es, all flushed with the successesof a flourishing agriculture, that brought cathedral art to its fulfillment.(>uby reminds us that the new cathedrals arse in a society (whose

ideal of sanctity was still a monastic ideal and was to remain so forsome time to come,( a fact illustrated abo ve by the e*amples of theforceful personality of )t. 'ernard and the energy of the -istercianorder. $longside the -istercians, who in many respects were stillrepresentatives of the od rural order rooted in land ownership, thereappeared in the first third of the 8;th century the mendicant orders, theFranciscans and the >ominicans. Aith the mendicants a new type of

order arse, one that was clearly distinguished from the older

8C

communities belonging to a monastery, or to the chapter of a cathedralor seminary0 their members were certainly bound to the order for life bytheir vows, but not to a particular monastery. The new orders demandednot only that individual mon!s should swear a vow of poverty, but alsothat their monasteries should be free of all possessions. The Qmale@members of the order spent their time in wor!, study, and pastoral care,and survived by begging for alms. $s mendicant and preaching orders,the Franciscans and >ominicans concentrated on the towns. In the 8;th

century the great churches of the mendicant orders, built in a verysimple style, were usually spacious hall churches, mainly in the Gothicstyle. These aisleless churches were intended to hold the largest

possible congregations for the sermons that were such an important partof the mendicants approach to their vocation. These churches were tohave a significant impact on the urban development of the Diddle $gesQsee page 9C;@. The mendicant orders also played an important role incombating the numerous heretical sects. From the point of view of

)an Gimignano QTuscany Italy@ Towers $ndrea da Firen&e


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)an Gimignano QTuscany, Italy@ Towersbelonging to different families, builtduring the GuelphGhibelline conflict, ca.8;33

$ndrea da Firen&eAlle'ory ofthe Do&inican Order, 8;LLL2 >etailof preaching scene, Florence, )anta Dara+ovella, -appella degli )pagnuoli

-hristian orthodo*y, the greatestdanger carne from the -athars, whohad spread over a wide rea ofsouthern France Qsee pages 88L881@. In anguedoc, where most ofthe -athars lived, )t. 'ernard hadalready tried in vain to persuade theheretics to change their ways.

$ttempts at conversin by forc%,with -istercian assistance,followed. >ominican preachers atfirst tried to use persuasin ratherthan forc% of arms. The Franciscansand >ominicans, in >ubys words,(!new how to ma!e the broadestspectrums of men listen. Theyappealed to what men were mostsensitive to, spo!e in everyday

language, avoided abstract notions,and made use of stri!ing images.Into their sermons they wor!eddifferent !inds of anecdotes,depending on the social status oftheir public. $lready they hadbegun to use the appeal of theatricsin con/unction with the propagandaby showing the first miracle plays.$nd whereas art, until then, had

been a form of prayer and homage,in praise of the divine glory, thenew urge to persuade and convertnow made it a means of systematically edifying the laity.(

)o it is not surprising that theFranciscans and the >ominicans,who were regularly in dispute with

each other over the most effectiveways of being persuasiveOandfinally engaged each other in philosophical and theologicalcontroversies, as well as instruggles for influential positionswithin the -hurchOplayed arevolutionary role both in thedevelopment of painting and in theteaching of philosophy and

theology. )ome of the greatestmedieval philosophers were>ominicans Q$lbertus Dagnus,Thomas $#uinas@ or Franciscans

Q'onaventura >uns )cotus@


30/441

Q'onaventura, >uns )cotus@.'ut it was the >ominicanswho, as a result of theirgrowing closeness to thepapacy, became the crusadingguardians of -hristian

orthodo*y. They did not shrin!from the use of forc%. $s themain agents of the In#uisition,with its (practice of /ustice,(they were responsible for oneof the dar!est chapters ofmedieval ecclesiastical history.

4ecent wor!s Qin Frenchand Germn@ on Gothic art andarchitecture include, to Same

/ust a few, $lain Erlande'randenburg, Gothic ArtQ8ieter =impel and4obert )uc!ale, GothicArchitecture in France 118!1: Q8


31/441

=impel and )uc!ales Gothic Architecture in #rance 118!1:, whichhas succeeded in establishing itself as a standard wor! on Early and?igh Gothic architecture in France. The authors base their wor! on thethesis that (the rea where Gothic began and e*panded until 8933corresponds e*actly to the crown lands of France. $s late as 8913 themasons lodges of the crown lands are the real centers of innovation.(They write of (the dynamic character of the style and of the socialsystem supporting it,( and thus indicate that they consider political andsocial factors to have been e#ually important in the rise and spread ofGothic. It is typical of their approach that they also loo! closely at thefirst 9: chapters of $bbot )ugers account boo!s for his building wor!,in which he mentions several historical and economic aspects of hisarchitectural pro/ects that have until now been largely ignored by arthistorians Qsee page 92@.

The multifaceted nature of the approach used by =impel and)uc!ale becomes clear in their first chapter, where they use thecathedral of $miens as an (introduction to the study of the Gothic

cathedral.( $longside the architectural history and the detailed descriptions of form and function, they attempt a reconstruction of theoriginal appearance of the building, e*amine the early stages of

building wor!, and discuss the buildings patrons and its functions.In this connection they analy&e the comple* web of relationships

between the bishop Qwho too! the initiative for the new building@, thecathedral chapter, the people Qthe citi&ens@, and the !ing Qand otherfounders@, and consider the role of each of them in the new building ofthe cathedral. In brief, they see both the politics and the building wor!as motivated by the shared interest of the !ing, the bishop, and the

citi&ens (in !eeping down the tyranny of the feudal nobility. In modelform we have before us the coalition that determined this epoch and itsarchitecture.(

Further cise studies of the master builders, the stonemasons, theirtools and their lodges, the constructional !nowledge of the architects,and so on strengthen the impression that the authors are essentiallyconcerned with the elucidation of the social and economic factors in the

building of the cathedrals. $t the beginning of the 8


32/441

Coronation ofthe >ir'in, 8C:; "ainting onwood, height 82; cm 6illeneuvel%s$vignon,Dus%e de l?ospice

into the modern age... )o today we understand by the threshold of the

modern age not so much a sharp dividing line around 8:33, but rather agradual transition which too! place between the outside dates of 8;33 and8L33( Q+orbert +ussbaum, 8


33/441

Elements of 4eligious and)ecular Gothic $rchitecture

ypa nave and at least two side aisles, the nave andaisles being separated by arcades. The nave ishigher than the aisles so that it can be lit by itsown source of light, the clerestory. If a highnave is not lit with upper windows in this way,the church is referred to as a pseudobasilica.

pp ybuttressing Q4eims@, though not alwaysQDagdeburg@. 'asilicas can have up to si*aisles Q$ntwerp@.

Triforiu

m

-leresto

ry

)tairs

"ier

buttress

Flying

buttress

4idge

turret

-hoir

polygon

-ross

section

-rosssection ofbasilica withbuttressingQ4eims@

-rosssection ofbasilica withoutbuttressingQDagdeburg@

#$

-utaway ofbasilica

-rosssection of hall churchHa"" CurcThis type of church has aisles that are as high,

-utaway of hall church


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Twocelled church Qhallconstruction@,Q+uremberg, )t. =lara@

The singleaisle church is a noncentrallyplanned singlespace church

or nearly as high, as the nave. The hall churchusually has a nave and two aisles, the navereceiving its light indirectly from largewindows in the aisle walls. If the nave ishigher than the side aisles, the church isreferred to as a stepped hall church. ?allchurches can have as many as two aisles oneach side of the nave Q)t. "eters, Rbec!@.)ince the aisles support one another, there isno need for e*ternal buttresses.

#%

CurcF d

Aeather vane)pire

Gable

"innacle

Aaterspout5ffset

Dain gable


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Centra""& "anned Curc In contrast tobasilicas and hall churches, which areconstructed along a hori&ontal a*is, centrallyplanned churches are designed around a singlecentral point. -entrally planned churches areround or polygonal Qfrom he*agonal to anynumber of angles@. $ church built on a Gree!cross plan Qwith four e#ual arms@ is alsoconsidered to be centrally planned.

-hoir

4otunda$mbulatory

FacadeQDarburg, )t.Elisabeth@

$r

chivolt

+orthwest tower

Hamb

'lind window)outhwest tower

%&

"innacle

Tracery parapet

Tracery window

"ier buttress

5ffset

'ase

+orthwest viewQDarburg, )t. Elisabeth@)outhtransept

O )piral?alfdecagon Tracery parapetY 5ffset

Gallery-hoirQhere triconchform@

Gallery

+orthtransept


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)acristy

(#

-ross Qor diagonal@ rib Aall

arch Transverse arch


37/441

)au"t$ vault is a curved ceiling or roof made ofstone or bric!. In Gothic architecture ribs wereused in place of roof hips. The ribs can be partof the loadbearing structure or purelydecorative. In terms of their form, a distinctionis made between cross rib and reticulated orstellar vaults Qsee below@.

=eystone

$rcade or wave arch

4espond

-rosssection

'ay

The height of the pointed arch can be !eptconstant at various widths

9 ; a Z b

*

"

c

84eticulatedvaulta@Elevationb@"lan

9)tellarvaulta@Elevation

;

)tellarvaultQwooden@Q$rr

b@ "lan

sa


38/441

%%

L a Z b 1a Z b


39/441

: a Z b

C -ell vaulta@ Elevation b@ "lan

: Kmbrella vaulta@ Elevation b@ "lan

L ?anging !eystonea@ Early Gothic b@ ate Gothic

1 >ome vault

a@ Elevation b@ "lan

TrTr

-rown

8;thcentury

1

4

-u

23

4ose window

)pherical #uadranglecusp

TabernacleQbelow pinnacle@

'ranch tracery +,S1)

-orbel


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"innacle

>ecorative Elements

Q p @1) Aallpassage2) )houldered

arch Qtypical archshape of a wallpassage@

)tone)p

ires8and9

Traceryspire

8?alfwitho

utcroc!ets;)pire

wi

fa


41/441

ith(c

rowsnest(

Aaterspout

a@ongitudi

nalcrosssec

tiono

apier

buttressb@

Gargoyle

%'


42/441

Aooden )piresQwith associated gables@

3) 5ctagonal spire on fourtriangular gables

4) 5ctagonal needle spire onfour triangular Qoffset@ gables

5)


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5) 5ctagonal spire on threeinverted triangle and fourtrape&oids

6) 5ctagonal spire on four

trape&oid gables

7) 5ctagonal spire with fourcrner spirelets

8) Twisted octagonal spire

9) 5ctagonal spire with

onion dome

10) Aooden structure of a

spire

(

4ood [


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4ood )creen and -hoir )creen The roodscreen is a dividing wall between the choir

and the nave, its purpose being toseprate the mon!s and clergy in thechoir from the laity in the nave. In manycases the rood screen is e*tended byarcades placed in front of it so that a low(transverse building( arises in front of thepresbytery. 'elow rood screens there are

sometimes altars. The top of the roodscreens could serve as a platform, for

singers for e*ample, usually set behind atracery parapet.

-hoir screens are low walls thatseprate the choir from the ambulatory. Inpolygonal choir screens these walls areoccasionally pierced or even constructedwith railings.

-hoir screen

O

^


45/441

(

Timberframe-onstruction

'race

=ey for '

)ill

"ost

I fill l !

-ollar beam4after

-ross

railFraming


46/441

Infill plan!

'reast rail

'race

-ross timber

'rac!et ?ead rail

Framing post

Transverse gable

>ormer window

)tone plinth

cr

rr^n

mrivjiv

|

"yramid roofstructure4after

Floor beam

$butmentpiece

( $ngle brace

szEE\a(=99

Q-


47/441


48/441

'runo =lein

The 'eginnings of Gothic$rchitecture in France and its+eighbors

Te o"itica" and Arcitectura" Bac/groundIt can be argued that the foundation stone of Gothic architecture waslaid on Huly 8C, 88C3. For it was on that day, a few !ilometers to thenorth of "aris, that the rebuilding of the choir of the 'enedictine churchof )t.>enis was begun at the instigation of $bbot )uger. $ wor! of thehighest artistic achievement, the choir harmoniously integrates theelements and motifs we now consider characteristically Gothic, andthus effectively established the basis for the emergence of the style. The

choirs importance in this respect is undisputed. 'ut the building of thechoir should not be seen in isolation. It was part of social, political, andphilosophical developments that had begun several decades earlier.Doreover, it owes its preeminence in architectural history to the energyand s!ills of its patrn, $bbot )uger of )t.>enis Qca. 832888:8@, theman whose remar!able ambition and visin led to its creation.

In considering the significance of )t.>enis it is necessary to bear inmind two important historical factors. First, since the l5th century thisregin of northern France had, li!e others, witnessed a gradualimprovement in trade and commerce which led to a steady growth in

both population and prosperity. )econd, by the time )t.>enis wasbegun, in the early part of the 89th century, the French monarchy, atleast within the 4oyal >omain around "aris, had become far moresecure. $ friend and advisor to both ouis 6I Q8832;1@ and ouis 6IIQ88;123@, $bbot )uger played a decisive role in this consolidation ofroyal power. This allowed him to reclaim, either through negotiation orthrough forc%, the monastic lands that had been appropriated by local

barons. It was when he had accomplished this, as he writes in his ownrecord of his achievements, $ork Done 6nder *is Ad&inistration, thatthe abbot began to restore the abbey church. This church not only

formed the center of the monastery and its estates, but also, as we shallsee, played a !ey role in the establishment of the French monarchy.

It is important to remember that the rebuilding of the choir of )t.>enis would never have become so significant in the history ofarchitecture had it not drawn upon the recent architectural innovationsin the IledeFrance, the regin around "aris controlled directly by themonarchy. $dmittedly the 4omanes#ue architecture of the regin wasnot as rich and varied as that of 'urgundy or +ormandy, but nevertheless during the second #uarter of the 89th century new and distinctivearchitectural trends had begun to emerge. )uger himself had already

started a new fa]ade for the western end of the church of )t.>enis.Though not strictly Gothic, this fagade fits perfectly into the conte*t ofarchitectural renovations ta!ing place at the time in "aris and thesurrounding reas. )o the choir of )t.>enis should be seen not as theentirely novel starting point of Gothic, but rather as the ma/or catalystfor a movement that had begun a few years earlier.

This can clearly be seen in the use of rib vaults, which were tobecome one of the most important features of Gothic architecture. Thetechnical and aesthetic possibilities of this vaulting system

($

)t.GermerdeFly Q5ise@, former'enedictine abbey church, secondthird of 89th century E*terior fromthe southeast Qbelow@ -hoirQbottom@


49/441

appear to have been recogni&ed shortly after 8833 in several parts of Europe, notably in north Italy, in )peyer in the Kpper 4hine, and also in >urham inEngland, from where it found its way into +ormandy. The architects of the IledeFrance learned of it there and used it around 88C3, for e*ample in the

church of )t.Ntienne in 'eauvais, on the border with +ormandy. $t about the same time the interior space immediately behind the facade of the -luniacpriory at )t.eudEsserent on the 5ise was given rib vaults. $nd in the abbey church of +otre>ame in Dorienval, which was probably renovatedshortly after the reception of the relies of )t. $nnobertus in 8899, this new style of vaulting was installed in a particularly original way. ?ere the e*teriorwall of the apse is split into two layers, between which is a narrow space spanned by rib vaults. This space is much too narrow to form a lin!ed choir andambulatory li!e the later one in )t >enis Dodeled on the double layered wall of a +orman apse this split wall may well have been constructed simply


50/441

ambulatory, li!e the later one in )t.>enis. Dodeled on the doublelayered wall of a +orman apse, this split wall may well have been constructed simplyto strengthen the apse, which stands on sloping ground. Ahatever the reason, the important point is that even before )t.>enis was built there had beene*periments with ribvaulted choirs. This is significant because it shows that builders in the IledeFrance were more willing to e*periment than builders

in +ormandy, where until that time rib vaults had been constructed e*clusively for rectangular reas. The use of rib vaults in choirs with comple* groundplans and irregular bays opened up undreamedof possibilities in the articulation of architectural space.

$n early e*ample of this can be seen in the 'enedictine abbey church of )t.GermerdeFly, on the border between the IledeFrance and +ormandy.In 88;9 the mon!s had succeeded in regaining the relies of )t. Germarus, an event that led to an increase in the number of pilgrims visiting the church,and that even moved the English !ing, ?enry I, to dnate timber for the building wor!. >uring this period the power of the local barons was beingcurtailed by the French !ings, who thereby strengthened not only their position, but also that of abbeys li!e )t.Germer, which had large reas of land attheir disposal. 'y the 89;3s therefore, the 'enedictines of )t.Germer felt confident enough to have their church magnificently restored. They built agalleried basilica that has a nave with two side aisles, an aisleless transept, and a choir with an ambulatory and radiating chap%is Qsee right@. The e*teriorof the buildings boasts no lavish decoration, yet the overall architectural conception is all the more subtle for that. )ometimes lin!ed and sometimesseprate, the stories have their own individual character, a character determined mainly by the relationship between window and walls and by the

different !inds of buttresses. The radiating chap%is, with their rhythmic succession of closely aligned windows, clearly dictate the motifs of the ne*tstory7 the smaller windows reappear in the gallery story, the larger ones in the nave. The result is that light streams onto the high altar both from the sidesand from above, and the e*tensive choir, with its tight aureole of chap%is, confirms the belief that a religious service held here should be celebrated withgreat solemnity.

9enis Q)eine)t.>enis@,former 'enedictine abbey churchAestwor!, before 88C3


53/441

all the rest and its e*ternal walls spread out to ma!e a cloverleafground plan. Inside, this chapel loo!s li!e a domed room with a modernrib vault, though the rib vaulting is used for decorative rather thanstructural reasons. ?ere the technical possibilities of the vaultingsystem remain almost deliberately une*ploited, for the windows do not,as at )t.GermerdeFly, stand up high in the vault webs, so that theyalmost disappear into the vaulting. Instead, situated lower down, theyencircle the chapel li!e a uniform ribbon of light underneath the hugeweb of the vault. 'oth )t.Germer and )t.Dartin show a greateremphasis on the windows, with the walls between the windows and thewall supports beginning, as it were, to dissolve. In )t.Dartin thewindows, along with their deeply profiled surrounds, are arranged li!e

pieces of /ewelry midway between the base of the wall and the vault.$ll in all then, in )t.Dartin there is no uniform design, but anenrichment of the repertoire of forms through the accentuation of onesingle motif, the window. $nd as at )t.GermerdeFly, it was throughthe choir once again that the desire for innovation was e*pressed, thehighest architectural subtlety achieved.

The abbey church of )t."ierredeDontmartre in "aris, probablyrebuilt after the conversin of the monastery into a 'enedictine conventin 88;;, still demonstrates, in spite of considerable later alterations, theseparation of loadbearing piers and thin (s!eletoni&ed( walls that wasvery modern at the time. Even so, the building is less importantarchitecturally than politically. For )t."ierre stands on (DartyrsDount( QDontmartre@, on which, according to legend, )t. >ionysiusQ>enis@ and his companions were e*ecuted. Thus the building becamethe martyrium of )t. >ionysius, one of the places which, for themedieval mind, was the site of an important event in the story of

salvation. $delaide, the wife of =ing ouis 6I, wished it to be her lastresting place. This decisin was the real reason for the reform of themonastery and the rebuilding of the church. In this she was followingthe e*ample of her husbands family, for French !ings weretraditionally buried at >ionysius burial place, the abbey church of )t.>enis. >ionysius was the patrn saint of the -apetians, the Frenchroyal family. This development, which the -hurch was forced to acceptfrom 88;; at the place of his martyrdom, was something it could notrefuse to accept at his grave only a little later.

Inno0ation Troug )ariation: The 1renc 2onarc&3 St.-Denis3 andAbbot SugerIn the early 89th century the French !ings were, compared to otherrulers, at best only moderately important. Their inherited lands, moreover, were surrounded by the territories of much more powerful Frenchrulers. They were distinguished, however, by their grandiose ambitions7they saw themselves as the rulers of all France, their claim based ontheir inheritance of the imperial authority of -harlemagne who had

been crowned Fran!ish !ing in )t.>enis in 1:C. ?is grandson,Emperor -harles the 'ald, was later buried there. Hust how important

the maintenance of this -arolingian tradition was is clearly

shown in $bbot )ugers decisin to begin the renovation of )t.>eniswith the restoration of the memorial to -harles the 'ald. It was not onlythe French and Derovingian !ings who were buried there7 )t.>enisalso housed the tomb of the patrn saint of France, >ionysius Q>enis@.>uring the Diddle $ges this supposed first bishop of "aris was

representative on Earth. For the advocates of this theory the restorationof royaW power was not an end in itself, but an integral part of Godsdivine plan of salvation, in which the !ings of France had an importantrole to play. Hust how cise a lin! was sought between sacred traditionand the French monarchy at this time became clear when at the


54/441

confused with >ionysius the $reopagite, a follower of the apostle "al,to whom the e*tremely important writings of "seudo>ionysius

Qprobably written in )yria about :33 $>@ were attributed. It was inthese influential writings that the theory of celestial hierarchies wase*pounded, according to which a !ing was to be seen as Gods

dedication of )ugers new choir ouis 6II himself carried the remainsof )t. >ionysius from the od crypt to the new upper choir.

;8


55/441

5""5)ITE7)t.>enis Q)eine)t.>enis@,former 'enedictine abbey church$mbulatory, 88C3CC

Theabbeychurch of)t.>enistherefore

played acomple*andimportantrole for theFrenchmonarchyin terms ofnational

policy. The

architecture of thechurch wasane*pressionof the twoideologicalstrategies

pursued for

therestorationof themonarchyin the 89thcentury.The firstinvolvedreaffirmingancient

traditionsin order forthe Frenchmonarchsto establishthemselvesas directdescendants of thelegitmateroyalhouse, and

prove

themselvesworthysuccessorsof that line.The second

involvedintroducingnew ideasin order tosupercedethe eventsof theimmediate

past. Inother

words, thenewQpoliticallyandarchitecturally@ wasseen as ameans ofac!nowledging and

restoringthe past.Gothicarchitecture, as it

began at)t.>enis,was to

provide atangible

e*pressionof thisconcept.

)ugerdid notrebuild thewhole ofhis abbeychurch atonce. ?estarted withthewestwor!

Qsee page;[email protected]

outside thatitsarchitecture was seenassymbolic


56/441

considerably in

the 82thand 8enis, andas atriumphantsymbol ofthe newlystrengthenedmonarchy.The richsculpturaldecorationof the

portis,togetherwith theoriginal

bron&edoors

providedby )ugerhimself,e*planator

yinscriptions, and theconstantly

reappearing motif ofthe numberthree onthe wall ofthe facade

of a-arolingianwestwor!,

by meansof which


57/441

the facade,ma!e this

westwor!the portalof the?eavenlyHerusalem.

'roadlysimilarfeaturescan be seenon the od

facade ofthe abbeyof )t.Ntienne in-aen, the

burialplace ofthe du!esof

+ormandy

and of theEnglish!ingAilliamthe-on#ueror,whosesuccessorswere thechiefenemies ofthe Frenchmonarchy.'ut at )t.>enis thisolder styleissurpassed

both as

architecture and assymbolism. )ugersnew westfacade wasmore than

/ust animprovement of a

+ormanmodel0 itwas also arecreation

of whichan

importantlocaltraditionwasac!nowledged.

Evenbefore thecompletionof this west

end, )ugerfelt(carriedaway( Qtouse hisownwords@ tostart wor!on therestoration

of the choirof hischurch.This hewas able toreali&e inthe veryshort spaceof time of88C3 to88CC [email protected] directsymbolicreferencesare lessevidenthere thanin the

facade, buton theother handthearchitecture is of a farhigher#uality. Ifthe newcrypt and

ambulatory,withinwhich the

crypt of theearlier

building isenclosed,stilldisplay

theambulatory, whereslendercolumns

bear the


58/441

d sp ysimple

4omanes#ue shapes,then thenew choirabovethem is sohighlyfiligreedthat theupper parts

threatenedto collapsein 89;8and had to

bereplaced.There ishardly anywallsurface to

be seen in

be eweight of

the vaults.'ycontrast,the reaoccupied

by thewindows,whichreachalmost to

the floor, isall thelarger,floodingthe reawith ^ght.Instead ofthe earliersimpleambulatory

there isnow adoubleambulatoryin which

both aislesareseparated

by elegantmonolithiccolumnsthatsupport therib vault asif it wereweightless.The vaultsof the outerambulatory

areintegratedinto thechapelvaults, sothat asingle,unifiedspace iscreated.

Theelementsused in thischoir, such

as the'urgundian pointedarches andthe

+orman

had beendedicated

by -hristhimself,allows usto see the


59/441

rib

vaulting,are notnew. Ahatis sostri!ing istheircombination. )uger and hisun!nown

architectused themin order tocr%ate asanctuarythat is thecrowningglory of the wholechurch, a

sanctuarythat spo!easforcefullyto thesimple,uneducatedvisitor as itdid to theabbot, whocould bringto it asophisticated allegoricalinterpretation. Thefact that$bbot)uger hadwanted to

bringancientcolumnsfrom 4ometo build hisnew choir,whichad/oined

an od navethataccordingto tradition

beginnings

of Gothicarchitecture, a stylewidelyregarded asnew andnonclassical,in a new^ght, as an

attempt torestoreoldertraditions.$t thesame time,the newchoir andfacade hadto

contributeto thecontemporaryrelevanceof thehistorienave.)olely interms of

politicalintention,the od andthe newmutuallystrengthened oneanotherand, in thewords ofthe abbot,(were

broughttogetherinto onegreaterunifiedwhole.(

In

carryingthrough hisplans forthe

rebuildingof )t.>enis, it isclear that$bbot)uger drew

creation ofsomethingnew fromsomehighlyrespected


60/441

upon

classicaltheories ofrhetoric inwhich hefound boththeoretical

/ustification and

practicalimplica

tions forhisrebuilding.ThusariatioQvariety@,one of the

basic s!illsof rhetoric,was

achievedthroughcombiningdifferent

buildingparts. Thetheory thatthere aredifferentstyles

appropriatefordifferentsub/eetscould have

been astimulusfor thedifferencein styles

betweenthe cryptunderneathand thechoirabove.)imilarly,aetnu!latioQemulation

@ wasunderstoodto involvethe

model

from thepast Qinthis casethe odnave of )t.>enis withitscolumns@,a worthye*emplar

thatprovidedthemeasure ofthe new.

TheGothicarchitecture of )t.>enis was

not simplyadevelopment of 4omanes#ue. It was,rather, theresult ofambitiousattempts to

cr%atesomethingnewthrough acriticale*amination of the

past.$dmittedlytheinnovativearchitecture of the88;3s wasa

precondition for thesedevelopments. Vet the

abbey of)t.>enisalone, soimportant

for theFrench!ings, anddominated

by theintelligent

d

French"rovincesThe

practice ofcombiningthe od and

i


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and

energetic$bbot)uger, wasthe placewhere alltheconditionsseem tohave beenmet for

ta!ing thedecisivestep in thecreation ofthe Gothicstyle.

$rchitecture in the

new in

architecture was of coursemucholder. i!e$bbot)uger,-arolingian and5ttonian

buildershadalreadymade useof classicalarchitectural in their

buildings.In

)%


62/441

5""5)ITE7

e Dans Q)arthe@,-athedral of )t.Hulien,

+ave wall, late 8 lth century and vault,ca. 88;1:2


63/441

addition, among religious buildings almost contemporary with thenewly built sections of )t.>enis there were several that also usedmodern +orman rib vaulting. The cathedral of )t.Daurice in $ngersQsee above@ was renovated in this way under 'ishop Dormand de >ou%Q88C


64/441

have already seen, ?enry married Eleanor of $#uitaine, the divorcedwife of the French !ing ouis 6II, which made the "lantagenets thegreatest territorial lords in France. Two years later, in 88:C, ?enrycould finally ascend the English throne. $ll this happened during theyears when the cathedral of e Dans was being rebuilt Qit wasfinishedin 88:2@.

Thus e Dans, li!e )t.>enis, shows that the architectural traces ofthe past could be considered valuable, and that reviving the past couldcr%ate new perspectives for the future. The comparison of the two

buildings also e*plains why )t.>enis would subse#uently become themore attractive of the two. For apart from the fact that it was easier toe*tend the e*isting parts of )t.>enis than it was to carry out therestoration wor! at e Dans, the choir of )ti>enis did not have the

enormously thic! walls e Dans had. This meant that it was easier for$bbot )uger and his architect to use the columnar piers

of the od nave as a motif for the new building. In other words thecharacter of the new choir of )t.>enis was determined solely byslender elements such as columns, shafts, and ribs. In the restoration ofe Dans, by contrast, the massive 4omanes#ue walls were the starting

point for the innovations, so that everything became even more heavyand massive.

Te I4!act of St.-DenisIn the early 88:3s, not long after the choir of )t.>enis had beencompleted, the little cathedral of )enlis, also to the north of "aris, was

begun Qsee page ;L@. Its style clearly shows the influence of theinnovations at )t.>enis. Though the interior, which has been rebuiltseveral times after being gutted by fire, is now overwhelmingly in the

ate Gothic style, the building still possesses its original ambulatoryand choir with monolithic columns and radiating chap%is. Its ground

;:


65/441

plan clearly reveis a style founded upon that of )t.>enis, even if thechap%is are seprate and not merged with the vaults of the ambulatory.$lthough this cathedral was constructed in one stage, its creators didnot ta!e the opportunity to build a more modern facade, one whichwould stylistically match the choir. Instead they built a copy of the westfagade of )t.>enis. )o the west end of )enlis is two bays deep, /ust asif it ought to be /oined to an older nave, as at )t.>enis. In other words,the cathedral of )enlis, though a completely new building, simplyadopts some of the /u*tapositions of different styles found at )t.>enis,even though at )t.>enis these had been the result of a changingapproach to the buildings design.

$t about this time the 'enedictines of the abbey of )t.Germaindes"r%s in "aris rebuilt their church. The llthcentury nave was retained, aswas the od west tower, though this was given a modern sculptured

portal. $s at )t.>enis, at )t.Germaindes"r%s only the choir with itsradiating chap%is was completely rebuilt Qsee opposite, left and top

right@0 this was consecrated by "ope $le*ander III in 88L;. In the apse,instead of the normal slender monolithic piers,

;L

)enlis Q5ise@, former-athedral of +otre>ame,ca. 88:8


66/441

'E5A $+> T5" 4IG?T7 '5TT5D 4IG?T7"aris Q)eine@, former 'enedictine 4eims QDarne@, former 'enedictineabbey church of )t.Germaindes"r%s abbey church of )t.4emi-hoir, dedicated in 88L; -hoir, begun under "ierre de -elles

Qabbot 88L829@


67/441

e*amples of this characteristiccombination of architecturalstyles from different ages. It wasin this church that the mon!s !eptthe holy oil, supposedly delivered

by angels, that was used to anoint

French !ings. In addition, thechurch housed the tomb of )t.4emigius Q4emi@, who had usedthis angelbrought oil to bapti&e-o vis I, the !ing who thereby

became the founder of the!ingdom of France. 4emigius and>ionysius played a similarlyimportant role in the developmentof the French monarchy.

The rebuilding of the abbeychurch began in the second halfof the 88L3s with the west aBadeQsee page ;2, right@. The originalupper part no longer e*ists, butthe surviving two lower stories

provide us with a clear idea of thenew fagade of the 88L3s, whichwas built between two older sidetowers. From these outer towers

inwards there is an increase in thewealth of the motif s, the depth ofrelief, and the light provided by

windows. -haracteristically, themain portal is framed by twoclassical columns from whichslender shafts rise, a motif thatreappears in the interior of thechurch. Donolithic columns were

also placed in front of the piers ofthe llthcentury

nave in order to receive theclusters of slender responds thatsupport the newly installedGothic vault. Hust as at e Dans,the impression created is that of

being in a church that has beenbuilt inside a much older one. In

triforium and clerestory are lin!edwith the help of slender mullions,the clerestory becoming a lightfiligree. Even the number ofarches increases from bottom totop in characteristic se#uence7one arch in each bay of the


68/441

the completely new choir themotifs of the nave are adoptedagain, particularly in the widearcades and the tall galleryopenings, which are divided intotwo arches. $s at )t.Germaindes"r%s, a continuous row ofmighty piers surrounds the wholeinner choir. 5ut of them riseclusters of shafts, which /oin

those between the galleryarcading to cr%ate a virtual forestof round slender shafts. The

arcade, two in the gallery, andthree in both the triforium andclerestory.

The lin! between theambulatory and radiating chap%isis a particularly originalachievement Qsee page ;2, topleft@. ?ere at 4eims the chap%isare laid out in a circular patternso that they /ust touch the

ambulatory, #uite the opposite ofthe arrangement at )t.>enis,

)*

'5TT5D7

+ave, llthcentury, rebuilt andvaulted in the second half of the89th century

Ground plan of choir Qleft@Fagade Qbelow@, first half of8 lth and second half of89th century


69/441

4eims QDarne@, former 'enedictineabbey church of )t.4emi

'E5A7

$mbulatory and chap%is of the choir,begun under $bbot "ierre de -ellesQ88L829@


70/441

)

-hlonssurDarne QDarne@,former collegiate church of

+otre>ameen6au*-hoir Qbottom@, late 89th century


71/441

where both are drawn together under one vault. Ahere these two spatialelements meet, slender monolithic columns, the familiar motif of thechurch, rise up and support the vaults of the ambulatory and the chap%is.5n the remaining sides, the chapel vaults are supported by even moreslender monolithic responds which stand in front of the wall. Theimpression created is that the chapel vaults are canopies that standindependently.

The e*terior of the choir Qsee page ;1, bottom right@ puts all olderbuildings into the shade. ?ere we can see the already familiar decorativegradation from top to bottom. Ae can also clearly see that thismonumental construction is composed almost solely of windows set

between minimal sections of wall. The choir is supported by thin yetstrong buttresses and flying buttresses which, leaving a clear view of allthe windows, stand li!e proud witnesses of an elegant mastery of the

balance of forces.The choir of the collegiate church of +otre>ameen6au* in -hlons

surDarne Qsee right@, about C3 !ilometers Q9: miles@ southeast of 4eims,shows considerable affinity with )t.4emi, notably in its elevation and in

the arrangement of its radiating chap%is. The precise chronologicalrelationship of the two buildings has not been completely determined, but)t.4emi may well have supplied the model for +otre>ameen6au*.-ertainly the combination of different building styles, demonstrated insuch e*emplary fashion at )t.4emi, was attractive to the builders of thesmaller collegiate church because there had been continuous buildingthere during the 89th century, always to different plans. +ot until thesuccessful integration of the ambitious 4eims pattern, in whichinconsistency of style was the order of the day, could this lac! ofuniformity finally be accepted in a building characteri&ed by constant

changes of plan. In addition, the canons of +otre>ameen6au* had only/ust become wealthy, and so the idea of documenting the venerable historyof their church by preserving its various styles could not have come at a

better time.$s a result, +otre>ameen6au* can be seen as an imitation of those

churches in which differences of architectural style were used todemnstrate a venerable past. 'ut it also mar!s the end of the development of this stylistically heterogeneous Early Gothic type of church, inwhich the new had been developed out of a critical reappraisal of the od.$dmittedly, there were later (composite( churches of this !ind, but on the

whole during the second half of the 89th century there was a mar!ed shifttowards stylistically more uniform churches, though of course these hadhad always e*isted alongside the (composite( type.

The Gothic -athedral

The Emergence of a +ew Form>uring the 89th century, the cathedral of )ens, situated to the southeast of"aris, was the seat of the archbishop who was ("rimate of Gaul( and towhom even the bishop of "aris was subordnate.

# .

IIA5 # 6s7

Wk "o-***8/_ ].


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broad abacusprotrudes farinto the nave,seeminglywithoutanything tosupport it,

while the wallof the navestandss#uarely overthe free space

between thedoublecolumns,almost as ifthe architect,with a touchof playfulness,wanted to

show off /usthow light andthin his navewall was.4ising fromthese doublecolumns, and

stretchingright up to thevaults, areslender shaftsthat do notengage withthe wall

behind.'ecause ofthis, the main

piers are allthe stronger,and bear the

burden of thevaultsweight. Thelateral websof thesevaults originally carne

h l

'& wereconstructedeven beforethose of thechoir of )t.>enis, in otherwords before

h f

long had ciselin!s with

+oyon. $succession ofslendermonolithiccolumns

d h


73/441

much lower,as thewindows

beneath weresmaller thanthose thate*ist today.The vaultsmust oncehave loo!ed

li!e canopieson poles.Thoughlac!ing thesubtlety ofthe muchsmaller )t.>enis, thecathedral of)ens

provided anelegantalternative tothe architecturale*travaganceof e Dans.

The choirof the odcathedral of

+oyon Qseeabove, right@was builtafter a firehad causede*tensivedamage tothe church in88;8.

Ahether itwas begunbefore orafter )enscannot beclearly established. It maywell be thatthe e*ternalwalls of its

radiatingchap%is

a change ofplan led to thecreation of anew wealth ofshapes.

+evertheless,it can beassumed thatthere is someconnection

between atransfer ofrelies carriedout in 88:1and thecompletion ofthe inner choir, since itdisplays somesimilaritieswith the choirof )t.Germaindes"r%s in "aris,which wasconsecrated in88L;. Thecathedral

possesses fourstories Qsee

page C8, left@,anarrangementthat hadalready beenaccepted inolderchurches,above all in

the cathedralof Tournai,which had

surrounds theapse, as at)enlis and at)t.>enis. Thearcade archesloo! as if theyare carved outof the wall,while in thegallery story

they are muchmore richly

profiled. Forthe decorationof the buildingin general, andin particularfor theconstructionof theresponds,shaft rings

play a moreimportant parthere than inany other church built

before thisdate. Thelowest ringsdivides thesection of respond

between thecapitals andthe firststringcourseroughly in themiddle0 the

ne*t rings liee*actly at thesame height as

+oyon Q5ise@, -athedral of +otre>ame-hoir, probably begun mid 89th century

+oyon Q5ise@, -athedral of +otre>ame)outh transept


74/441

thisstringcourse.?igher upstill, the shaftring occurs#uite indepen

dently of other features,which ma!esthe respondsseem as if they are risingup completelydetached fromthe wall.

This

tendency toseprate walland vertical

supports, onlyhinted at in thechoir, isdevelopedmore fully inthe transepts

which,unusually,terminate inan apse Qseeabove, [email protected] the wallconsists of several layers.In front of thishollowedout

wall standsimpleresponds

which, risingwith arhythmicalmovementthrough theshaft rings andcapitals,

become

$ closetoperfect unityof the wholeemerges onlywith thecathedral ofaon, whose

architect

$lternatingclusters of five and threeresponds areplaced in frontof the fourstoried

internal main

+oyon,intersect thestringcoursesat regular intervals,dividing theresponds into

sections that


75/441

becomeincreasinglyfree of thewalls. Inaddition, thecapitalssupporting thevault are solow that thepointed

windows ofthe second tierloo! as if theyare beingdrawn up intothe vaults.This subtledelicacy in thelayering of thewall is ta!en

up again in thenave of thecathedral,though themainarchitecturaldecorationwas clearlyreserved forthe liturgically

moreimportanteastern parts.+evertheless,though theindividualelements arearrangedharmoniously, thecathedral of+oyon doesnot form aunified whole,as the variouschanges to thedesign can beclearly seen.

architectborrowed agreat manyforms from+oyon. Thebuilding wasstarted in 88L3and the mostimportantparts were

completedshortly after8933. Thecathedral, animportantpilgrimagecenter, wasoriginally agalleriedbasilica with

an ambulatory and along transept.'oth the westfa]ade andtranseptfarades wereto beaccentuatedby double

towers, butthis plan wase*ecuted fullyonly on themain, west,faade0 afurther towerrises up overthe crossing.The result isthat thebuildingsdistinctivesilhouette isvisible fromfar away,since the-athedral of+otre>ameat aon standson a hilloverloo!ing abroad plain.

internal mainwalls Qseepage C9@, eachshaft of arespondcorrespondingto a rib of these*partitevault. Theseresponds,

unli!e those at

sections thatseem to beuniformmodules. Twoof thesesections of therespond liebetween

C8

aon Q$isne@, -athedral of+otre >ame

5""5)ITE7

aon Q$isne@, -athedral of +otre>ameAest front, begun before 8933

the pier capital andthestringcourseof the gallery

architecturalspace,integratesfully with thebuildings


76/441

Q @,+otre>ame+ave and choir, begun ca. 88L3,e*tensin to choir completedca. 8993Ground plan Qright@

of the gallery.Three moreare needed toreach thetriforium,whose heightis e#ual to onefurther sectionof respond.5n two pairsof piers westof thecrossing theresponds areeven ta!enright down tofloor level, sothat the

building inthis section isconstructedentirely in(respondmodules.(The manymonolithicrespond shaftscorrespond tothe largenumber of smallcolumnarshafts in thegallery,triforium, andclerestory,even to theribs of thevault. $s aresult, theinterior seemsrichly but note*cessivelydecorated.Instead of running out ofcontrol, thedecoration,

being alogical andcoherentarticulation ofthe

building sstructure.

Knli!e )t.>enis in "arisand )t.4emiin 4eims, thecathedral ofaon gains itsdignity notthrough thecontrast ofdiffering

parts, butthrough thecreation of a

building thatforms acoherentwhole both instructure andin decoration.The buildersand thearchitect inaonremainedloyal to this

principiewhen shortlyafter 8933 theshort choir,started C3years earlier,was pulleddown again inorder to builda final, muchlarger andlonger, choir.Its stylematches thatof

the olderparts ofthe church

perfectly.In other words, anarchitec

tural stylealready

ran along theeast wall has

been bloc!edoff.

There maywell have

been aesthetic

reasons forthe

increased theunity of theinterior of the

building.The west

front of aonQsee

opposite@,built in the


77/441

u s y ealreadydecadesod wasrepeated,despite thefact that inthemeantimearchitectur

al styleshad longsince ta!ena differentcourse. Aecan onlyspeculateon thereasons forthe

demolitionandrebuildingof thechoir. >idthe richanddistinguishedcathedral

chapter ofaonconsiderthe odchoir toosmallP 5rdid itworry that

pilgrims,high up inits gallery,were ableto wal! aroundtheire*clusivemeeting

placeP-ertainlyin the newchoir thegallerythat once

e so s otherebuilding,since thelength of thee*tendedchoircorrespondsappro*imatelyto that of the

nave, so thatboth parts ofthe buildingnow e*tendalmostsymmetricallyfrom thecrossing. Inaddition, thelarge rose

windowabove thethree lancetsin the neweast fagade isa mirrorimage of therose windowof the westfacade. $s

both transeptfaradesalready hadrose windows

before thenew buildingwor! began,the additionof this rosewindow onthe eastfaade meantthat from thecrossing ahuge circularwindow couldnow be seenin all four directions. Inother words,the alterationsto the choirgreatly

oppos e@,built in thelast years ofthe 89thcentury,represents aremar!ableachievementin Gothicarchitecture.

?ere thestructure ofthe older twotower facadeis consistentlyreflectedinside the

building withthe result that,

for the firsttime, a fagadeis integratedinto the bodyof the

building, nolongerstanding infront of it asan

independentbloc!. $t thesame time, thewest fronte*hibits astrong senseof rhythm andthreedimensionalform7 the

portis /ut outli!e triumphalarches, andthe windowsabove the

portis,dominated bythe rosewindow in thecenter, aredeeply set

bac!.Doreover, the

towersdeveloplogicallyfrom thelower partof the

building,

and nolonger

wasimitatedover andover again.Themedievalartist

6illard de?onnecour

wor! reachedits height, forinstead of thegroundfloorarcade havinga single arch

per bay and

the gallerytwo Qthe usual

arrangement@,both lev%ishave threee*tremelyslender archesset betweenthe main

piers.


78/441

longerappear to

be merelyadded on,as at )t.>enis.This was

possiblebecause

thearchitectof aonswest frontconcealedthe front

buttressessos!illfullythat it is

hard to seethat they

begin bythe portisandcontinu%upwards

betweenthewindows.

$nd so ataon acompletelydifferent

pictureemergesfrom)enlis,where the

buttresses

domnatethe facadefrom theground upto thetowers.The westfront of aon wasso highlyvalued bycontemporaries that it

?onnecourt includedit in hisfamouss!etchboo! as earlyas the8993s,claiming it

had themostbeautifultowers hehad everseen.

To thebuildingswith fourstoried

elevationswe havealreadyloo!ed atQ)t.4emiin 4eimsand thecathedralsof +oyonand aon@,

we cannow add,as theyoungestmember,thecathedralof)oissonsQsee page

CC@, wherea fourstoriedsouthtranseptwas builtsoon after

buildingland wasdonated in8811. It ishere thatfiligree

g ytwo Qthe usual p

'%

,


79/441

1 -f i

ame in"aris. $fter a lengthy period of planning, during which time individualparts of the od structure may already have

''

stone for a completely new building, a building which can in a sense beregarded as the prototype Gothic cathedral. This is not because it wasthe first cathedral in the Gothic style Q)ens and )enlis are earlier@ butbecause here for the first time there was an attempt to construct, in thenew style, a monumental building that was characteristic of its type andyet uni#ue. Aith a length of 8;3 meters QC9L feet@ and a height of ;:meters Q88: feet@ to the vaults, +otre>ame in "aris far e*ceeds theusual si&e of a Gothic cathedral. +o wonder that in order to reali&e the

pro/ect, the building control regulations of an entire district had to bechangedW Vet for the cathedral of a capital city, situated cise to theresidence of the increasingly powerful !ings, all this was not considerede*cessive.

+otre>ame is a basilica with galleries and double side aisles, anarrangement previously found only in such eminent buildings as theabbey church in -luny and )t. "eters in 4ome. This alone indicates theprivileged position of +otre>ame, particularly as Gothic churches withdouble side aisles were the e*ception later. )eparated by huge columns,the double aisles of the nave become a double ambulatory in the apse.

The problem of the ambulatory spreading out in an everincreasingradius was solved by doubling the number of columns and by settingtriangular vaults against each other, with the result that the wholeambulatory of +otre>ame displays an even regularity of shape.

)imilarly, the arcades in the main nave also have a series of uniformcolumns, as at )t.Germaindes"r%s, resulting in the rhythm betweenthe straight and rounded parts of the choir remaining unchanged. This isall the more astonishing as the nave of +otre>ame has se*partitevaults, which elsewhere are always lin!ed by stronger or slender piersin alternation, according to the changing number of vault ribs. $bove

the piers rise uniform clusters of slender responds, always in threes,ma!ing no allowance for the fact that each cluster has to correspond toa different vault profile. This irregularity is disguised in a way similarto that used at the start of the choir apse at )t.Germaindes"r%s7 thethree responds of one cluster support two wall ribs and a transverse rib0the three responds of the ne*t cluster support two diagonal ribs and atransverse rib, and also Qout of view@ two wall ribs. 5nly in this waywas it possible to build a row of completely uniform arches, galleries,and windows, and it was only in this way that the most elegantproportions could be achieved.

The huge webs of the se*partite vaults, which are much larger thanthe more closely spaced ones of a #uadripartite vault, correspond tolarge reas of wall. In other words, the builders of +otre>ame did notaim for a total opening up of the wall surface Qas in the south transept of)oissons@, but for an effective contrast between a recogni&ably thin andflatter wall on the one hand, and slender responds Qwithout shaft rings@and vault ribs on the other. 5riginally this effect was even more stri!ingsince the wall surface above the gallery was larger, the rea above beingbro!en only by rose windows

'E5A7

"aris, -athedral of +otre>ame,begun 88L;

Ql f @


82/441

+ave Qleft@Aest front Qright@, begun ca. 8933

withmodestsi&edopenings.This

arrangement was not tolast

because thecathedralwas toodar!0 asearly as the8;thcentury the

windowswereenlargedand in the8ucremodeledthemaround thecrossing.

In thenave of

+otre>ame anewarchitectadded some

variationsto thecontrastingsystem ofwall andsupports.Thegalleries,which now

possess

threeopenings,are no

longersupportedat the sides

by roundshafts but

by fatpilasters.Thesecontrastwith theresponds inthe nave,which,even moreslender

than thosein the choir,consist oftall,monolithicshafts nolongerflush withthe wall.

Thetheme of the fat wallis adoptedagain in thewest frontof +otre>ame Qsee

below,right@,

which goesbac! to thetype used ataon, butwith a #uitedifferentcharacter.'ecausethe towersat +otre

>ame,unli!ethose at

aon, standabovedouble sideaisles, theyare widerand morestable, sothat the

buttressesdo not have

loo!ing at atriumphalarch with aroyalgallery, aline of statuesrepresentin

g all theFrench


83/441

to protrudevery far.Doreover,they almostsin! intothe wall ofthe firststory,which was

pulledforward sofar that the

portis areset deeplyinto themand do not

protrude, as

at aon. Itcreates theimpressionof

!ings,whichdemonstrates thehistoricalcontinuityandauthority ofthemonarchy.

+owhereelse inmedievalarchitecturedoes aroyalgallery

display asuccessionofmonarchs,here shownin cisearray, #uitesoimpressively. This

effect couldbe achievedonly

because thebuilders of+otre>ame,unli!e the

builders ofaon,

avoided therhythmicintensification of thefacadedecorationas it movestowards thecenter.5nly in the

upperstories andtowers,

wheredelicateshapesappear,does theimpactdecreasewithout

detractingfrom the

+ormandy,which then

belonged toEngland,and for thisreason was

particularlyimportant

for theFrench


84/441

sublimeoverallimpression.

?owpowerfulanimpression

+otre>ame in"aris madecan be seenfrom thecollegiatechurch of

+otre>ame inDant%s,

situatedalmost onthe border

betweenthe French4oyal>omainand

!ing. It wasprobablybegunaround88L3,accordingto an oddesign,withslendermonolithic

piers in theapse andalternatingsupports.This planwas soon

modified toreflect thearchitectureof +otre>ame in"aris. Thuswe


85/441

C:


86/441

ir*

ame+ave vault


87/441

'*

4lG?T7

'raine Q$isne@, former "remonstratensianabbey church of )t.Vved, begun towards 88


88/441

'E5A7

Dant%s QVvelines@, former collegiatechurch of +otre>ame

.6iew from northwest, beguntowards 8933

-E+TE47+ave and choir, ca. last third of89th century

find here once

again the thinmembraneli!ee*panse of fatwall, anelevation withno triforium, andgiant vault websQsee above,center@, whileslender clusters

of responds riseup to contrastwith the wallsurface. 5n thewest front ofDant%s Qseeabove, left@

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Rolf Toman - The Art Of Gothic.doc

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