Roman Emperor

8/20/2019 Roman Emperor

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Roman emperor

For The ruler of the Roman Kingdom in the archaic pe-riod, see Kings of Rome. For the dual chief magistratesduring the Roman Republic, see Roman consul. For theRoman emperors, see List of Roman emperors.

The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Stateduring the imperial period (starting in 27 BC). The em-perors used a variety of different titles throughout his-tory. Often when a given Roman is described as be-coming “emperor” in English, it reflects his taking of the

title augustus or caesar . Another title often used wasimperator , originally a military honorific. Early Emperorsalso used the title princeps . Emperors frequently amassedRepublican titles, notably princeps Senatus , consul andPontifex Maximus .

The legitimacy of an emperor’s rule depended on his con-trol of the army and recognition by the Senate; an em-peror would normally be proclaimed by his troops, or in-vested with imperial titles by the Senate, or both. Thefirst emperors reigned alone; later emperors would some-times rule with co-Emperors and divide administration ofthe Empire between them.

The Romans considered the office of emperor to be dis-tinct to that of a king. The first emperor, Augustus, reso-lutely refused recognition as a monarch.[1] Although Au-gustus could claim that his power was authentically Re-publican, his successor, Tiberius, could not convincinglymake the same claim.[2] Nonetheless, for the first threehundred years of Roman Emperors, from Augustus untilDiocletian, a great effort was made to emphasize that theEmperors were the leaders of a Republic.

From Diocletian onwards, emperors ruled in an openlymonarchic style[3] and did not preserve the nominal prin-ciple of a republic, but the contrast with “kings” wasmaintained: although the imperial succession was gen-erally hereditary, it was only hereditary if there wasa suitable candidate acceptable to the army and thebureaucracy,[4] so the principle of automatic inheritancewas not adopted. Elements of the Republican institu-tional framework (senate, consuls, and magistrates) werepreserved until the very end of the Western Empire.

The Eastern (Byzantine) emperors ultimately adopted thetitle of "Basileus" (βασιλεύς), which had meant king inGreek, but became a title reserved solely for the Romanemperor and the ruler of the Sasanian Empire. Otherkings were then referred to as rēgas .[5]

In addition to their pontifical office, some emperors weregiven divine status after death. With the eventual hege-

mony of Christianity, the emperor came to be seen asGod’s chosen ruler and as a special protector and leaderof the Christian Church on Earth, although in practicean emperor’s authority on Church matters was subject tochallenge.

The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5thcentury. Romulus Augustulus is often considered to bethe last emperor of the west after his forced abdica-tion in 476, although Julius Nepos maintained a claimto the title until his death in 480. Meanwhile, in the

east, emperors continued to rule from Constantinople(“New Rome”); these are referred to in modern schol-arship as "Byzantine emperor" but they used no such ti-tle and called themselves “Roman Emperor” (βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων). Constantine XI was the last Byzantine Ro-man emperor in Constantinople, dying in the Fall of Con-stantinople to the Ottomans in 1453.

Due to the cultural rupture of the Turkish conquest, mostwestern historians treat Constantine XI as last meaningfulclaimant to the title Roman Emperor, although from thisdate Ottoman rulers were titled “Caesar of Rome” (Turk-ish: Kayser-i Rum)[6] until the Ottoman Empire ended in

1922. A Byzantine group of claimant Roman Emperorsexisted in the Empire of Trebizond until its conquest bythe Ottomans in 1461. In western Europe the title of Ro-man Emperor was revived by Germanic rulers, the "HolyRoman Emperors", in 800, and was used until 1806.

1 Background and first Roman em-

peror

Modern historians conventionally regard Augustus as the

first Emperor whereas Julius Caesar is considered the lastdictator of the Roman Republic, a view having its ori-gins in the Roman writers Plutarch, Tacitus and CassiusDio.[7] However, the majority of Roman writers, includ-ing Josephus, Pliny the Younger, Suetonius and Appian,as well as most of the ordinary people of the Empire,thought of Julius Caesar as the first Emperor.[8]

At the end of the Roman Republic no new, and certainlyno single, title indicated the individual who held supremepower. Insofar as emperor could be seen as the Englishtranslation of imperator, then Julius Caesar had been anemperor, like several Roman generals before him. In-

stead, by the end of the civil wars in which Julius Caesarhad led his armies, it became clear on the one hand thatthere was certainly no consensus to return to the old-style

1

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2 2 CLASSICAL PERIOD

Statue of Augustus , c. 30 BC–20 BC; this statue is located in the

Louvre

monarchy, and that on the other hand the situation whereseveral officials, bestowed with equal power by the sen-ate, fought one another had to come to an end.

Julius Caesar, then Augustus after him, accumulated of-fices and titles of the highest importance in the Republic,making the power attached to these offices permanent,

and preventing anyone with similar aspirations from ac-cumulating or maintaining power for themselves. How-ever, Julius Caesar, unlike those after him, did so without the Senate’s vote and approval.

Julius Caesar held the Republican offices of consul fourtimes and dictator five times, was appointed dictator inperpetuity (dictator perpetuo) in 45 BC and had been“pontifex maximus” for several decades. He gained thesepositions by senatorial consent. By the time of his as-sassination, he was the most powerful man in the Romanworld.

In his will, Caesar appointed his adopted son Octavian as

his heir. On Caesar’s death, Octavian inherited his adop-tive father’s property and lineage, the loyalty of most ofhis allies and - again through a formal process of senato-

rial consent – an increasing number of the titles and of-fices that had accrued to Caesar. A decade after Caesar’sdeath, Octavian’s victory over his erstwhile ally MarkAntony at Actium put an end to any effective oppositionand confirmed Octavian’s supremacy.

In 27 BC, Octavian appeared before the Senate and of-fered to retire from active politics and government; theSenate not only requested he remain, but increased hispowers and made them lifelong, awarding him the title ofAugustus (the elevated or divine one, somewhat less thana god but approaching divinity). Augustus stayed in officeuntil his death; the sheer breadth of his superior powersas princeps and permanent imperator of Rome’s armiesguaranteed the peaceful continuation of what nominallyremained a republic. His “restoration” of powers to theSenate and the people of Rome was a demonstration ofhis auctoritas and pious respect for tradition.

Even at Augustus’ death, some later historians such asTacitus would say that the true restoration of the Repub-lic might have been possible. Instead, Augustus activelyprepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his replacementand pleaded his case to the Senate for inheritance throughmerit. The Senate disputed the issue but eventually con-firmed Tiberius as princeps. Once in power, Tiberiustook considerable pains to observe the forms and day-to-day substance of republican government.

2 Classical period

Rome used no single constitutional office, title or rankexactly equivalent to the English title “Roman emperor”.Romans of the Imperial era used several titles to de-note their emperors, and all were associated with the pre-Imperial, Republican era.

The emperor’s legal authority derived from an extraordi-nary concentration of individual powers and offices thatwere extant in the Republic rather than coming from anew political office; emperors were regularly elected tothe offices of consul and censor. Among their permanentprivileges were the traditional Republican title of princeps

senatus (leader of the Senate) and the religious office of pontifex maximus (chief priest of the Roman state). Ev-ery emperor held the latter office and title until Gratiansurrendered it in 382 AD to Pope Siricius; it eventuallybecame an auxiliary honor of the Bishop of Rome.

These titles and offices conferred great personal pres-tige (dignitas ) but the basis of an emperor’s powers de-rived from his auctoritas : this assumed his greater pow-ers of command (imperium maius ) and tribunician power(tribunicia potestas ) as personal qualities, independent ofhis public office. As a result, he formally outrankedprovincial governors and ordinary magistrates. He had

the right to enact or revoke sentences of capital punish-ment, was owed the obedience of private citizens ( pri-vati ) and by the terms of the ius auxiliandi could save

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2.2 Princeps 3

any plebeian from any patrician magistrate’s decision. Hecould veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, includ-ing the tribunes of the people (ius intercedendi or ius in-tercessionis ). His person was held to be sacrosanct.

Roman magistrates on official business were expected to

wear the form of toga associated with their office; differ-ent togas were worn by different ranks; senior magistrateshad the right to togas bordered with purple. A triumphalimperator of the Republic had the right to wear the toga

picta (of solid purple, richly embroidered) for the dura-tion of the triumphal rite. During the Late Republic, themost powerful had this right extended. Pompey and Cae-sar are both thought to have worn the triumphal toga andother triumphal dress at public functions. Later emper-ors were distinguished by wearing togae purpurae, purpletogas; hence the phrase “to don the purple” for the as-sumption of imperial dignity.

The titles customarily associated with the imperial dig-nity are imperator (“commander”), which emphasizes theemperor’s military supremacy and is the source of theEnglish word emperor ; caesar , which was originally aname but it came to be used for the designated heir (asNobilissimus Caesar , “Most Noble Caesar”) and was re-tained upon accession. The ruling emperor’s title was thedescriptive augustus (“majestic” or “venerable”, whichhad tinges of the divine), which was adopted upon ac-cession. In Greek, these three titles were rendered asautokratōr ("Αὐτοκράτωρ"), kaisar ("Καίσαρ"), andaugoustos ("Αὔγουστος") or sebastos ("Σεβαστός") re-spectively. In Diocletian's Tetrarchy, the traditional se-

niorities were maintained: Augustus was reserved for thetwo senior emperors and Caesar for the two junior em-perors – each delegated a share of power and responsibil-ity but each an emperor-in-waiting, should anything befallhis senior.

As princeps senatus (lit., “first man of the senate”), theemperor could receive foreign embassies to Rome; someemperors (such as Tiberius) are known to have delegatedthis task to the Senate. In modern terms these early em-perors would tend to be identified as chiefs of state. Theoffice of princeps senatus, however, was not a magistracyand did not entail imperium. At some points in the Em-

pire’s history, the emperor’s power was nominal; pow-erful praetorian prefects, masters of the soldiers and ona few occasions, other members of the Imperial house-hold including Imperial mothers and grandmothers actedas the true source of power.

2.1 Imperator

Main article: Imperator

The title imperator dates back to the Roman Republic,

when a victorious commander could be hailed as impera-tor in the field by his troops. The Senate could then awardor withhold the extraordinary honour of a triumph; the

triumphal commander retained the title until the end ofhis magistracy.[9] Roman tradition held the first triumphas that of Romulus but the first attested recipient of thetitle imperator in a triumphal context is Aemilius Paulusin 189 BC.[9] It was a title held with great pride: Pompeywas hailed imperator more than once, as was Sulla, but

it was Julius Caesar who first used it permanently - ac-cording to Dio, this was a singular and excessive form offlattery granted by the Senate, passed to Caesar’s adoptedheir along with his name and virtually synonymous withit.[10]

In 38 BC Agrippa refused a triumph for his victories un-der Octavian's command and this precedent establishedthe rule that the princeps should assume both the saluta-tion and title of imperator . It seems that from then onOctavian (later first emperor Augustus) used imperatoras a praenomen (Imperator Caesar not Caesar imperator ).From this the title came to denote the supreme power and

was commonly used in that sense. Otho was the first toimitate Augustus but only with Vespasian did imperator (emperor) become the official title by which the ruler ofthe Roman Empire was known.

2.2 Princeps

The word princeps (plural principes ), meaning “first”, wasa republican term used to denote the leading citizen(s)of the state. It was a purely honorific title with no at-tached duties or powers. It was the title most preferred

by Caesar Augustus as its use implies only primacy, asopposed to another of his titles, imperator , which impliesdominance. Princeps , because of its republican connota-tion, was most commonly used to refer to the emperor inLatin (although the emperor’s actual constitutional posi-tion was essentially “pontifex maximus with tribunicianpower and imperium superseding all others”) as it wasin keeping with the façade of the restored Republic; theGreek word basileus (“king”) was modified to be synony-mous with emperor (and primarily came into favour afterthe reign of Heraclius) as the Greeks had no republicansensibility and openly viewed the emperor as a monarch.

In the era of Diocletian and beyond, princeps

fell into dis-use and was replaced with dominus (“lord”);[11] later em-perors used the formula Imperator Caesar NN. Pius Fe-lix (Invictus) Augustus . NN representing the individual’spersonal name, Pius Felix, meaning “Pious and Blest”,and Invictus meaning “undefeated”. The use of prin-ceps and dominus broadly symbolise the differences in theempire’s government, giving rise to the era designations"Principate" and "Dominate".

2.3 Evolution in Late Antiquity

In 293, following the Crisis of the Third Century whichhad severely damaged Imperial administration, EmperorDiocletian enacted sweeping reforms that washed away

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4 3 TITLES AND POSITIONS

many of the vestiges and façades of republicanism whichhad characterized the Augustan order in favor of a morefrank autocracy. As a result, historians distinguish theAugustinian period as the principate and the periodfrom Diocletian to the 7th century reforms of EmperorHeraclius as the dominate (from the Latin for “lord.”)

Reaching back to the oldest traditions of job-sharing inthe republic, however, Diocletian established at the topof this new structure the Tetrarchy (“rule of four”) in anattempt to provide for smoother succession and greatercontinuity of government. Under the Tetrarchy, Diocle-tian set in place a system of co-emperors, styled Augustus and junior emperors, styled Caesar . When a co-emperorretired (as Diocletian and his co-emperor Maximian didin 305) or died, a junior Caesar would succeed him andthe co-emperors would appoint new caesars as needed.

The four members of the Imperial college (as historians

call the arrangement) shared military and administrativechallenges by each being assigned specific geographic ar-eas of the empire. From this innovation, often, but notconsistently repeated over the next 187 years, comes thenotion of an east-west partition of the empire that be-came popular with historians long after the practice hadstopped. The two halves of empire, while often run asde facto separate entities day-to-day, were always con-sidered and seen, legally and politically, as separate ad-ministrative divisions of a single, insoluble imperium bythe Romans of the time.

The final period of co-emperorship began in 395, whenEmperor Theodosius I's sons Arcadius and Honorius suc-ceeded as co-emperors. Eighty-five years later, followingGermanic migrations which had reduced the empire’s ef-fective control across Brittania, Gaul and Hispania and aseries of military coup d'état which drove Emperor Neposout of Italy, the idea of dividing the position of emperorwas formally abolished by Emperor Zeno (480).

The Roman Empire survived in the east until 1453, butthe marginalization of the former heartland of Italy tothe empire would have profound cultural impacts on theempire and the position of emperor. In 620, the of-ficial language was changed from Latin to Greek, andalthough the Greek-speaking inhabitants were Romaioi (Ῥωμαῖοι), and were still considered Romans by them-selves and the populations of Eastern Europe, the NearEast, India, and China, many in Western Europe be-gan to refer to the political entity as the “Greek Em-pire”. The evolution of the church in the no-longer im-perial city of Rome and the church in the now supremeConstantinople began to follow divergent paths culminat-ing in the split between the Roman Catholic and EasternOrthodox faiths. The position of emperor was increas-ingly influenced by Near Eastern concepts of kingship.Starting with Emperor Heraclius, Roman emperors styledthemselves “King of Kings” (from the imperial Persian

“Shananshah”) from 627 and “Basileus” (from the titleused by Alexander the Great) from 629. The later period

of the empire is today called the Byzantine Empire as amatter of scholarly convention.

3 Titles and positions

Although these are the most common offices, titles, andpositions, not all Roman emperors used them, nor wereall of them used at the same time in history. The consularand censorial offices especially were not an integral partof the Imperial dignity, and were usually held by personsother than the reigning emperor.

• Augustus: (also "Αὔγουστος" or "Σεβαστός"),“Majestic” or “Venerable"; an honorific cognomenexclusive to the emperor.

•

Autokrator: (Αὐτοκράτωρ, Autokratōr ), (lit. “Self-ruler”); Greek title equivalent to imperator orcommander-in-chief.

• Basileus: (Βασιλεύς), Greek for king, popularlyused in the east to refer to the emperor; a formal titleof the Roman emperor beginning with Heraclius.

• Caesar: (also "Καίσαρ"), “Caesar"; initially thecognomen of Julius Caesar, it was transformed intoa title; an honorific name later used to identify anemperor-designate.

• Censor: a Republican office held jointly by two for-mer consuls every five years for the purpose of con-ducting the lustrum that determined the role of citi-zens; the censor could audit all other magistrates andall state finances.

• Consul: the highest magistracy of the Roman Re-public with a one-year term and one coequal of-ficeholder; the consul was the head of state withinRome. The last emperor to be bestowed the title bythe Senate was Constans II, who was also the last

emperor to visit Rome.

• Dominus (“Lord” or “Master”): an honorific titlemainly associated with the Dominate

• Dominus Noster(“Our Lord”): an honorific title; thepraenomen of later emperors.

• Imperator (“Commander” or “Commander-in-Chief”): a victory title taken on accession to thepurple and after a major military victory

• Imperator Destinatus (“Destined to be Emperor”):heir apparent, used by Septimius Severus forCaracalla.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracallahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victory_titleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperatorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominus_(title)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constans_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_consulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lustrumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_censorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognomenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_(title)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracliushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basileus#Romans_and_Byzantineshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autokratorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognomenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_(honorific)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Greathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracliushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Neposhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coup_d%2527%C3%A9tathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracliushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principate


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3.1 Powers 5

• Invictus (“Unconquered”), an honorific title.

• Nobilissimus: (Nωβελίσσιμος, Nōbelissimos ),(“Most Noble”), one of the highest imperial titlesheld by the emperor.

• Pater Patriae (“Father of the Fatherland”): an hon-orific title.

• Perpetuus (“Universal”): an honorific title of lateremperors.

• Pius Felix (“Pious and Blessed”): an honorific title.

• Pontifex Maximus (“Supreme Pontiff” or “ChiefPriest”): in the Republican era, the Pontifex Max-imus was the head of the College of Pontiffs, thereligious body that oversaw the ancestral public reli-gion of the Romans; Julius Caesar had become Pon-tifex Maximus before he was elected consul, and theprecedent set by his heir Augustus in consolidatingsupreme authority through this religious office wasin general followed by his successors until the em-pire came under Christian rule

• Princeps (“First Citizen” or “Leading Citizen”): anhonorific title denoting the status of the emperor asfirst among equals, associated mainly with the Prin-cipate

• Princeps Iuventutis: (“Prince of Youth”), an hon-orific title awarded to a presumptive emperor-designate.

• Princeps Senatus: (“First Man of the Senate”), a Re-publican office with a five-year term.

• Sebastos: (Σεβαστός), (“Venerable”); the Greekrendition of the imperial title Augustus .

• Sebastokrator: (Σεβαστοκράτωρ, Sebastokratōr ),(“Venerable Ruler); a senior court title fromthe compound words “sebastos” (“venerable”, theGreek equivalent of the LatinAugustus ) and “kratōr”(“ruler”, the same element as is found in “au-tokratōr”, “emperor”).

• Tribunicia Potestas: (“Tribunician Power”); thepowers of a tribune of the people, including sacro-sanctity and inviolability of his person, and the vetoover any decision by any other magistrate, assem-bly, or the Senate (the emperor could not be a

"tribune" because a tribune was a plebeian by defi-nition, therefore the emperor had all the powers ofa tribune without actually being one).

3.1 Powers

When Augustus established the Princeps , he turned downsupreme authority in exchange for a collection of vari-ous powers and offices, which in itself was a demonstra-

tion of his auctoritas (“authority”). As holding princeps senatus , the emperor declared the opening and closure ofeach Senate session, declared the Senate’s agenda, im-posed rules and regulation for the Senate to follow, andmet with foreign ambassadors in the name of the Senate.Being pontifex maximus made the emperor the chief ad-ministrator of religious affairs, granting him the powerto conduct all religious ceremonies, consecrate temples,control the Roman calendar (adding or removing days asneeded), appoint the vestal virgins and some flamens, leadthe Collegium Pontificum, and summarize the dogma ofthe Roman religion.

While these powers granted the emperor a great deal ofpersonal pride and influence, they did not include legalauthority. In 23 BC, Augustus gave the emperorship itslegal power. The first was Tribunicia Potestas , orthe pow-ers of the tribune of the plebs without actually holding theoffice (which would have been impossible, since a tribunewas by definition a plebeian, whereas Augustus, althoughborn into a plebeian family, had become a patrician whenhe was adopted into the gens Julia). This endowed theemperor with inviolability (sacrosanctity) of his person,and the ability to pardon any civilian for any act, crimi-nal or otherwise. By holding the powers of the tribune,the emperor could prosecute anyone who interfered withthe performance of his duties. The emperor’s tribune-ship granted him the right to convene the Senate at hiswill and lay proposals before it, as well as the ability toveto any act or proposal by any magistrate, including theactual tribune of the plebeians. Also, as holder of thetribune’s power, the emperor would convoke the Councilof the People, lay legislation before it, and served as thecouncil’s president. But his tribuneship only granted himpower within Rome itself. He would need another powerto veto the act of governors and that of the consuls whilein the provinces.

To solve this problem, Augustus managed to have the em-peror be given the right to hold two types of imperium.The first being consular imperium while he was in Rome,and imperium maius outside of Rome. While inside thewalls of Rome, the reigning consuls and the emperor heldequal authority, each being able to veto each other’s pro-posals and acts, with the emperor holding all of the con-sul’s powers. But outside of Rome, the emperor out-ranked the consuls and could veto them without the sameeffects on himself. Imperium Maius also granted the em-peror authority over all the provincial governors, mak-ing him the ultimate authority in provincial matters andgave him the supreme command of all of Rome’s legions.

With Imperium Maius, the emperor was also granted thepower to appoint governors of imperial provinces withoutthe interference of the Senate. Also, Imperium Maius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_provincehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_legionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Governorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_provincehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_assemblieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_assemblieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribunehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_(gens)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebeianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribunehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogmahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Pontiffshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flamenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestal_virginhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps_senatushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps_senatushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auctoritashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebeianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribunehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribunehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastokratorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps_Senatushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primus_inter_pareshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princepshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Pontiffshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetuushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pater_Patriaehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobilissimus


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6 4 LINEAGES AND EPOCHS

granted the emperor the right to veto the governors ofthe provinces and even the reigning consul while in theprovinces.

4 Lineages and epochs

4.1 Principate

Main article: Roman Emperor (Principate)

The nature of the imperial office and the Principate wasestablished under Julius Caesar's heir and posthumouslyadopted son, Caesar Augustus, and his own heirs, thedescendants of his wife Livia from her first marriage toa scion of the distinguished Claudian clan. This Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end when the Emperor

Nero— a great-great-grandson of Augustus through hisdaughter and of Livia through her son—was deposed in68.

Nero was followed by a succession of usurpers throughout69, commonly called the "Year of the Four Emperors".The last of these, Vespasian, established his own Flaviandynasty. Nerva, who replaced the last Flavian emperor,Vespasian’s son Domitian, in 96, was elderly and child-less, and chose therefore to adopt an heir, Trajan, fromoutside his family. When Trajan acceded to the purplehe chose to follow his predecessor’s example, adoptingHadrian as his own heir, and the practice then became

the customary manner of imperial succession for the nextcentury, producing the "Five Good Emperors" and theEmpire’s period of greatest stability.

The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, chosehis natural son Commodus as his successor rather thanadopting an heir. Commodus’s misrule led to his murderon 31 December 192, following which a brief period ofinstability quickly gave way to Septimius Severus, whoestablished the Severan dynasty which, except for an in-terruption in 217-218, held the purple until 235.

4.2 Crisis of the Third Century

Main article: Roman Emperor (Crisis of the ThirdCentury)

The accession of Maximinus Thrax marks both the closeand the opening of an era. It was one of the last at-tempts by the increasingly impotent Roman Senate toinfluence the succession. Yet it was the second timethat a man had achieved the purple while owing his ad-vancement purely to his military career; both Vespasianand Septimius Severus had come from noble or middle-

class families, while Thrax was born a commoner. Henever visited the city of Rome during his reign, whichmarks the beginning of a series of "barracks emperors"

who came from the army. Between 235 and 285 over adozen emperors achieved the purple, but only Valerianand Carus managed to secure their own sons’ successionto the throne; both dynasties died out within two genera-tions.

4.3 Dominate

Main article: Roman Emperor (Dominate)

The accession on 20 November 284, of Diocletian, thelower-class, Greek-speaking Dalmatian commander ofCarus’s and Numerian’s household cavalry ( protectores domestici ), marked major innovations in Rome’s govern-ment and constitutional theory. Diocletian, a tradition-alist and religious conservative, attempted to secure effi-

cient, stable government and a peaceful succession withthe establishment of the Tetrarchy. The empire was di-vided into East and West, each ruled by an Augustusassisted by a Caesar as emperor-in-waiting. These di-visions were further subdivided into new or reformedprovinces, administered by a complex, hierarchic bu-reaucracy of unprecedented size and scope. Diocletian’sown court was based at Nicomedia. His co-Augustus,Maximian, was based at Mediolanum (modern Milan).Their courts were peripatetic, and Imperial progressionsthrough the provinces made much use of the impres-sive, theatrical adventus, or “Imperial arrival” ceremony,

which employed an elaborate choreography of etiquetteto emphasise the emperor’s elevationabove other mortals.Hyperinflation of imperial honours and titles served to di-istinguished the Augusti from their Caesares , and Diocle-tian, as senior Augustus , from his colleague Maximian.The senior Augustus in particular was made a separateand unique being, accessible only through those closestto him. The overall unity of the Empire still required thehighest investiture of power and status in one man.[12]

The Tetrarchy ultimately degenerated into civil war,but the eventual victor, Constantine the Great, restoredDiocletian’s division of Empire into East and West.

He kept the East for himself and founded his city ofConstantinople as its new capital. Constantine’s own dy-nasty was also soon swallowed up in civil war and courtintrigue until it was replaced, briefly, by Julian the Apos-tate's general Jovian and then, more permanently, byValentinian I and the dynasty he founded in 364. Thougha soldier from a low middle-class background, Valen-tinian was made emperor by a conclave of senior generalsand civil officials.

4.4 Late empire

Main article: Roman Emperor (Late Empire)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperor_(Late_Empire)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentinian_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jovian_(Emperor)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_the_Apostatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_the_Apostatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventus_(ceremony)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_(title)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_(honorific)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrarchyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticus_(Roman_Empire)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmatia_(Roman_province)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperor_(Dominate)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barracks_emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reignhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespasianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximinus_Thraxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperor_(Crisis_of_the_Third_Century)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperor_(Crisis_of_the_Third_Century)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severan_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aureliushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerva%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty#Five_Good_Emperorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoptionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domitianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavian_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavian_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespasianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_of_the_four_emperorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usurperhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liviahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperor_(Principate)


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5.2 Last Roman emperor 7

Theodosius I acceded to the purple in the East in 379and in the West in 394. He outlawed paganism and madeChristianity the Empire’s official religion. He was the lastemperor to rule over a united Roman Empire; the distri-bution of the East to his son Arcadius and the West to hisson Honorius after his death in 395 represented a perma-

nent division.

In the West, the office of emperor soon degeneratedinto being little more than a puppet of a succession ofGermanic tribal kings, until finally the Heruli Odoacersimply overthrew the child-emperor Romulus Augustulusin 476, shipped the imperial regalia to the Emperor Zenoin Constantinople and became King of Italy. Though dur-ing his own lifetime Odoacer maintained the legal fictionthat he was actually ruling Italy as the viceroy of Zeno,historians mark 476 as the traditional date of the fallof the Roman Empire in the West. Large parts of Italy(Sicily, the south part of the peninsula, Ravenna, Venice

etc.), however, remained under actual imperial rule fromConstantinople for centuries, with imperial control slip-ping or becoming nominal only as late as the 11th cen-tury. In the East, the Empire continued until the fall ofConstantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. Althoughknown as the Byzantine Empire by contemporary histori-ans, the Empire was simply known as the Roman Empireto its citizens and neighboring countries.

5 Post-classical assertions to the ti-

tle

5.1 Survival of the Roman Empire in the

East

The line of Roman emperors in the Eastern RomanEmpire continued unbroken at Constantinople until thecapture of Constantinople in 1204 by the Fourth Cru-sade. In the wake of this action, four lines of Emper-ors emerged, each claiming to be the legal successor: theEmpire of Thessalonica, evolving from the Despotate ofEpirus, which was reduced to impotence when its founderTheodore Komnenos Doukas was defeated, captured andblinded by the Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Asen III;[13] theLatin Empire, which came to an end when the Empire ofNicaea recovered Constantinople in 1261; the Empire ofTrebizond, whose importance declined over the 13th cen-tury, and whose claims were simply ignored;[14] and theEmpire of Nicaea, whose claims based on kinship withthe previous emperors, control of the Patriarch of Con-stantinople, and possession of Constantinople throughmilitary prowess, prevailed. The successors of the em-perors of Nicaea continued until the fall of Constantino-ple in 1453 under Constantine XI Palaiologos. These em-

perors eventually normalized the imperial dignity into themodern conception of an emperor, incorporated it intothe constitutions of the state, and adopted the aforemen-

Imaginary portrait of Constantine XI , the last Roman emperor

tioned title Basileus kai autokratōr Rhomaiōn (“Emperorand Autocrat of the Romans”). These emperors ceasedto use Latin as the language of state after Heraclius. His-torians have customarily treated the state of these laterEastern emperors under the name "Byzantine Empire".It is important to note, however, that the adjective Byzan-tine, although historically used by Eastern Roman authorsin a metaphorical sense, was never an official term.

5.2 Last Roman emperor

Main article: Constantine XI

Constantine XI Palaiologos was the last reigning Romanemperor. A member of the Palaiologos dynasty, he ruledthe remnant of the Eastern Roman Empire from 1449 un-til his death in 1453 defending its capital Constantinople.

He was born in Mystra[15] as the eighth of ten children ofManuel II Palaiologos and Helena Dragaš, the daughterof the Serbian prince Constantine Dragaš of Kumanovo.He spent most of his childhood in Constantinople underthe supervision of his parents. During the absence of

his older brother in Italy, Constantine was regent in Con-stantinople from 1437-1440.

Before the beginning of the siege, Mehmed II made an

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_VIII_Palaiologoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumanovohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_Draga%C5%A1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena_Draga%C5%A1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystrashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaiologoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_XIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracliushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autokratorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaeahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizondhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizondhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Asen_IIIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Klokotnitsahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Klokotnitsahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Komnenos_Doukashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Crusadehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Crusadehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1204)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravennahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicilyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viceroyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_fictionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_Augustulushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herulihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_I


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8 5 POST-CLASSICAL ASSERTIONS TO THE TITLE

offer to Constantine XI. In exchange for the surrender ofConstantinople, the emperor’s life would be spared andhe would continue to rule in Mystra. Constantine refusedthis offer. Instead he led the defense of the city and tookan active part in the fighting along the land walls. Atthe same time, he used his diplomatic skills to maintain

the necessary unity between the Genovese, Venetian, andByzantine troops. As the city fell on May 29, 1453, Con-stantine is said to have remarked: “The city is fallen but Iam alive.” Realizing that the end had come, he reportedlydiscarded his purple cloak and led his remaining soldiersinto a final charge, in which he was killed. With his death,Roman imperial succession came to an end, almost 1500years after Augustus.

After the fall of Constantinople, Thomas Palaiologos,brother of Constantine XI, was elected emperor and triedto organize the remaining forces. His rule came to an endafter the fall of the last major Byzantine city, Corinth.

He then moved in Italy and continued to be recognizedas Eastern emperor by the Christian powers.

His son Andreas Palaiologos continued claims on theByzantine throne until he sold the title to Ferdinand ofAragon and Isabella of Castile, the grandparents of HolyRoman Emperor Charles V.

5.3 New Western lineage

The concept of the Roman Empire was renewed in theWest with the coronation of the king of the Franks,

Charlemagne, as Roman emperor by the Pope onChristmas Day, 800. This coronation had its roots inthe decline of influence of the Pope in the affairs of theByzantine Empire at the same time the Byzantine Em-pire declined in influence over politics in the West. ThePope saw no advantage to be derived from working withthe Byzantine Empire, but as George Ostrogorsky pointsout, “an alliance with the famous conqueror of the Lom-bards, on the other hand ... promised much”.[16]

The immediate response of the Eastern Roman Emperorwas not welcoming. “At that time it was axiomatic thatthere could be only one Empire as there could be only

one church,” writes Ostrogorsky. “The coronation ofCharles the Great violated all traditional ideas and strucka hard blow at Byzantine interests, for hitherto Byzan-tium, the new Rome, had unquestionably been regardedas the sole Empire which had taken over the inheritanceof the old Roman imperium. Conscious of its imperialrights, Byzantium could only consider the elevation ofCharles the Great to be an act of usurpation.” [17]

Nikephoros I chose to ignore Charlemagne’s claim to theimperial title, clearly recognizing the implications of thisact. According to Ostrogorsky, “he even went so faras to refuse the Patriarch Nicephorus permission to dis-

patch the customary synodica to the Pope.”[18] Mean-while, Charlemagne’s power steadily increased: he sub-dued Istria and several Dalmatian cities during the reign

Charles V was the last man to be crowned Roman Emperor and

to celebrate a triumph in Rome

of Irene, and his son Pepin brought Venice under West-ern hegemony, despite a successful counter-attack by theByzantine fleet. Unable to counter this encroachmenton Byzantine territory, Nikephoros’ successor MichaelI Rangabe capitulated; in return for the restoration ofthe captured territories, Michael sent Byzantine dele-gates to Aachen in 812 who recognized Charlemagne asBasileus .[19]

This line of Roman emperors was actually generallyGermanic rather than Roman, but maintained theirRoman-ness as a matter of principle. These emper-ors used a variety of titles (most frequently "Impera-

tor Augustus ") before finally settling on Imperator Ro-manus Electus (“Elected Roman Emperor”). Historianscustomarily assign themthe title “Holy Roman Emperor”,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_I_Rangabehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_I_Rangabehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepin_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irene_of_Athenshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikephoros_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Ostrogorskyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Palaiologoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Palaiologoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_standhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople


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9

which has a basis in actual historical usage, and treat their"Holy Roman Empire" as a separate institution. To LatinCatholics of the time, the Pope was the temporal author-ity as well as spiritual authority, and as Bishop of Romehe was recognized as having the power to anoint or crowna new Roman emperor. The last man to be crowned by

the pope (although in Bologna, not Rome) was CharlesV. All his successors bore only a title of “Elected RomanEmperor”.

This line of Emperors lasted until 1806 when FrancisII dissolved the Empire during the Napoleonic Wars.Despite the existence of later potentates styling them-selves “emperor”, such as the Napoleons, the HabsburgEmperors of Austria, and the Hohenzollern heads of theGerman Reich, this marked the end of the Western Em-pire. Although there is a living heir to the Habsburg dy-nasty, as well as a Pope and pretenders to the positionsof the electors, and although all the medieval coronation

regalia are still preserved in Austria, the legal abolition ofall aristocratic prerogatives of the former electors and theimposition of republican constitutions in Germany andAustria render quite remote any potential for a revival ofthe Holy Roman Empire.

For rulers of Italy after Romulus “Augustulus”

and Julius Nepos, see list of barbarian kings .

For the Roman emperors who ruled in the East

after The Fall in the West, see List of Byzantine

emperors .

For emperors of the Holy Roman Empire in the

West, see Holy Roman Emperor .

6 See also

• Byzantine Emperor

• Imperator

• Imperial cult

• Interregnum

• Justitium

• King of Rome

• Roman dictator

• Roman Emperors family tree; also Julio-Claudianfamily tree and Severan dynasty family tree

• Roman usurper

Lists:

• List of Imperial Victory Titles

• List of Roman emperors

• List of Roman usurpers

• List of condemned Roman emperors

7 Notes

[1] Galinsky, Karl (2005). The Cambridge companion to theAge of Augustus . pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-521-80796-8.Retrieved 2011-08-03.

[2] Alston, Richard (1998). Aspects of Roman history, AD 14-117 . p. 39. ISBN 978-0-415-13237-4. Retrieved2011-08-03.

[3] Williams, Stephen (1997). Diocletian and the Roman re-covery. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-415-91827-5. Retrieved2011-08-03.

[4] Heather, Peter (2005). The Fall of the Roman Empire. p.28. ISBN 978-0-330-49136-5. Retrieved 2011-08-03.

[5] Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, p. 264, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6

[6] İlber Ortaylı, “Büyük Constantin ve İstanbul”, Milliyet, 28May 2011.

[7] Barnes, Timothy (29April2009). “The first Emperor: theview of late antiquity”. In Griffin, Miriam. A Companionto Julius Caesar . John Wiley & Sons. pp. 278–279. ISBN978-1-4443-0845-7.

[8] Barnes, Timothy (29April2009). “The first Emperor: the

view of late antiquity”. In Griffin, Miriam. A Companionto Julius Caesar . John Wiley & Sons. pp. 279–282. ISBN978-1-4443-0845-7.

[9] The Oxford Classical Dictionary, entry 'Imperator', ThirdEdition, Oxford University Press., 1996.

[10] Cassius Dio, 43.44.2.

[11] Goldsworth (2009), 443

[12] Rees, R., Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, Edinburgh Univer-sity Press, 2004. pp 46 - 56, 60. ISBN 978-0-7486-1661-9

[13] George Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State, trans-lated by Joan Hussey (New Brunswick: Rutgers Univer-sity Press, 1957), p. 387

[14] On the imperial claims of the Grand Komnenos and in-ternational response to them, see N. Oikonomides, “TheChancery of the Grand Komnenoi; Imperial Tradition andPolitical Reality,” Archeion Pontou, 35 (1979), pp. 299-332

[15] Constantine XI Palaeologus (1449-1453) Fall of Con-stantinople “Ealo h Polis”

[16] Ostrogorsky, Byzantine State, p. 163

[17] Ostrogorsky, Byzantine State, pp. 164f



http://www.agiasofia.com/emperors/conpaleo.htmlhttp://www.agiasofia.com/emperors/conpaleo.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748616619https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748616619https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-0845-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gzOXLGbIIYwC&pg=PA279&dq=%2522The+majority+of+both+writers+and+the+ordinary+population+of+the+Roman%2522&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gRBJVZ2TFojZarTNgMgF&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%2522The%2520majority%2520of%2520both%2520writers%2520and%2520the%2520ordinary%2520population%2520of%2520the%2520Roman%2522&f=falsehttps://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gzOXLGbIIYwC&pg=PA279&dq=%2522The+majority+of+both+writers+and+the+ordinary+population+of+the+Roman%2522&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gRBJVZ2TFojZarTNgMgF&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%2522The%2520majority%2520of%2520both%2520writers%2520and%2520the%2520ordinary%2520population%2520of%2520the%2520Roman%2522&f=falsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-0845-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=gzOXLGbIIYwC&pg=PA278https://books.google.com/books?id=gzOXLGbIIYwC&pg=PA278https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504652-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504652-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_Byzantiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_Byzantiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-330-49136-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=_Jntu21N9K0C&pg=PA28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-91827-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=9il6P3TPj-AC&pg=PA147https://books.google.com/books?id=9il6P3TPj-AC&pg=PA147https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-13237-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=WwO_dzOVLw4C&pg=PA39https://books.google.com/books?id=WwO_dzOVLw4C&pg=PA39https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80796-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=ftcx-5j7rjwC&pg=PA13https://books.google.com/books?id=ftcx-5j7rjwC&pg=PA13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_condemned_Roman_emperorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_usurpershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Imperial_Roman_victory_titleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_usurperhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severan_dynasty_family_treehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio-Claudian_family_treehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio-Claudian_family_treehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Emperors_family_treehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dictatorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justitiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interregnumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperatorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_von_Habsburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohenzollernhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolognahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_VIIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire


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10 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

8 Further reading

• Scarre, Chris. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Impe-

rial Rome. London: Thames & Hudson, October 1,1995. ISBN 0-500-05077-5. (hardcover)

9 External links

• De Imperatoribus Romanis

• Rulers of Rome

• “Decadence, Rome and Romania, and the EmperorsWho Weren't”, by Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D.

• UNRV.com

• The Roman Law Library

• List of Greatest Roman Emperors

http://www.ancienthistorylists.com/rome-history/top-10-greatest-emperors-ancient-rome/http://web.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Akhttp://www.unrv.com/http://www.friesian.com/decdenc1.htmhttp://www.friesian.com/decdenc1.htmhttp://www.classicsunveiled.com/romeh/html/rulers.htmlhttp://www.roman-emperors.org/impindex.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0500050775https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames_&_Hudson


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11

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text

• Roman emperor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_emperor?oldid=680364869 Contributors: Derek Ross, SimonP, Panair-jdde~enwiki, Olivier, Leandrod, Bdesham, Llywrch, Mahjongg, Stw, Ihcoyc, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Darkwind, Jll, Djnjwd, John K,Caffelice~enwiki, Denny, RodC, Adam Bishop, Dcoetzee, Molinari, Jeffrey Smith, Publius~enwiki, Joy, Dimadick, Jason Potter, Rob-bot, RedWolf, Romanm, Mirv, Chris5369, Rursus, Aetheling, Kairos, GreatWhiteNortherner, DocWatson42, Mark Richards, Everyking,Gugganij, Mackeriv, Antandrus, Savant1984, Maximaximax, Kuralyov, M.e, Sam Hocevar, Trilobite, Kevyn, Lacrimosus, Discospin-ster, Brianhe, Francis Schonken, Xezbeth, Foonly, Stbalbach, Bender235, ESkog, Steerpike, CanisRufus, Lycurgus, QuartierLatin1968,Surachit, Phoenix Hacker, Shanes, Tom, Art LaPella, Adambro, Bobo192, Pschemp, Sam Korn, Roman Emperor, Wendell, Alansohn,TomH, Cdc, Bart133, Dhartung, Binabik80, Fordan, Patrick T. Wynne, Woohookitty, Hippalus, MarcoTolo, Cuchullain, JIP, Miq, Koavf,ErikHaugen, Oblivious, Ligulem, FlaBot, Old Moonraker, Master Thief Garrett, Mc19, AJR, Maire, RexNL, Gurch, Mark J, ChongDae,Str1977, Codex Sinaiticus, Chobot, Xerex, PhilZ, Brandmeister (old), RussBot, Kurt Leyman, Ugur Basak, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Astral,Megapixie, Introgressive, Bigpad, Countakeshi, Aldux, Roy Brumback, Gadget850, DeadEyeArrow, Stainless steel, Nlu, Wardog, Flooey,Lt-wiki-bot, Imaninjapirate, Omtay38, Banana04131, Varaaki, LeonardoRob0t, Redguardian, Luk, BomBom, Brambo, Sardanaphalus,KnightRider~enwiki, Ghope, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Zerida, McGeddon, Hu Gadarn, Jagged 85, Polar bear, Sedonaarizona, Alsan-dro, Srnec, Yamaguchi, Gilliam, Donama, Hmains, DanMonkey, TimBentley, Shatner, Thumperward, Hebel, Colonies Chris, Faaaa,Cplakidas, Rrburke, Addshore, Whpq, Crboyer, Crazyale, JonWayne, Rjmorris, Kuru, Khazar, MayerG, Lapaz, Danlina, Hadrians, Mgi-ganteus1, Mike Pehipol, Rinnenadtrosc, Neddyseagoon, Ryanjunk, BranStark, Iridescent, Fabienkhan, Joseph Solis in Australia, Igoldste,Scoville, AGK, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, Ghaly, JForget, Hpfan1, NickW557, Bobnorwal, FilipeS, Cydebot, Mientkiewicz5508,Ramitmahajan, Gogo Dodo, Corpx, Doug Weller, Lo2u, Realdog, FrancoGG, Barticus88, Kitten86, Id447, Marek69, Picus viridis, Ciel-

Profond, Escarbot, PeterGh, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Simplulo, Crabula, Quintote, Fayenatic london, Dylan Lake, 01:36, 21 June 2006,Darklilac, Spencer, Barek, MER-C, Panarjedde, East718, Ahrarara, Cynwolfe, WolfmanSF, VoABot II, Alexander Domanda, Nyttend,Ding Chavez, Sanket ar, TheCormac, Sesesq, RedMC, DerHexer, Patstuart, Stephenchou0722, MartinBot, Nehwyn, Keith D, R'n'B,CommonsDelinker, CroydThoth, Nono64, Ssolbergj, J.delanoy, Nev1, Rrostrom, Bogey97, Diskz, McSly, Lizzie Harrison, MKoltnow,Shoessss, SSSN, KylieTastic, Bisck, LordCo Centre, JavierMC, Pedauque~enwiki, Joe8390, Master z0b, CWii, Professor oh history,Lear’s Fool, Philip Trueman, Dojarca, Eve Hall, Sacerdos79, Frogsag, Lou.weird, LeaveSleaves, Ustranimii Uyet, Gavin.collins, MrMalax,Billinghurst, Tomaxer, Anna512, Insidiari, Xenovatis, Williamschedl, Hertz1888, Ergateesuk, Caltas, Apollo Augustus Koo, Emperor001,Blackfiredaemon, Elcobbola, Gpb1975, Lorenzo Fratti, Lightmouse, Mesoso2, Menelluin, Zenibo, RomanHistorian, Explicit, Fardell,Pedrovitorh2, ClueBot, Wysprgr2005, Mild Bill Hiccup, Jasper1066, CounterVandalismBot, JJIG, Mackstar1, Excirial, Frozen4322,Sportytink25, Thingg, Aitias, 03md, Spitfire, Psychobilly15, Addbot, Proofreader77, Cxz111, Wigert, Melathron, Monkeywrench483,CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Fluffernutter, CactusWriter, Mnmazur, Favonian, Kyle1278, Doniago, The Quill, John neel, Tiderolls, Konstock, Yobot, Granpuff, PaulWalter, The Emperor’s New Spy, Catiline63, AnomieBOT, Ichwan Palongengi, Rjanag, JackieBot,Kingpin13, Stroganoff, Emohater93, Aescobal, Devojames, Ron Ead, LilHelpa, Xqbot, I Feel Tired, Boongie, Tuckerp9, Graysie, Pole-myx, J04n, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Sesu Prime, SD5, Haploidavey, MathFacts, Polyxeros, Bukovets, Akasanof, DrilBot, Pinethicket, Idream of horses, FriedrickMILBarbarossa, Qwertyuiop1994, RedBot, Cole Jester, Crusoe8181, Sid the Obscure, Gaius Octavius Princeps,Lotje, Diannaa, Doom343, Jimtaip, Mackay 86, Wikipelli, Italia2006, Fæ, Needarb, Alpha Quadrant, Xxbigal3xx, Senjuto, Donner60,

DeCausa, TRAJAN 117, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, Band Geek 06, Tanbircdq, Dknibbe1, Everest700, Rurik the Varangian, 12inches,Strawberry Popsicle, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, ChinaChuck, Sas69, George Ponderevo, Northamerica1000, Uhlan, Da-vidiad, CitationCleanerBot, Tydeeus, Kup123, Nick.mon, Khazar2, Dexbot, Cesar.V.N., Hmainsbot1, Carforme, Corinne, Epicgenius,JamesMoose, Tresmegistus, Crazyman14295, Muhammad Umair Mughal, Barjimoa, Saugatad, TerryAlex, Antoniomaraspin, 17cvolzkeand Anonymous: 460

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cense: Public domain Contributors: Issue 238 of “Historica” Magazine Original artist: Άγνωστος καλλιτέχνης• File:Emperor_Charles_Conquers_Furor_(Leone_Leoni).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/

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rounded by a gold wreath hung on a military standard topped by a Roman eagle or an image of the goddess Victoria made of silver orbronze.[#cite_note-1 [1]][#cite_note-2 [2]][#cite_note-3 [3]][#cite_note-4 [4]] Original artist: Ssolbergj

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