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Root Causes Of Biodiversity Losses In Chilika Lake 1

CMDR Monograph Series No. - 26

ROOT CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSSESIN CHILIKA LAKE

Gopal K. KadekodiCENTRE FOR MULTI-DISCIPLINARY DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH

DHARWAR, KARNATAKA

S. C. GulatiINSTITUTE OF ECONOMIC GROWTH

NEW DELHI

March 1999

Monograph based on a study sponsored by : WWF-India


1. INTRODUCTION

Chilika lake is the largest lagoon inAsia on the east coast peninsular Indiacovering about hundred thousand hectaresof land, one among six Indian wetlandsdeclared under the Ramsar convention in1982. It is a very rich preserve of ecologicaldiversity with over four hundred vertebratesof both brackish and fresh water species,over one million migratory waterfowls andshore birds gathering during winter, withseveral recorded endangered andthreatened and vulnerable species. Being avery large lake with a drainage basin of overfour thousand three hundred sq. km, it linkswith fisheries the lifeline of over hundredthousand fisherfolks, as well as contributingto India’s foreign exchange balance throughexport of prawn and fish and tourism.

Though severe ecologicaldegradation has been observed here overtime, not much attention has been given to itat the local, national and international levels.Normally, forest degradation, humaninterference such as market orientation andchanging international scene are portrayedas the main causes for such degradation. Thetruth of the matter lies in understanding

various direct and indirect causes at thelocal, regional, national and global levels, ona relative basis. Such an approach alone canthrow some light on the right direction ofpolicy formulation for better preservation ofthis pristine biodiversity.

Like many wetland situations allover the world, Chilika lake is also subjectedto a multiplicity of pressures and impacts,ranging from local to global in geographicalscales, impacting over short to very longperiods, with ultimate effects on the socio-economic state of development in India. Allthese are partly driven by market forces andpartly due to socio-political situations andcompulsions. In each case, different sets ofroot causes of biodiversity changes areidentifiable. Specifically, some of theplausible socio-economic root causes ofbiodiversity losses in Chilika lake are:

Population growth

Urbanisation and industrialisation

Pressure on land, conversion of lake area to agriculture

Intensification of land use and changing cropping pattern

Deforestation in the catchment

ROOT CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITYLOSSES IN CHILIKA LAKE


Increased demand for fish and prawn

Pricing and growth of market system

Caste conflicts

Changing caste configuration of people in fishing

Changing Aquacultural practices

Intervention by money lenders

Role of the state: legal, political and Institutional

Therefore, with a backdrop of suchhighly diversified and plausible root causes,it makes it important to study this wetlandmore closely with a view to save thiswetland for the world.Fig 1 : Location Map of Chilika lakeshowing four natural sectors of the

waterspread area(Not to scale)


Methodologically it is far toocomplex to point out at a unique set of ‘rootcauses’ of biodiversity losses in this wetland.One of the major findings of this study is thefact that the root causes of ecologicalchanges in Chilika lie out side of the naturalecological changes. They themselves do notseem to have brought so much degradationas the case has been made to be. The studybrings out very clearly that the major rootcauses, in order of their importance, arepopulation dynamics, globalisation andaquacultural technology, and lastly if any,forest degradation or other ecologicalchanges. This is an extremely exceptionalfinding. The major conclusion is that the rootcauses for biodiversity changes of the lakelie in the socio-economic aspects of theregion. The significance of populationpressure on the lake and land ecology is tobe seen from the point of sustainableregional and human development. Excessivepopulation concentration in prawn cultureareas over the years has brought lot ofpressure on the lake in terms of over-fishingand extended agriculture in the lake margins.Together with the recent development ofmarketisation and globalisation, at the costof local benefits, the national and globalbenefits have attained over-ridingimportance, thereby affecting the lakeecology significantly.

2. SITE DESCRIPTION

This wetland is actually an estuarinelake or lagoon because of its connectionwith the Bay of Bengal. Hemmed in between

the green hills in the south and the sea in thenorth-east, the lake is dotted with numeroussmall rocky islands with their reflections onthe still water enhancing its pristine beautiesexceedingly picturesque. It is this beautywhich has for centuries fascinated the peopleof the region and all over the world, foundreferences in the folklore and literature aswell. For over a century, it has attracted theattention of biologists, fishery scientists,geologists, oceanographers, planners andadministrators, and in recent years ofecologists, naturalists and conservationists.

The lake is about 64.5 km long(NE-SW) with the width varying from 18.5km in the northern part to 5 km in thesouthern part. The lake has a major link withthe sea, the Bay of Bengal, on its southernend through an irregular 29 km long channel(starting from Satapada) with several smallsandy and usually ephemeral islands. About1.5 km wide, the channel runs parallel tothe sea and is separated from it by a verynarrow spit, 183-274 meter wide, locallyknown as Magarmatha Muhan. The lakealso has another link at its southern end(through Palur canal starting from Rambhabay upto the mouth of estuary of Rishikulyariver lying about 18 km down the coast),and is separated from Chilika by low lands,some of which are used as salt pans.

Several small islands can be seen inthe lake, specially in the Central andSouthern sectors. Largest among them,Nalbana, a low lying flat marshy island 35


km long, covered with low vegetation, hasbeen designated as a bird sanctuary since1973 and represents the only protected partof the lake. Generally, it is completelysubmerged after the monsoon. Severalrocky islands in the southern sector such as,Kalijai, Somolo, Dumkudi, Honeymoon,Breakfast and Bird island etc., representthe inundated remnants of the Eastern Ghats.On the coastal side, there are many islandsmade up of entrenched sand dunes coveringabout 728 sq. km. area.

The drainage basin of Chilika lakelie between the rivers flowing into Mahanadiand Chilika in the north, while in the north-east, areas draining into the Bhargavi rivermake up the watershed. In the west andsouth-west, the watershed boundary liesbetween streams flowing into the Rishikulyariver and those flowing into Chilika. Thereare also many other smaller rivers and rivuletsand tributaries.

Apart from about 1100 sq. km.water-spread area of the lake, rest of thedrainage basin of Chilika comprises 2,325sq. km. of agricultural land (mostly dry land),526 sq. km. of forests, 192 sq. km. ofpermanent vegetation comprisingpredominantly plantations, swamps over 71sq. km., and wetland with grassy mud flatsover 91 sq. km. in north-eastern parts ofthe drainage basin. Only 52 sq. km. of thebasin area is occupied by human settlements,roads, railways, etc.

Chilika Lake is home to severalecologically important species of flora andfauna. Some of the most common varietiesof crab species found in Chilika lake are:Scylla Serrata, Neptunus Pelagicus,Varuna Litterata, Ocypoda Sp.,Paratelphusa Sp. The mud Crab(S.Serrata), commonly known as Chilika’sfamous “Tiger Crab” is the most importantspecies and occurs in greater numbers thanall other species combined. But they areentering the list of vulnerable species due toover-exploitation. There are 5 species ofprawns which contribute maximum to thecommercial fishery in Chilika lake. These are:Penaesus Monodon, P.Indicus,Metapenaesus Monoceros, M.Affins andM.Dodsoni. P.Monodon is the famous“Tiger Prawn” of Chilika, which is alsoover-exploited due to the fast growing prawnculture.

Biodiversity losses in Chilika lake aretremendous. The number of fish species seemto have come down from 126 in 1920s toaround 69 in 1988. Chilika, once used to bea prawn abundant lake on which variety ofother fishes used to prey has become prawnscarcity lake, which gets reflected throughexcessive decline in both fish and prawnlandings. Chilika used to be popular for avariety of marine animals like crocodile, greensea turtles, gharials, etc., which have becomeextinct from the lake areas.

Some of the ecological changes thatare taking place are worth noting. The rate


of annual siltation in the lake has reachedalarming proportions. Progressive increasein silt predominantly because ofdeforestation in Chilika drainage basin hasreached to the present rate of almost 13million tons annually, being brought into thelake by the estimated 3,75,000 million cusecof fresh water flow per year. If the rate ofsiltation is not checked now, the whole lakearea may become sandy and clayey inanother 200 to 250 years.

Lake shrinkage is another importantecological transformation. This may be dueto several factors, both natural and human.The annual current rate of lake shrinkage isabout 14.7 sq. kms in the peripheral size.The rate of shrinkage of the water spreadarea has been approximately 1.5 sq. kmsper year. The chief cause of the lakeshrinkage has been the influx of silt. Asagainst the fast fresh water inflow,particularly during the monsoon months, theoutflow is slow due to the constrictedchannel of 35 kms length. This channel,being through sandy trough and exposed tosea hazards, frequently suffers topogenicdeformity through the shifting of the seamouth. The mouth of the lake has beenshifting towards north at a rate of 3 kms inevery 10 years, thus making the channellonger every year. The width of the sea inlethas also been narrowing down over time.At present the width is about 180 meters asagainst 195 meters in 1992!

Progressive decline in averagesalinity from around 22.3 ppt in 1957-58 topresent levels of 3.60 is another seriousmatter. This is mainly due to increasing fluxof fresh water from the north and cloggingand shifting of of lake mouth from the sea inthe south. This is affecting the entire spectrumof aquaculture practice, between brackishwater to fresh water species, changingaquaculture technology from traditionalmethods (jano, diano and bahani) to netand pen culture.

Pollution and eutrophication in thelake have been increasing because ofgrowing chemical based industries in thecatchment areas, agricultural intensificationin Chilika basin and sprawling of prawnculture ponds especially since mid 1980s.Presence of fatalistic heavy metals likemercury, lead, copper, chromium and nickelin the lake have been reported. The neteffect of eutrophication is the excessiveweed growth (because of high influx oforganic rich silt and sedimentation over theyears and progressive decline in salinity).Weed spread is increasing at a rate of 14.3sq. kms per year since 1973. The lake areainfested with weed growth has come toalarming proportions of around 52 percentin 1996.

The avifauna of the Chilika lakeboasts of 150 species of birds. Dowitcher,one of the least known asian shorebirds andthe spoonbill sandpiper, one of the rareststint are some of the interesting bird fauna


of the lake. But the biodiversity changeshave not spared this fauna ecology. Theeffects of weed growth is felt not only onaquaculture but more so in terms ofdrastically reducing these valued visitorsparticularly noticed near the Nalabana birdsanctuary in the parts of the lake. Alsonoticed is a decline in quantity and varietyof fishes on which these birds used to prey.Partly deforestation in the Chilika basin andalso hunting of birds to the tune of almost15,000-20,000 every year, also must becontributing to this decline. All these have,in turn, resulted in substantial decline ineco-tourism and international tourists, whichused to contribute greatly towardsimprovement in economic conditions of thepeople around Chilika lake.

3. AQUACULTURAL PRACTICE

Because of its strong life supportinglinks with the habitat around the lake, it isvery important to note the changingaquacultural practice in this region. Chilikalake provides an excellent brackishwaterenvironment with more than 6000 hectaresof area for prawn/fish culture which sharesabout 19 percent of the total availablebrackishwater resources in the State ofOrissa. For centuries the people of thisregion maintained the traditional methods offishing. Prawn culturing in the lake is arelatively new activity to the area.

During the early ’80s, brackishwater prawn farming in a scientific manner

started in a big way in and around the lake.Large-scale and rampant conversion ofvarious types of traditional fishery sourcesin the lake has taken place after the adventof culture system of fishery. While diano anduthapani fisheries were converted to culturesources by the non-fishermen andGovernment, other fishery sources likebahani and jano areas have been convertedboth by the Government and some primaryfishermen co-operative societies either bythemselves or through subletting to thirdparties.

Under a programme for landlessand rural poor, developed under theBrackishwater Fisheries DevelopmentAgency and strongly supported by theOrissa State Fisheries Department, 1550ponds covering an area of 487 hectareswere started in the lake periphery. Severalfinancial institutions invested more than 1.1million rupees credit in these projects. About600 families of the poorest of the poor inthe Chilika area have been economicallyrehabilitated through prawn culture under thescheme “Economic Rehabilitation of RuralPoors” sponsored by the State Government.Besides, 165 private agencies developedtheir prawn farming projects in the lake areathrough bank credit and 20 IRDP farmerswere engaged in prawn farming under thecentral government sponsored scheme“Area Development ApproachProgramme”. Most of the projects hadcome up in the north-east and south-eastpart of the lagoon. Recently there has been


an attempt to opt for small-scalebrackishwater shrimp culture which has lessecological impacts on the lake. Developmentof low-cost technology for culturing prawnhas made it possible for fast progress ofaquaculture in confined brackishwater pondsas well as in seasonal dry areas in the lakeperiphery and in the adjacent cultivable areasof saline soil.

4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

By now it is clear that like manywetland situations all over the world, Chilikalake is also subjected to a multiplicity ofpressures and impacts, partly driven bymarket forces and partly due to socio-political situations and compulsions.Basically the ecological factors influencingone another together with the plausiblesocio-economic root causes listed in theintroduction are analysed using statisticaltechniques to arrive at priorities in terms ofpolicy prescriptions.

The issues are however, far morecomplex in terms of geographical or spatial,temporal and economic configurations.Different social groups, entities and agentsare involved in these, with differingperceptions about the state of lakebiodiversity. As a methodology, a close lookat these different socio-economic entities andagencies is the first step. They are groupedas:

Spatial Groups:

Locals: The people of the villages

around the lake, about 0.1 million peoplespread in about 128 villages (though this isnot a homogeneous set either),

Regional: The people of the districts

around the lake (Khurda, Puri andGanjam),

State and National: The State of

Orissa, government of Orissa and of theIndian Union,

Global: The middlemen, NGOs,

market operators, exporters and importers,and so on.

Inter-generational Groups:

Present generation

Future generation

Economic Groups, Entities:

Fishermen, non-fishermen:

inequality, livelihood, basic need

Profit earners in aquaculture

Export earners

Eco-tourists

Social Groups:

Class and caste groups

Money lenders

Politicians


Therefore, even though severalmeasures and indicators can possibly bedeveloped on each of the ecological andsocio-economic root-cause factors, it maynot be easy to assign weights to theperceptions of all such agents and groupsinvolved in the Chilika lake system as awhole, and to rank them uniquely on anycardinal scale. Secondly, many of the rootcauses are cause and effects within the setitself. For instance, population pressure caneffect the pressure on land. Deforestationof the forests can lead to more ofeutrophication and hence changingaquacultural practices.

As a working methodologytherefore, the effects or impacts of suchfactors or root causes, without beingconcerned about the varying perceptions ofdifferent agents in the society are quantifiedfirst. A variety of secondary level data arecollected for this purpose, with whichcause-effect response elasticities betweenthe root causes and ecological changes areestimated. Independently, perceptions ofvarious groups mentioned above areassessed based on primary surveys usingCVM/PRA/RRA techniques next. Finally,the cause and effect elasticities areinterpreted along with the perceptions of thepeople involved at different levels mentionedabove. Some representative sample of datacollected are summarily shown in Table 1.

A comment on the data andinformation on the wetland is warranted here.

One does not find among the existingliterature, information on the socio-economicand anthropological factors as much asavailable on ecological factors anddimensions. A suggestion has been made inthe report to establish a cell in ChilikaDevelopment Authority, exclusively tomonitor the data and information regularly.

The entire lake area is divided intofour ecological sectors as: northern, central,southern and outer channel. This division isbased on salinity and depth criteria. It ishypothesised that (a) normally the salinitywould increase from the north to the outerchannel, and (b) with the increasing nutritionand fresh water inflows from the northernsector and clogging of the lake mouth in theouter channel, the central and southernsectors would lose their independent identityin the course of time. If that ever happens,the biodiversity losses would be rated as themaximum.

On similar lines, the villages aroundthe lake have been grouped in to fivegeographical zones, refered as zone I to V.There are about 128 fishermen villagesaround the lake. The zoning is done on thebasis of (a) demographic structure andtransition, (b) classification of fishingcommunities, and their fishing andagricultural practices and, (c) geographicalcontiguity. It is hypothesised thataquacultural practice should be designedbased on a concept of human rights, dignityand livelihood support, without which the


population dynamics of the region will leadto social conflicts, over-exploitation through

prawn culture for global exports, increasingincome equality and immiserisation.

Table 1 : Ecological and other Parameters of the Lake

Variable Units 1986-87 1996-97 CGR

Weed area Sq.km. 395 500 0.0238

Weed area Sq.km. 790-805 1.5 per year

decline;-0.0018

Forest Dense Sq.km. 92.99 69.71 -0.0284

Sparse+Degraded Sq.km. 89.04 145.24 0.0501

Degraded Plantation Sq.km. 18.31 212.07 0.2775

Agricultural land Sq.km. 697.1 1112.24 0.0478

Lake depth Northern sector M. 0.92 0.72 -0.0242

Central sector M. 1.5 1.6 -0.0065*

Southern sector M. 1.64 1.89 -0.0143*

Lake average M. 1.35 1.4 -0.0036*

Salinity Northern sector ppt 3.1 0.82 -0.1245

Central sector ppt 8.28 8.94 -0.0077*

Southern sector ppt 10..7 8.42 -0.0237

Lake average ppt 7.02 3.6 -0.0646

No.of PFCS No. 48 in 1959 92 in 1998 NA

Aquaculture Fish production MT 6873 1352 -0.15

Shrimp production MT 1241 281 -0.138

Fish export MT 6623 1000 -0.1723

Shrimp export MT 1540 703 -0.0754

No.of boats Mechanised No. 253 in 1992 454 0.157

Country No. 4147 in 1992 4971 0.046

No. of nets No. 31668 19190 -0.048

Population Total 91430 in 1981 115457 in 1991 0.0236

Fishermen 85 104 0.02

Non-fishermen 17707 25704 0.037

Active fishermen 20.2 27.2 0.03

No. of tourists 000 83.46 in 1983 148.06 in 1994 0.0535

Population Density No./sq km. 2.34 in 1981 3.1 in 1991 0.0285

Prices Fish Rs./kg. 20 in 1992 36 in 1998 0.1029

Prawn Rs./kg. 200 in 1992 495 in 1998 0.163

Note : CGR=Compound growth rate '*' =Represents the assumed CGR based on field data.


The socio-economic aspects andfactors are linked with ecological dimensionsand characteristics using a conceptual model.The model is developed around theecological framework of the lake, as if beingimpacted by the socio-economic pressuresand in turn, being the cause for socio-economic changes. Linkages betweeneconomic, social, demographic andecological variables are estimated usingstatistical techniques. Such a conceptualmodel is then simulated to derive variousscenarios. The major ones are :

i. Impact of globalisation: Price changes,mix of fish in exports, tax and subsidy policychangesii. Impact of demographic changes:Literacy, mortality, fertility, migrationiii. Impact of legal changes: licensing, leasepolicyiv. Natural ecological changes:deforestation, floods, changing lake mouthv. Technological in tervent ions:Aquaculture practices, dredging in thelake.

5. RESEARCH FINDINGS : THELOCAL CONTEXT

The major findings which have beenhighlighted in the introduction are reviewedin the context of the local region. The localregion refers to the lake periphery and basinspreading in three districts of Orissa (Puri,Ganjam and Khurda). Severaldemographic, social, economic, ecological,

institutional and legal characteristics anddimensions are relevant in this context.

The first question is aboutsustainable fishing rate in the lake. This is amatter of dependency of local populationon fishing. Till the 1970’s the populationgrowth and fish production were consistentlygrowing almost at the same rate of about 2percent per year. There was nothing specialabout exclusive prawn fishing (or intensivefarming for prawns). Then came the phaseof high population growth rate escalatingslowly, going upto 4 percent per year in the90s. Also came the period in the 80s, ofshifting to exclusive prawn fishing , andhence the growth of prawn farming as a newtechnology (distinct from traditionaltechnology). Prawn (44.6 percent) and crab(16.9 percent) occupied their main catches.Traditional jano and bahani techniques weregradually replaced by pen and cage culture.The prawn culture also attracted non-fishermen to enter in the trade, as it did notrequire any traditional knowledge in fishing.The number of active fishermen swelled from8079 in 1957 to 27,200 by 1996. Thepopulation growth rate, together withmoving of non-fishermen to fishing haveforced the active fishermen to opt for thenew intensive prawn farming as an acceptedculture. All these continued till the early 90s.In the third phase, came the effects ofglobalisation. The fast rising prices ofprawns, as against that of traditional fish haveenabled exporting to become commerciallyattractive, which attracted middlemen,


politicians and money lenders into thebusiness. As against conventionally or legallyassigned fishing sights, people started prawnfarming in open areas and lake peripheries.Needless to mention that per family catchor landing came down drastically. Therefore,the primary root cause for the biodiversityloss is identified as the population dynamics.

Some thing more needs to be saidabout the state of aquaculture in the lakeregion. Multiplication of fishing grounds isone of the main causes for overfishing inChilika lake and its outer channel. This hasseriously affected the movement of adultprawns in monsoon and December monthsinto the sea for breeding purposes and postlarvae return to the lake through the mouthin August-September and February-Mayperiods. Larvae movement during June-October and January-April and catching ofjuvenile prawns for sale to prawn cultureponds, have adversely affected the matureprawns in Chilika. This is followed by thedecline of several fish species who prey uponprawns. Thus over-harvesting of prawnsfrom the commercial angle since mid 1980shas gravely affected the self sustainedecosystem of Chilika over centuries. Nowonder the yield rates came downdrastically since 1986 onwards.

How does prawn culture in Chilikacompare with rest of the region? The mostappropriate comparison can be at the Orissastate level. Very interestingly enough, whilethe landing rates of prawn have been coming

down in Chilika, the overall landings areincreasing in the state as a whole! In 1985-86 the share in total production from Chilikawas 22 percent, which has now reduced to2 percent in 1995-96.

The second most important locallevel issue is about the link between the sickaquaculture practice and the neglect of lakebiodiversity. The study once again stronglyreveals that it is via the socio-economicconditions of the people that the ultimateeffect is felt on lake biodiversity. The startingpoint is the rate of exploitation of the peopleand their predicament regarding fishery andecology. The fishermen seem to be inperpetual debt on account of loan taken forfishery and recovery methods. As many as67 percent of fishermen stated that they areunable to repay the loans on time and themajor reason for this has been the decliningrate of fish catch. Another important fact tobe noted is that, even with some educationand exposure to the external world, almost87.8 percent of the households reported thatthey have nothing to do with the forwardfish trade! One would have liked, keepingthe profession as one of life support to thepeople of the region, more and more verticallinkages with processing, marketing and sale,and distribution activities. That would havehelped the management of the lake on asustainable basis. Catching of juvenile prawnand crabs, social conflicts mentioned above,over-exploitation of lake marine products,growth of weeds, declining salinity, shrinkageof lake all have adversely affected the


biodiversity of the lake. The people of theregion seem to understand all of the abovebut are acting helpless because of their pooreconomic conditions.

Breaking of caste based division ofwork and tasks in fishing profession isanother major local level social root cause.It is interesting to note that traditionally thefishermen group is stratified in terms of theirprofessional skills in aquacultural practices(divided as boat and fishing gear making,net making, fishing and trade and so on), asocial dimension which lost its meaning inthe process of globalisation.

How is the state of fishing affectingthe livelihood of the people? It was foundthat very little amount of good fishes areconsumed by the active fishermen and theirfamilies and the local people. Bulk of thefish catch from Chilika lake goes to the localmarket and get exported mainly to Calcuttaand abroad. For instance, in 1996-97, outof total production of 1,633 MT of fish fromChilika lake, only about 20 percent (otherthan Shrimp/Prawn) are consumed by thelocal active fishermen and local people andtheir families, whereas 80 percent of it isexported to other states and foreigncountries. Similarly out of total shrimpproduction only 22 percent is consumed bythese people in Chilika whereas rest of the78 percent are sent to the markets acrossstates or to foreign countries. Though nodirect estimate of income from fishing waspossible, income from agriculture among

fishermen and non-fishermen families werefound to be about Rs 4332 and Rs 8520per year, respectively. Field survey indicatesthat income from fishing is not better either.

A close examination of the primarydata indicated that the percentage offishermen class and dependency on fishingas an occupation is inversely correlated withthe literacy and educational levels. Literacyrate is also correlated with high rates of out-migrations from the region for jobselsewhere. But the present literacy rate isquite low (about 43 percent). This factorshould be used in designing a balancedregional development with humandevelopment.

What is the role of the governmentat these local level issues? The people ofChilika seem to see the root causes to beclass conflicts, illegal encroachments, the roleof mafia , government and also thepoliticians. They have also expressed thatthe government should give priority torestricting the entry of non-fishermen intofishery, weed removal and protecting the lakemouth from clogging and shifting. The stategovernment on the other hand, seems to havetreated the problem of social conflicts anddegrading biodiversity as a law and orderissue. The Revenue department isconsidering to have armed policing in thelake. Moreover, the usual approach torestrict over-exploiting the lake and toreduce the conflicts that comes handy is torestrict new fishing licences. Orders after


orders have been passed to restrict illegaland unauthorised farming, banning ofintensive prawn farming, conversion of dianoand uthapani leases into pen or net fishing,banning of unregistered societies, imposingstrict lease policies for both fishing andlicensing of motorised boats and so on. Atthe same rate, the communities andindividuals have been going to the courts,exposing such social conflicts. The districtauthorities are unable to check either theconflicts or the increasing cases of courtcases.

The major thrust on exploitingmarine and wetland resources came in thenineties, when a process of structuraladjustment and liberalisation was started inIndia in 1991. This has set a price gapbetween traditional and exotic varieties (suchas prawn and crabs). Aqua farms, coldstorages, export houses specialised in marineproducts have started mushrooming all overthe coastal regions in the country. Severalmulti-national companies started theirventures in this marine rich country. Chilikalake is not spared from this process ofglobalisation.

The second most important nationallevel link is in respect of eco-tourism. Thegovernment of India as much as the stategovernment of Orissa have dealt with thiswetland ecology under the RamsarConvention. After recognising the honouredvisiting avifauna guests during the wintermonths, several spots in the lake area have

been recognised as important tourist areas.Nalbana island of about 35 sq.km isdeclared as a natural bird sanctuary,completely barred from any humaninterference. Though the lake offers tourismopportunities of religious, aesthetic andmarine and avifauna values, very little hasbeen done to facilitate eco-tourism. Overthe last ten years, the tourist population hasincreased from 83,000 in 1983 to 1,48,000in 1994 (registering an average growth rateof 3-4 percent). There is still a lot morescope for this sector to grow, which canbring indirect pressure on preserving thebiodiversity of the lake.

The national concern about the lossof biodiversity of this lake (as much as manyothers) was registered only when a historicjudgement from the Supreme Court came in1996. The judgement strongly advocatedsetting up of an Authority to implement theprotection of coastal zones on a principle of‘precaution and polluter pay’. Demolition ofaquacultural lands and industries in the coastalzones, creation of ‘Environment ProtectionFund’, ban on converting agricultural,mangroves and forest lands into shrimp pondsand many other guidelines were set by thisorder. One only hopes that this nationalconcern is converted in to a reality.

6. REFLECTIONS ON GLOBAL -ISATION

Like many sectors of the economy,the development of fishery in Chilika also


went through the motion of liberalisation,globalisation and market orientation. It is thisaspect of the transformation that has beenanalysed more closely. Here, both the spatialand economic dimensions are involved.

As far as fishery is concerned theprocess of market orientation began in the80’s. After the recent new economic policyof the Indian government since 1991, theprocessed only galloped further. Therefore,the two phases of globalisation aredistinguished separately.

There is sufficient evidence to saythat till 1970’s the fishermen of this region,known for their community orientation, hadrestrained their fishing mainly for local anddomestic use. During the period 1929 to1970, the highest fish production of 5,707metric tonnes (MT) was recorded in onlyone year, namely in 1957-58. During theentire period of those forty years, only infour years, the production exceeded 5,000metric tonnes per year. Otherwise, in mostyears, the production levels were around3,094 MT on average. The average rate ofgrowth of fish farming then was about 2percent, which was almost close to that ofthe population growth in that region (2.03percent). In other words, there was nounduly extraneous force of marketisation tobring about growth in fish farming. There wasalso not much pressure on exporting fishproducts from this region.

From 1970 onwards, there was ajump in fish production from Chilika. Thehighest production was registered in 1972-73 with 8,882 metric tonnes. In the periodfrom 1970’s to 80’s, fish landings werehovering between 5 and 6 thousand MT,with a negative annual growth rate of about1.7 percent. But much of the growth of fishlandings are attributable to growing nationaldemands and slowly picked up foreigndemands.

Initially, more than globalisation, theprice effects have changed the scenario inthe 80s. It was in the 80s that export of fishpicked up, with an average of about 85percent of the landings exported to foreignmarkets, as against a low of 60-75 percentof landings exported in the 70s. This trendshifted up substantially after that period. Theprices of prawn and crabs went upsubstantially since 1980’s. Till then, thoughthey were rising, the production and exportresponses were inelastic. In fact, in certainyears after the 80’s, exports of fish andprawns were as high as 97 percent of thelandings (e.g., in 1983-84).

Subsequent to the 80’s, theproduction rates kept up around 6 to 7 thous- and MT per year, touching once again thehighest in 1986-87 (with 8,872 MT). Afterthe boom in fish production in 1986-87, theproduction rates gradually started comingdown, touching a low of 1,269 MT in 1995-96. A process of globalisation encroachedupon Chilika lake aquaculture as well.


As reported earlier, construction ofprawn culture ponds which began in early1980s was intensified over the periodsubsequently. By then the fishing technologyhas also undergone a sea-change. Newcapital intensive fishing techniques usingfine-meshed nylon nets, outboard motorisedboats, bigger prawn culture ponds, etc.,have been effectively drawn in. A numberof ice plants (24) and fish processing plants(3) with a total capacity of 166 metric tons/day have been effectively working aroundChilika lake As far as the switching of fishingtechnique is concerned, it may be noted thatby 1993, prawn and diano fishing groundsswelled to 69 and 88, respectively and mostof the jano fishing grounds have beenconverted to prawn culture. Today there areas many as 5000 licensed boats, many ofwhich are motorised. The fishermen haveopted for more and more boats, that toomotorised ones, even though the averagecost of each boat is about Rs.40,000!Interestingly enough, the field survey revealsthat 49.7 percent of financing for the boatscame from the money lenders. Thus, moreinvestments, new technology andintroduction of new people in the profession,all went together hand in hand since the1980’s, under the globalisation process.

What is the end result ofglobalisation and ecological degradation ofthe lake reported earlier? Both theseprocesses have severely affectedaquaculture in turn. The total fish landingsfrom Chilika started coming down sharply

since 1986-87. Annual fish landings crashedto 4,273 MT in 1990-91 from 6,670 MTin the previous year. It further declined tojust 1,269 MT in 1995-96, which was justabout 14 percent of the all time highproduction of 8,872 MT in 1986-87. Thefish landings from Chilika picked upmarginally in 1996-97 to 1,633 MT, whichis still just about 18 percent of the fishlandings in 1986-87.

Thus, declining trend in fish (and alsoshrimp and crab) landings over the yearsclearly depict loss of fauna in the Chilikalake, much below its carrying capacity.Though, these brackish water species areof commercial interest and thus productionhas been reflected in the official statistics,equivalent loss of aquatic life of other speciescan not be ruled out. In response to a specificquestion on specie losses in the field survey,85.5 percent of people expressed theirawareness of specie extinction!

Thus the sharp decline in the fishcatch since 1986-87 poses threat to thetraditional poor fishermen’s livelihood. If thisdecreasing trend continues for another fewyears and no comprehensive action is takenby the Government and other agencies,fishing in Chilika lake will be a story of thepast. Drastic reduction in fish and shrimplandings can possibly be explained in termsof overfishing in the lake peripheries.Furthermore, a shallower and chokedmouth, and very intensive fishing at the lakemouth make increasingly difficult for mature


prawns and gravid fishes to reach the seaand for juveniles to enter the lake. Ultimately,over-exploitation of any aqua-life speciesfor whatever reasons amounts to loss ofbiodiversity.

How does the prawn culture stillcontinue to exist despite the fact that thelake is ecologically degrading, threateningthe livelihood of the people? The answerlies in the economic factor of pricing.

The market price of prawn varieswith the size (measured as 10 to 50 counts;e.g., 10 counts means 10 nos./kg) and type(juvenile and tiger etc.), from Rs 45 to Rs500 per Kg (observed in July, 1998). Theprice of export brand P.Monodon (Tigerprawn) of Chilika skyrocketed from Rs.3.5/kg in 1930 to well over Rs.280/kg in 1992.In 1996-97 it further increased to Rs.420/kg. As against these, the prices for the fishwere as low as Rs 180/kg in 1988, whichincreased to Rs 300 by 1996-97.

An important comment on the rateof exploitation of the local resources can bemade at this stage. A comparison of thelocal value of exported shrimps with theFOB unit values as per Director General ofCommercial Intelligence and Statistics(DGCIS) indicates that the degree ofexploitation of local resources in the nameof export earnings has been increasing overtime. A close perusal of available data showsthat as compared to the local prices ofexported prawns, the FOB unit values are

atleast 50 percent higher. The local valuesof exports have increased only marginallyfrom Rs.43 per kg in 1986-87 to Rs.98in 1995-96. Whereas, during the sameperiod, the FOB unit values soared fromRs.76 to Rs.227 by 1994-95.

Thus, the declining rates oflanding of prawn (and also crabs) arebeing more than compensated by thesharp increase in prices. It is this priceeffect (or call it economic factor) that haskept the Chilika lake prawn culture going,despite of its ecological degradation.

Effects of Globalisation and MarketOrientation in summary are:

Adverse income distributional effects,leaving a large section of the populationout side of the beneficiary group,

Leading to artificially high domesticprices, even for the traditional varietiesof fish,

Creating social tension and conflictsbetween fishermen and non-fishermencastes,

Conflicts within societies (e.g., courtcases), money lenders (e.g., perpetualdebt), mafias (e.g.,threat of life),

Loss of cultural identity (e.g.,disappearance of Co-operative fishing),

Drain of local resources and incometo out side of the region,


Ecological degradation of the lake dueto over-fishing, encroachment and unsoundfishing techniques, and

Leaving the human rights question totallyneglected (e.g., right to live, right toemployment and rights on local resources,gender balance).

7. CONCLUSIONS

The conclusion drawn in this studyare based on the conceptual modeldeveloped as shown in Figure 2.

Some of the major indicators werepresented in the section on ResearchMethodology. Both the model and theempirically estimated elasticities are used todraw major conclusions in this study. Theelasticity estimates thus derived do notnecessarily reflect any causality, but givedimensions of direct (i.e., via causality) andindirect relationships (i.e., via various otherlinkages). But the usefulness of thoseelasticity indicators can not be underscored.They are indicative of direct and indirect (i.e.,ultimate) effects of changes in any one factorupon the other.

One of the major findings of thisstudy is the fact that the root causes ofecological changes of this wetland lie out sideof the ecological factors. They themselvesdo not seem to have brought so muchdegradation as the case has been made tobe. The ecological factors or indicators canbe viewed separately from the point of lakebiodiversity and landscape biodiversity. One

of the issues then is to find out whether thelake peripheral changes are affecting the lakeecology. In terms of measurable elasticityindicators, one would then ask whether theland related ecological changes have anymajor effects on the lake related indicators.The land related changes include,deforestation in the catchment area,conversion of lake periphery in to agriculturalland, changes in the rainfall pattern etc.Important lake related ecological indicatorsare salinity, weed growth, lake depth, siltationand lake shrinkage. A very important findingon this is that, contrary to expectation, theland related biodiversity factors do not seemto affect the lake ecology as much as, thelatter does to the land ecology. On the otherhand, the lake related ecological changesbring about changes in the landscape aroundthe lake, but only indirectly, by making certaindemands on them. The demands onlandscape however, are due to many factorsoutside of ecological factors.

The major conclusion is that the rootcauses for biodiversity changes of the lakelie else where. This is where the socio-economic, technological, global and otherscales are to be understood.

What are the root causes then? Thestudy brings out very clearly that the major rootcauses, in order of their importance, arepopulation dynamics, globalisation andaquacultural technology. This is, once again,an extremely exceptional finding. Till the 1970’sthe population growth and fish production were


Fig 2 : Conceptual Model for ChilikaEco-System


consistently growing almost at the same rate.Till then, there was nothing special aboutexclusive prawn fishing (or intensive farmingfor prawns). Then came the period ofshifting to prawn fishing exclusively, andhence the growth of prawn farming as a newtechnology (distinct from traditionaltechnology). Coming of pen culture, shiftingaway from jano and bahani techniques wasgradually replaced by pen and cage culture.The population growth rate, together withmoving of non-fishermen to fishing haveforced the active fishermen to opt for thenew intensive prawn farming as an acceptedculture.

In the third phase, came the effectsof globalisation. The fast rising prices ofprawns, as against that of traditional fish haveenabled exporting to become commerciallyattractive.

8. RECOMMENDATIONS

8.1 MEASURES ON SOCIO-

ECONOMIC FRONT

a. Population dynamics

The significance of populationpressure on the lake and land ecology is tobe seen from the point of sustainableregional development. Excessive populationconcentration in prawn culture areas likeRambha and Satpada/Panaspada over theyears has brought lot of pressure on the lakein terms of over-fishing and extendedagriculture in the lake margins. However,compared to many coastal regions of India,

the population growth rate in Chilika is notalarmingly high. It is 2.03 percent per annumon a compound rate basis. But theexploitation of lake ecology is unsustainableat this rate of population growth. Chilika islife and culture for the people of this region.Therefore, it should emerge more as ahuman rights support than means ofeconomic support. The people of the regionshould get all the opportunity of living withfish culture, grow with it in terms of theirown growth. That is possible if fishing ismade to provide both food, social status andemployment.

A three prone policy is required.First, the views of the people are to be givendue weightage in determining the fishingsights, aquacultural practice (types offishing), medium of financing, marketingavenues and secondary level employmentopportunities. As was the age old tradition,in all walks of fishing culture differentsegments of the people of this region shouldalone get the opportunity. Otherwise, asemerged from the field survey, the fishermentry to migrate from this region, to be replacedby non-fishermen in activities such as trade,financing and marketing. That trend ofmanaging the culture in this region willbecome socially unsustainable. Second, thescope of Chilika fishing should be expandedto include marine fishing as well. The ChilikaDevelopment Authority (CDA) can play animportant role here, by training the fishermenin modern marine fishing, providing financialassistance, organising marketing and


monitoring aquaculture. At present theDirectorate of Fisheries collects data onaquaculture, that too on a selective basis.This task be transferred to the CDA.Thirdly, a network of small scale units shouldbe encouraged by CDA and Orissagovernment, around fishing, cold storage,marketing, processing and so on. Fishermencommunities can be encouraged to comeforward to take up these activities, inaddition to routine fishing. With an educatedpopulation of around 20-30 percent, and aliteracy rate of 40-50 percent, such a movetowards balanced regional developmentshould be aimed.

b. Globalisation and technology

The impact of globalisation directlyand indirectly has been affecting the ecologyof the region. Technical solutions such asdredging in the lake, developing coldstorages, introducing mechanised boats, andfinancing exclusively for fish export purposesand so on, all have been designed asprompted by the price differences betweenprawn and other fish. Such a globalisationprocess has led to selective fishing, whichwas not permitted in traditional fishing.Fishermen co-operatives in traditional fishingshould be encouraged. They should receiveprice support for traditional fishing. Financingand boat licensing should be strictlymonitored by an independent agency suchas Chilika Development Authority.

Export targets should have somelinks with local needs as well. An

environmental cess could be introduced onall exportable marine products on the linesof ‘polluter pay’ principle. Such a cessshould not become part of the general fundof the government treasury but to be retainedexclusively for lake development.

On the technological front,measures such as lake dredging etc., shouldbe carried out only after thorough zoologicalinvestigations on the lake ecology, speciesettlements, juvenile growth rates etc.Secondly, introduction of mechanised boatsfor both fishing and tourism should bestopped completely, if possible. Heavy‘User Tax’ be applied on the users ofmechanised boats.

c. Leasing policies and Social harmony

Changes in regional fishery leasingpolicies, especially since early 1990s, overthe years has resulted in encroachment oncenturies old fishing rights of the traditionalfishermen and fisherfolks. The changingcomposition of labour force and the peopleinvolved clearly reflects influx of non-fishermen into the lake areas. All these haveled to social tension and disharmony in theregion. Also leasing policies are cateringmainly to the interests of businessmen,middlemen and outsiders. The processshould be reversed. Heavy fees should belevied on non-fishermen getting in the trade.Prawn and fish exports should come underheavy export duties. The outsiders and non-fishermen should be encouraged in eco-tourism related activities. The industrial


development in the region can certainlyaccommodate the non-fishermen(including the Bangladeshis).

8.2 MEASURES ON ECOLOGICALFRONT

On the ecological levels, severalscientific measures are also warranted.But this study has not gone in to those.Yet, some comments and observationscan be made suggesting possible scientificmeasures.

The rate of annual siltation in thelake has reached alarming proportions.Progressive increase in silt predominantlybecause of deforestation in Chilikadrainage basin has reached to the presentrate of almost 13 million tons annually.Three ecological effects of this arenoticeable (also due to salinity decline).They are, shrinkage of the lake, declinein lake depth, and weed growth, all ofwhich are linked to each other.Shallowing of the lake resulting in declinein average depth of more than 0.50meters with much higher decline in thenorthern sectors. This has lead toshrinkage of lake area almost at the rateof 1.45 sq kms over last 73 yearsamounting to a loss of almost 106 sq kmsof lake area. Such depositional processof river borne suspended load also leadsto maximum weed growth in thesemargins of the lake (about 500 sq kmcovered now). Shallowing of the lake on

these margins is so much that one can observeherds of buffaloes almost grazing in these partsof the lake village. If the rate of siltation is notchecked then the whole lake area may becomesandy and clayey in another 200 to 250 years.

Progressive decline in average salinityfrom around 22.3 ppt in 1957-58 to presentlevels of 3.60 is a serious matter. As one wouldexpect, the salinity during summer is maximumand reaches a minimum in monsoons and ismaximum in the southern margins because ofits linkage with sea through the outer channel.The progressive decline in salinity because ofhigher and higher siltation and sedimentation isalso facilitating excessive weed growth in thelake. Recommendations by experts to raise theaverage salinity levels to 15 ppt should beimplemented with a view to sustain several fishspecies. In this process, measures such asdredging operations of outer lake and otherrecommended sites near Satpada and Palurcanal are to be re-examined by zoologists.

Excessive weed growth because ofhigher and higher influx of organic rich silt andsedimentation over the years and progressivedecline in salinity has resulted in weed spreadto the tune of 14.3 sq kms per year since 1973.The lake area infested with weed growth hascome to alarming proportions of around 52percent in 1996. The highest proportion ofweed infested area is because of PotemogetonPectinatus (PP), locally known as Charidal. Thedominant weed PP grows luxuriantly from thesilty northern parts to sandy southern end andcan tolerate wide salinity variations (0.26-15.00 ppt). If the trend of progressive weed


growth goes unchecked then the whole lakewould be covered by a variety of weeds inanother 50 years.

Pollution and eutrophication in thelake because of installation of chemicalbased industries in the catchment areas,agricultural intensification in Chilika basin andsprawling of prawn culture ponds especiallysince mid 1980s has been largelyresponsible for the presence of fatalisticheavy metals like mercury, lead, copper,chromium and nickel in the lake. Agriculturalintensification and high doses of chemicalfertilisers and pesticides in the Chilika basinareas are due to population pressure andgradual emphasis on cash crops over theyears. Sprawling prawn culture ponds allaround Chilika, especially around Rambhaand Satpada/Panaspada areas havepredominantly contributed to higher influxof nutrients facilitating weed growth. Theenvironmental cess proposed on prawnculture should be used to remove theorganic matters such as phyto and zoo-plankto, exoskeletos of marine organismsand so on. Special efforts need to be madeto arrest flow of phosphorous sedimentationfiltration and aeration.

Avifauna of the lake is drasticallyaffected. More than a million migratory birdsused to winter here and the number isdeclining fast because of weed growth nearthe Nalabana bird sanctuary in the parts ofthe lake, and decline in quantity and varietyof fishes on which these birds use to prey.

Partly deforestation in the Chilika basin andalso hunting of birds to the tune of almost15,000-20,000 every year, also must becontributing to the decline. The decline inavifauna has resulted in substantial decline ineco-tourism and international tourists, whichused to contribute greatly towardsimprovement in economic conditions of thepeople around Chilika lake. Thus, afforestationin the Chilika basin, ban on hunting of birdsand exports of fishes and prawns from the areawould greatly help in improvement in avifaunaand hence in eco-tourism, which would notonly improve the economic and socialconditions of poor inhabitants in the surroundingvillages but would also sustain biodiversity.

8.3 MEASURES AT GOVERNMENT

AND LEGAL LEVELS

At present, the political will to reversethe biodiversity losses of the lake seem to beon a piece-meal basis. The approach shouldbe holistic. The starting point should be bridgingthe gaps between the fishermen and non-fishermen. The approach should be humandignity, rights and entitlements. The newavenues such as eco-tourism both in the lakebasin and in the lake areas should be integratedwith aquacultural promotion. Such anintegrated approach is possible only if anauthority such Chilika Development Authorityarms itself with all these tasks together.Logically, the CDA should have a goodrepresentation of the people of the region onits board, and not just an official organ of thegovernment. Preservation of the lake should


not be treated as a policing exercise. Instead,the village communities can be involved inall major tasks such a policing, deweeding,technological choices, and secondaryemployment generation. As the study hasrevealed, many of the findings are based ononly a limited set of data and informationabout the habitat, culture, aquaculture,ecology and socio-economic conditions. Inorder to preserve the lake truly as a Ramsarsite, it is time that within CDA or otherwisein an organisation such as WWF-India,

a cell be treated to generate and collectscientific data and information on a regularbasis. Apart from regular ecological datacollection from the selected sites already setup by DST, and NRSA data processing byORSAC, periodic and continuous surveys,ground thinking, and group discussionsshould be held with communities. Theinformation and data should be madeavailable to scientific and socio-economicagencies for deducing policies.


9. SELECTED READINGS

Annandale, N., 1915, Fauna of the Chilikalake- Mammals, reptiles and batrachians.Memoirs of the Indian Museum, 5(2), pp163-174.

and S. Kemp, 1915, Introduction to thefauna of the Chilika lake. Memoirs of theIndian Museum, 5, pp 1-20.

Asthana, V., 1979, Limnological studies oflake Chilika, Orissa. Final Project Report,Indian Programme on Man andBiosphere (MAB), Project No. 112.Department of Science and Technology,Government of India, New Delhi.

Bandyopadhyay, S. and B. Gopal, 1991,Ecosystem Studies and ManagementProblems of a Coastal Lagoon, The lakeChilika. In Gopal B. and Asthana, V.(Eds),Aquatic Sciences in India. IndianAssociation for Limnology andOceanography, pp 117-172.

Chatrath, K.J.S. and B.C. Acharya, 1990,Management for sustainable development inChilika lake, Orissa. Abstract. seminar onwetland ecology and management,Bombay Natural History Society,Bharatpur.

CIDA, 1992, Chilika lake project :Feasibility and Design Report. CanadianInternational Development Agency.

Das, Banka Behary, (undated), Chilika:The Nature’s Treasure: Will it be Allowedto die? Krushak Unnayan Trust, OrissaKrushak Mahasangh.

Das, N.K. and R.C. Samal, 1988,Environmental Survey of Chilika. In S.N.Patro (Ed.), Chilika -The Pride of ourWetland Heritage. Orissa EnvironmentalSociety, Bhubaneshwar pp.96-103.

Das, G.S., 1993, The Report of the FactFinding Committee on Chilika Fisheries.Submitted to the Honourable High Court,Orissa, August 16.

Das, Tapan Kumar, 1997, EnvironmentalMonitoring of Chilika Lake Region,Orissa, using integrated remote sensing andGIS. Department of Civil Engineering, IndianInstitute of Technology, Kanpur.

Edwards, P.S., 1998, Root Causes ofBiodiversity Loss: An Analytical Approach.Macroeconomics for SustainableDevelopment Programme Office (MPO),World Wide Fund for Nature, WashingtonDC, USA.

Fisher, A.C. and J.V. Krutilla., 1974,Valuing long run ecological consequencesand irreversibilities. Journal ofEnvironmental Economics andManagement, Vol I, pp 96-108.

Jhingran, V.G., 1963, Report on Fisheriesof Chilika lake 1957-1960. Bulletin,


Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute,Barrackpore, 113 pages.

and A.V. Natarajan, 1966, Final Reporton the Fisheries of the Chilika Lake(1957-65). Bulletin , Central InlandFisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore.

Mishra, P..M., 1988b, Fishery developmentof Chilika lake. In S.N.Patro (Ed.), Chilika- The Pride of Our Wetland Heritage,Orissa Environmental Society, pp 40-43.

Mitra, G.N., 1946, Development of theChilika Lake. Orissa Government Press,Cuttack, pp 1-26.

Mohanty, R.C., 1998, A Report on thepresent status of weeds in Chilika lagoon.Project Report, Chilika DevelopmentAuthority (CDA) Project, P.G. Departmentof Botany, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.

Mohanty S.K., 1975, The breeding ofeconomic fishes of the Chilika lake -AReview. Bulletin, Department of MarineSciences, University of Cochin VII (3), pp543-559.

Mohapatra, L.K., 1973, Fishing andFishermen on the Chilika Lake in Orissa.India Museum Bulletin, Vol VIII, No.1.

Mohapatra, P., N.C. Samant Singh, D.C.Mohanty and K.S. Bhatta., 1988, A studyof physico-chemical observation of threestations in Chilika lagoon during the year

1985-87. Abstract, National Seminar onConservation and Management ofChilika. Department of Science,Technology and Environment, Governmentof Orissa, Bhubaneshwar.

Mohapatra, S.N., 1988, Scope fordevelopment of Chilika lake. Departmentof Science Technology and Environment,Government of Orissa. Bhubaneshwar.

OES.,1997, Workshop on the participationof the local communities for the protectionof natural resources -The Wetland ofChilika, Background document, OrissaEnvironmental society.

ORSAC., 1988, Interim report on studyof Chilika lake resources andenvironment. Orissa Remote SensingApplication Centre, Bhubaneshwar.

Patnaik, S., 1971, Seasonal abundance anddistribution of bottom fauna of the Chilikalake. Journal of the Marine BiologicalAssociation of India: 13(1), pp 106-125.

Patro, S.N., 1988, Chilika - The Pride ofour Wetland Heritage (a state of the artreport), Orissa Environmental Society,Bhubaneswar.

Rajyalakshmi, T., 1983, Application of penand cage culture technology in certainbrackishwater lagoons and lakes in India.Proceedings of the National Seminar onCage Pen culture, pp 81-85.

Rath, Anita, 1997, Preservation value of aWetland Ecosystem : A Case study ofChilika. Unpublished M.Phil. dissertation


submitted to University of Delhi, August 1997.

Sahu B.N., 1988a, The Chilika lake is in danger.In S.N. Patro (Ed.), Chilika-The Pride of ourWetland Heritage, Orissa EnvironmentalSociety, Bhubaneswar, pp 1-8.

Sinha, B. N., (undated), Impact of largescale commercial prawn cultivation inthe S.E. Sector of Lake Chilika on itsecosystem.

Varshney, C.K., 1993, Integrated ShrimpFarming Project at Chilika Lake; EcologicalImplications and Critique of EnvironmentalManagement Plan. Monograph, WWFIndia, March 1993.

Venkataratnam, K., 1965, Studies on someaspects of the sediments of Chilika lake.Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Department ofGeology, Andhra University, India, 268pages.

Vettivel, S., 1992, Managing Chilika LakeEnvironment. Paper presented at the OrissaEnvironmental Congress organised by theOrissa Environmental Society,Bhubaneshwar, May 23.

WWF., 1994, Ramsar Sites of India :Chilika Lake. World Wide Fund forNature, New Delhi, India.

10. RESEARCH TEAM

Dr. Gopal K. KadekodiResearch ProfessorCentre for Multi-Disciplinary DevelopmentResearch, Jubilee Circle,DHARWAR-580001, Karnataka, India

Prof. Subhash C. GulatiInstitute of Economic GrowthUniversity EnclaveDelhi-110007, India

Dr. Saroj Kumar AdhikariInstitute of Economic Growth

Mr. Ram RanjanInstitute of Economic Growth

Mr. Dharmendra KarInstitute of Economic Growth



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