CHAPTER 9Developmental

Psychology

The Nature-Nurture Issue**

When considering an issue related to a living organism, did it become the way it is due to genetics, life experiences, or both.

Nature is defined as the genetic factors or influences

Nurture is defined as the environmental factors & learning.

We consider the things that may have contributed to a person’s biological, emotional, cognitive, personal, and social development.

Nature-Nurture Issue** Is personality development

due to genetics or environmental factors?Answer: BOTH!

Are social skills due to genetics or learning?Answer: BOTH!

Are physical/psychological illnesses due to genetics or environmental factors?Answer: BOTH!

Cognitive Development Jean Piaget is cited as one of

the first and most prolific researchers to investigate cognitive development.Cognitive strategies are age-

relatedThe way that children think

about things changes with age regardless of the specific nature of what they were thinking about.

Criticized for under-estimating abilities

REVIEW: Cognitive Abilities Jean Piaget’s Theories of

Cognition Schemas or Schemes: actions

or mental representations that organize knowledge (a mental picture) Limited when dealing with new concepts and

experiences, but improves with exposure and experience.

Cognitive DevelopmentHow do we interpret the world

around us? Assimilation: interpreting new

information using existing ways of thinking.

Accommodation: the process of changing existing ways of thinking to adjust to and better understand new experiences.

Examples: Will be discussed in class

Birds The neighbor’s great dane The “Tow Truck Story” My sister’s first intestinal

virus

Cognitive Development Stages of cognitive

development1.) Sensorimotor (birth -24 months)

2.) Preoperational (2-7 years)3.) Concrete Operational (7-12 years)

4.) Formal Operational (12+ years)

Cognitive Abilities 1.) Sensorimotor Stage:

period of time from birth to two years of age, in which a child understands the world around them by using and coordinating their senses and their ever increasing ability to move around and expose themselves to new experiences.

Cognitive Development 2.) Piaget’s Preoperational

Stage Approximately age 2 – 7 Use of symbols to represent experience

(use of words, images and drawings) Stable concepts begin to form Presence of Egocentrism Presence of Magical Thinking / Beliefs Beginning stages of reasoning

Cognitive Development 2.) Piaget’s Preoperational

Stage Mental representation Intuition/hypothesis decision making

Characteristics of preoperational thought = inflexible Appearance & reality

Easily fooled by appearance Symbolic representation vs Reality

Make-believe play = pretend play1. More sophisticated form = sociodramatic play** Evidence of children’s understanding of

representational function

Cognitive Development Object Permanence: the

understanding that objects or events continue to exist even if they can no longer be seen, touched or heard.

Occurs during sensorimotor stage Develops between 4 & 12 months

Peek-a-boo Hiding objects to distractDistress when left alone (mommy

leaves)

Cognitive Development Egocentrism / Egocentric

Thinking: the tendency for children to view the world: as being centered around

themselvesONLY from their point-of-view

and having difficulties appreciating someone else’s point-of-view

If they don’t experience it, neither does anyone else.

Piaget’s Preoperational Stage

EgocentrismCan’t understand that others

have different feelings, perceptions, attitudes, likes and dislikes

Believe that if they experience something, that all others do as well Child nodding on phone with grandma

Child likes frogs and mother doesn’t

Child takes another child’s toy

Piaget’s Preoperational Stage

Centration: The focusing of attention on one

characteristic to the exclusion of all others

The young child’s tendency to think in the world in terms of one variable at a time Choosing what to wear for the day

Piaget’s Cognitive Stages 3.) Concrete Operational

Stage: Children between the ages of 7 and 12 start to reason logically about specific or concrete events or examples. Not yet able to imagine the steps necessary

to complete an algebraic equation, which is too abstract for thinking at this stage.

Concrete operations allow a child the ability to consider several characteristics rather than focus on a single property of an object.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development

Formal Operations Stage: The adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways.12 years and olderBegin to entertain thoughts about

their ‘possible’ futureMore systematic in solving problemsDevelop hypotheses about why

something happens

Socioemotional Development

Humans have the capacity to develop a varying ability to display and control their emotions.

Humans also have the capacity to develop varying abilities that allow them to initiate social interactions with others around them.

Temperament3 Categories of Temperament (Thomas & Chess Research) Easy Child: a child who is

generally in a positive mood, who quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and who adapts easily to new experiences. Regular eating and sleeping routines; happy 40% of children studied

Temperament Difficult Child: A child who

tends to react negatively and cries frequently, who engages in irregular daily routines, and who is slow to accept new experiences. Less regular with bodily functions and are

slow to develop regular eating and sleeping patterns; react vigorously and negatively to change; difficulty adapting; cry more than others (higher pitched); easily irritated

10% of children studied

Temperament Slow-to-warm-up Child: A child

who has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood. Not as negative as difficult children; show

mild or passive resistance; few intense reactions; once adapted-fairly positive

15% of children studied NOTE: 35% did not fit into any of the 3

categories.

Temperament Goodness of fit: Refers to the

match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands with which the child must cope. Expectations by parents, grandparents, etc Expectations in childcare/daycare, etc Lack of fit can result in adjustment

problems

Psychosocial Development Changes in the way we think,

feel and relate to the world and the people in it.

Many different

issues and theories exist within the realm of the

psychosocial perspective.

Attachment Attachment: The intense

emotional tie or bond between two individuals, such as a parent and a child.Parents, older siblings,

grandparents, other consistent caregivers

Harlow’s Monkeys Study Early theorists believed that

feeding was the key to babies associating their mothers with a sense of well being and consequently wanting to be close to her.

Wire Mother (food) vs. Cloth Mother (no food)

Harlow’s Monkeys Study Harry Harlow’s study with Rhesus

monkeys eliminated this belief. Contact comfort found to be more

important than the gratification of being fed.

Mary Ainsworth’s Research “The Strange Situation”: An

observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of introduction, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order. Used to classify infants into 4 categories of

attachment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrH

UHU

Mary Ainsworth’s Research Securely Attached Babies:

babies that use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore their environment. Not overly upset by separations Happy with reunions Comfortable exploring Not overly upset by strangers (also uses

social referencing)

Mary Ainsworth’s Research Insecure-Avoidant Babies:

Babies show insecurity by avoiding their caregiver. Interacts little while caregiver is in the

room Not distressed by separations Usually does not reestablish contact when

reunited Avoid contact with stranger If contact is established, they may lean or

pull away, look away and even ignore (more passive resistance)

Mary Ainsworth’s Research Insecure-Resistant Babies:

Babies that often cling to the caregiver, then resist him or her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away (active resistance). Cling anxiously to caregiver Frightened by stranger Will not explore room and toys Cries loudly / terribly upset when separated Resists attempts to comfort when reunited /

inconsolable

Mary Ainsworth’s Research Insecure-Disorganized/

Disoriented: an infant that lacks a cohesive strategy in coping with the strange situation The greatest insecurity (least prevalent) Show a variety of confused and

conflicted behaviors (may cling to mother while leaning away)

Approach / withdraw behaviors Emotions vary greatly over time (calm,

then cry)

Parenting Styles Diana Baumrind’s Research 4 Aspects of Family

Functioning Warmth or Nurturance Control: Clarity & consistency of rules Level of expectations, called “Maturity

Demands” Communication between the parent and the

child

Parenting Styles Permissive Style: highly

involved with their children, but place few demands or controls on them. High in nurturance, but low in control,

communication, and maturity demands. Let their children do what they want hoping

to create creative, confident children Rarely learn respect for others and have

difficulty controlling their behavior, difficult, noncompliant, difficulties in peer relations.

Parenting Styles Authoritarian Style: a

restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child to obey their rules. “You do what I say, when I say…no

discussion!” Low in nurturance and communication, but

high in maturity demands and control Enforce rules rigidly, but do not explain

them Children grow to be fearful, anxious, and

have weak communication skills, low self-esteem, do less well in school, aggressive

Parenting Styles Rejecting-Neglectful Style:

parent is very uninvolved with the child’s life Lowe in control, maturity demands,

communication and nurturance Children tend to be socially incompetent,

poor self-control, low self-esteem, immature, may be alienated from family.

Don’t handle independence well Less achievement oriented in school, more

impulsive, and are often antisocial.

Parenting Styles Authoritative Style: encourage

children to be independent, but still place limits and control on their actions. High in nurturance, communication,

maturity demands and control Inductive Discipline: explaining to a child

why a punished behavior is wrong Most consistently positive results: higher

self-esteem, more independent, self-confident, better grades, altruistic behaviors

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Only theory of psychosocial development that covers the entire lifespan

Eight stages, each involves specific personal or social tasks that must be accomplished if development is to proceed in a healthy fashion.

Overcome a specific crisis or conflict between “internal needs” and the environment that they are currently in.

Erikson-Psychosocial Stages

1.) Trust vs. MistrustBirth – 18 months Infants learn to trust when they are cared

for in a consistent, predictable, timely, and nurturing manner. (needs are met by caregivers)

Infants learn mistrust if their needs are not met in a consistent, reliable, timely and nurturing manner.

Erikson-Psychosocial Stages 2.) Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt:

Child begins to assert their independence and express individuality (learning to do things for themselves)Toddle years: 18 months – 3

years Will; new physical skills lead to demand for

more choices, most often seen as saying, “no” to caregivers; child learns self-care skills such as toileting

Parents view interactions with child as a series of troublesome encounters; stubborn insistence by child

Erikson-Psychosocial Stages

3.) Initiative vs. Guilt: Child learns to initiate tasks and to follow through with plans. Motivation, curiosity, autonomy Conflict occurs when they make a

decision to do something on their own (pick up an item in a store, choose their outfit for the day, talk to a stranger). Do they feel comfortable making the decision or are they worried about (or punished for) offending or letting down their parents.

Overprotective parents?

Erikson-Psychosocial Stages

4.) Industry vs. Inferiority: children direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills (and social skills), or end up feeling incompetent or inferior compared to others.

Erikson-Psychosocial Stages

5.) Identity vs. Role Confusion: an adolescent explores who they are, what they stand for, and where they are going in life.Positive outcome = solid identity

developmentNegative outcome = unsure of

who they are

Erikson-Psychosocial Stages 6.) Intimacy vs. Isolation: an

individual must find a life partner or supportive friends in order to avoid social isolation.Intimacy: the capacity to engage

in a supportive, affectionate relationship without losing one’s sense of self; the ability to be totally honest with an other, and be one’s self without fear of judgment from the other.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

7.) Generativity vs. Stagnation: Generativity: Finding meaning in

mentoring, helping or contributing to the development of younger individuals (own children, grandchildren, other young family members, friends’ or others’ children, working with younger people).

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Stagnation: sometimes called “self-absorption”, develops when individuals sense that they have done little or nothing for the next generation.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair: involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one’s life has not been well spent.

Levinson’s Seasons of Life DANIEL LEVINSON Who is he? Daniel Levinson graduated from Yale as a

psychologist.  He later developed a comprehensive theory of adult development.  This theory is important because it is one of the only ones which suggests that development and growth happens well into the adult years.  

Levinson’s Seasons of Life The life structure: an underlying

pattern of an individual's life at any given point in time.  A person's life structure is shaped mainly

by their social and physical environment, and it primarily involves family and work. 

Other variables such as religion, race, and status are often important as well.  

There are 6 stages of adulthood in Levinson's theory titled "Seasons of a Man's Life":

Levinson’s Seasons of LifeIn his theory there are two key concepts:

1) the Stable Period - This is the time when a person makes crucial choices in life.

2) the Transitional Period - This is the end of a person's stage and the beginning of a new one. Life during these transitions can be either rocky or smooth, but the quality and significance of one’s life commitments often change between the beginning and end of a period.

Levinson’s Seasons of Life1) Early adult transition (17-22) - leave adolescence, make preliminary choices for adult life

2) Entering the adult world (22-28) - make initial choices in love, occupation, friendship, values, lifestyle

3) Age 30 transition (28-33) - changes occur in life structure, either a moderate change or, more often, a severe and stressful crisis

Levinson’s Seasons of Life4) Settling down (33-40) - establish a niche in society, progress on a timetable, in both family and career accomplishments People are expected to think and

behave like a parent, so they are facing more demanding roles and expectations .

Levinson’s Seasons of Life5) Mid-life transition (40-45) - life structure comes into question, usually a time of crisis in the meaning, direction, and value of each person's life.  Neglected parts of the self (talents,

desires, aspirations) seek expression.  Men are seen more as parents than as

“brothers” to other men who are somewhat younger than them and this message comes as an irritation at first. 

Also at this time, men becoming increasingly aware of death and they are reminded of how short life really is.  They become involved in trying to leave a legacy and this usually forms the core of the second half of his life.

Levinson’s Seasons of Life6) Entering middle adulthood (45-50) - choices must be made, a new life structure formed.  People must commit to new tasks.

Some sources also stated that there was a late adulthood stage during which time a man spent time reflecting on past achievements and regrets, and making peace with one's self and others (including God).