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SA FETY SERIES No. 40 Safe Use of Radioactive Tracers in Industrial Processes Sponsored by the IAEA and WHO INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, VIENNA, 1974 —■7 This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/
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S A F E T Y S E R I E S N o . 40

Safe Use of Radioactive Tracers in Industrial Processes

Sponsored by the

IAEA and W H O

I NT E R NAT I ONAL A T O M I C E NE R GY AG E NC Y , VI ENNA, 1 9 7 4—■7

This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

S A F E USE O F R A D IO A C T IV E T R A C E R S

IN IN D U S T R IA L PROCESSES

This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

SAFETY SERIES No. 40

SAFE USE OF RADIOACTIVE TRACERS IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

S P O N S O R E D B Y T H E I N T E R N A T I O N A L A T O M I C E N E R G Y A G E N C Y

A N D T H E W O R L D H E A L T H O R G A N I Z A T I O N

I N T E R N A T I O N A L A T O M I C E N E R G Y A G E N C Y V I E N N A , 1 9 7 4

This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

THIS S A F E T Y SERIES W ILL ALSO B E PUBLISH ED IN FREN CH

S A F E U S E O F R A D I O A C T I V E T R A C E R S IN I N D U S T R I A L P R O C E S S E S

I A E A , V I E N N A , 1 9 7 4 S T I / P U B / 3 6 9

Printed by the IAEA in Austria January 1974

This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

FO REW O RD

T h e t e c h n i q u e s f o r u s i n g r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s i n i n d u s t r i a l p r o ­c e s s e s h a v e b e c o m e w i d e l y e s t a b l i s h e d . A l th o u g h t h e a s s o c i a t e d r i s k s t o r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s and to t h e p u b l i c h a v e b e e n s m a l l , t h i s u s e o f t r a c e r s h a s g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d in r e c e n t y e a r s . A t p r e s e n t t h e r e a r e f e w r o u t i n e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t r a c e r s w h i c h c o u ld l e a d to th e c o n t in u o u s i n t r o d u c t i o n o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y in to c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t s o r d i r e c t l y in to t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , and t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s l i k e l y to c o n t i n u e in to t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e . A l th o u g h i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a ­t i o n s o f t r a c e r s w i l l c o n t in u e to c o n t r i b u t e o n l y a v e r y s m a l l p r o ­p o r t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t io n d o s e r e l a t i v e to o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s , s o m e g u id e i s d e e m e d n e c e s s a r y f o r t h o s e w ho m a y b e in v o lv e d in p l a n n i n g and i m p l e m e n t i n g s u c h t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a s w e l l a s f o r t h o s e who m a y h a v e to i n s t i t u t e r e g u l a t o r y f u n c t i o n s .

In 1 9 7 0 t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A t o m i c E n e r g y A g e n c y ( I A E A ) , in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i th th e W o r l d H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n (W H O ), e n g a g e d th e s e r v i c e s o f M r . R . C u n n in g h a m ( U S A ) , M r . B . F r i e s (U SA ) and M r . P . J o h n s o n (U K) a s c o n s u l t a n t s to p r e p a r e a d r a f t m a n u a l . T h i s d r a f t t h e n f o r m e d th e w o r k i n g p a p e r f o r a p a n e l o f e x p e r t s c o n v e n e d b y th e I A E A and W H O in 1 9 7 2 . A t t h i s s t a g e t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o u r O r g a n i z a t i o n ( I L O ) , t h e O E C D N u c l e a r E n e r g y A g e n c y (N E A ) and th e F o o d and A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e U n i te d N a t i o n s (F A O ) e x p r e s s e d t h e i r i n t e r e s t in th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e f i n a l g u id e but w e r e u n a b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e p a n e l m e e t i n g . T h e r e v i s e d t e x t t h a t r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e p a n e l ' s w o r k w a s r e v i e w e d and p u t in to th e p r e s e n t f i n a l f o r m b y M r . C u n n in g h a m .

A n u m b e r o f e x a m p l e s o f r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r a p p l i c a t i o n s p r o ­v id e d b y t h e c o n s u l t a n t s and p a n e l m e m b e r s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n th e A n n e x e s .

This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

CONTENTS

1 . I N T R O D U C T I O N ..................................................................................................... 9

1 . 1 . O b j e c t i v e s and s c o p e o f t h e g u i d e ......................................... 91 . 2 . B a s i s o f r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s .......................................................... 9

2 . B A S I C R A D I A T I O N S A F E T Y C O N S I D E R A T I O N S •............. . 10

2 . 1 . P r i n c i p l e s ................................................................................................ 1 02 . 2 . C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s and

m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c ................................................................... 102 . 3 . T h e c r i t i c a l p a th w a y and c r i t i c a l g r o u p s ..................... 11

3 . D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F R A D I A T I O N D O S E . ' ................................. 12

3 . 1 . D o s e to r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s ......................................................... 123 . 2 . D o s e t o t h e p u b l i c ............................................................................. 123 . 3 . I n c o r p o r a t i o n o f r a d i o n u c l i d e s i n c o n s u m e r s '

p r o d u c t s and r e l e a s e o f a c t i v i t y toe n v i r o n m e n t ............................................................................................. 13

4 . R O L E O F C O M P E T E N T A U T H O R I T Y ............................................. 14

4 . 1 . D e v e l o p s p o l i c y and c r i t e r i a .................................................... 144 . 2 . G r a n t s a u t h o r i z a t i o n ......................................................................... 144 . 3 . C o n d u c t s i n s p e c t i o n ............................................................................ 154 . 4 . M a i n t a i n s s u r v e i l l a n c e o v e r t h e p o p u l a t io n d o s e . . 15

5 . P L A N N I N G A N D D E S I G N ............................................................................. 15

5 . 1 . P l a n n i n g ..................................................................................................... 155 . 2 . D e s i g n .............................................................................................................. 16

5 . 2 . 1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n ......................................................................... 165 . 2 . 2 . A s s i g n m e n t o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ............................. 165 . 2 . 3 . S e l e c t i o n o f m e t h o d ....................................................... 165 . 2 . 4 . E x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n .................................................... 175 . 2 . 5 . R a d i a t i o n s a f e t y and p r o t e c t i o n ........................... 17

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6. 1 . P r e l i m i n a r y m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e t r a c e r ....................... 196 . 2 . I n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e t r a c e r i n t o th e s y s t e m ................. 196. 3 . M e a s u r e m e n t o f th e t r a c e r w i th in th e s y s t e m . . . . 2 06 . 4 . P o s t - o p e r a t i o n a l s u r v e i l l a n c e ............................................... 20

R E F E R E N C E S ................................................................................................................. 21

A P P E N D I X I : N o te oh I C R P P u b l i c a t i o n N o . 9 ............................. 2 3A P P E N D I X I I : I n f o r m a t i o n s u b m i t t e d to c o m p e t e n t

a u t h o r i t y .......................................................................................... 2 8A P P E N D I X I I I : T r a i n i n g and e x p e r i e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s ............ 30

A N N E X E S 1 - 9 : E x a m p l e s o f t r a c e r a p p l i c a t i o n s ............................ 31R E F E R E N C E S T O A N N E X E S .............................................................................. 52

6. OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES ................................................... 19

L I S T O F P A N E L M E M B E R S 53

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1. INTRODUCTION

R a d i o t r a c e r s h a v e w id e a p p l i c a t i o n in i n d u s t r y a n d p r o v i d e v a l u a b l e m e t h o d s f o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t an d i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s s y s t e m s . T h i s i s b e c a u s e th e i d e a l t r a c e r i s o n e w h ic h i s i d e n t i c a l to a c o m p o n e n t o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d s y s t e m a n d y e t c a n b e u n a m b i g u o u s l y m e a s u r e d . In a d d i t i o n , th e r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s o f f e r e a s e o f m e a s u r e m e n t a n d h ig h s e n s i t i v i t y t o g e t h e r w ith a b s e n c e o f i n t e r f e r e n c e w ith th e s t u d i e d p r o c e s s . W e l l e s t a b l i s h e d r a d i o t r a c e r m e t h o d s i n c l u d e t h o s e f o r f lo w m e a s u r e m e n t , d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f r e s i d e n c e t i m e s , f lo w p a t t e r n s , m i x i n g e f f i c i e n c i e s , v e n t i l a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y s t u d i e s , l o c a t i o n o f l e a k s , e t c . D e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t e c h n i q u e s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e to b e fou n d in th e t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , i n c l u d i n g th e p u b l i s h e d p r o c e e d i n g s o f v a r i o u s I A E A s y m p o s i a [ l , 2 ] . A l s o , s o m e e x a m p l e s a r e g i v e n in t h e A n n e x e s to t h i s r e p o r t .

1. 1. O b j e c t i v e s a n d s c o p e o f th e gu id e

T h e p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s gu id e a r e (a ) to i d e n t i f y th e s a f e t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s in i n d u s t r i a l r a d i o t r a c i n g , (b) to p r o v i d e g u i d a n c e to c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t i e s i n c o n v e r t i n g I C R P r e c o m m e n d a ­t i o n s in to a p p r o p r i a t e p o l i c i e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s a p p l i c a b l e to r a d i o ­t r a c i n g , ( c ) to a s s i s t c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t i e s in i m p l e m e n t i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e p r o g r a m f o r c o n t r o l o f i n d u s t r i a l r a d i o t r a c i n g , a n d (d) to p r o v i d e u s e r s w i th g u i d a n c e in th e p l a n n i n g a n d s a f e i m p l e m e n ­t a t i o n o f r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

I n d u s t r i a l r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y c o n d u c t e d to o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a n i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s a n d u s u a l l y i n v o lv e s h o r t - l i v e d r a d i o i s o t o p e s . T h e g u id e c o v e r s th e s a f e t y a s p e c t s o f th e u s e o f r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s in i n d u s t r y , i n c l u d i n g t h a t r a d i o a c t i v i t y w h ic h m a y b e i n c o r p o r a t e d in to c o n s u m e r s ' p r o d u c t s a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e g u id e i s n o t c o n c e r n e d w ith th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s to g e o l o g i c a l , h y d r o l o g i c a l o r a g r i c u l t u r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , a l th o u g h , i n e v i t a b l y , i t w i l l o v e r l a p w ith s o m e o f th e e a r l i e r I A E A d o c u m e n t s i n v o lv in g t r a c e r a p p l i c a ­t i o n s c o n d u c t e d o u t s i d e i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s s y s t e m s .

1. 2 . B a s i s o f r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s

T h e g u id e i s b a s e d p r i m a r i l y up on th e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n o f R a d i o l o g i c a l P r o t e c t i o n ( I C R P ) and p u b l i s h e d I A E A S a f e t y S e r i e s . A s s u c h , r e v i s i o n s w i l l b e r e q u i r e d a s a d j u s t m e n t s to i n t e r n a t i o n a l s a f e t y g u i d e l i n e s o r a d v a n c e s in

9

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t e c h n o l o g y a r e m a d e . T h e p r o v i s i o n s o f th e g u id e s h o u ld b e t r e a t e d a s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s w h ic h a r e g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e .

2 . B A S I C R A D I A T I O N S A F E T Y C O N S I D E R A T I O N S

T h e o b j e c t i v e o f r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n i s to l i m i t r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e s o t h a t t h e r i s k o f h a r m f u l e f f e c t s to t h e i n d iv id u a l and to s o c i e t y i s a s s m a l l a s p o s s i b l e c o m p a r e d w ith th e b e n e f i t s to b e d e r i v e d f r o m th e u s e o f i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n .

2 . 1 . P r i n c i p l e s

P r i n c i p l e s o f p r o t e c t i o n a r e e m b o d i e d in t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f t h e I C R P [3] (A p p e n d ix I c o n t a i n s s o m e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f th e I C R P c o n c e r n i n g l i m i t a t i o n o f d o s e s f o r e x p o s u r e s f r o m c o n t r o l l a b l e s o u r c e s ) , up on w h ic h m o s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s [4 ] and n a t i o n a l c o d e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s a r e b a s e d .

T h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s and g u i d a n c e p r o v i d e d b y i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s e m b o d y s o m e p r i n c i p l e s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e to t h o s e p l a n n i n g to u s e r a d i o t r a c e r s in i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s e s . T h e s e a r e :(1 ) U n n e c e s s a r y e x p o s u r e s s h o u ld b e a v o id e d ; (2) O p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l s h o u ld b e p r o v i d e d s o t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g d o s e s a r e a s lo w a s r e a d i l y a c h i e v a b l e a n d a r e j u s t i f i e d b y t h e b e n e f i t s ; (3) C o m p l i a n c e w ith th e r e l e v a n t d o s e l i m i t s ( I A E A S a f e t y S e r i e s N o . 9) s h o u ld b e e n s u r e d ;(4) T h e r e s u l t i n g d o s e to t h e w h o le p o p u l a t io n s h o u ld b e m u c h s m a l l e r t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l i m i t , w h ic h s h o u ld b e v i e w e d a s a s u m o f m i n i m u m n e c e s s a r y c o n t r i b u t i o n s a n d n o t a s a p e r m i t t e d t o t a l a p p a r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e f o r a p p o r t i o n m e n t .

2 . 2 . C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s a n d m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c

W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g h o w to a c h i e v e th e l o w e s t p r a c t i c a b l e r a d i a t i o n d o s e i n r a d i o t r a c e r w o r k , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n e x p o s u r e s to r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s a n d to m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c . T h e r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s in a t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n n o r m a l l y in c l u d e t h o s e e n g a g e d in (a ) t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e t r a c e r c o m p o u n d , (b) th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e t r a c e r i n t o th e p r o c e s s , ( c ) p r o d u c t s a m p l i n g o r p r o c e s s m e a s u r e m e n t , a n d (d) r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n d u t i e s . In s o m e i n s t a n c e s , a f e w p e r s o n s n o t d i r e c t l y i n v o lv e d i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n n e e d to r e m a i n in th e c o n t r o l l e d a r e a e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h e t r a c e r i n ­j e c t i o n p o in t to p e r f o r m d u t i e s e s s e n t i a l t o p l a n t o p e r a t i o n . E f f o r t s s h o u ld b e m a d e to m i n i m i z e th e n u m b e r o f s u c h p e r s o n s who sh o u ld

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b e r e g a r d e d a s r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s . A l l o t h e r p e r s o n s s h o u ld b e r e g a r d e d a s m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c .

T h e r a d i a t i o n r e c e i v e d b y m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c , i f a n y , f r o m r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w i l l g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t f r o m r e l e a s e o f w a s t e s in l iq u i d o r g a s e o u s e f f l u e n t s , o r b y i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f th e r a d i o i s o t o p e in a p r o d u c t w h ic h s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c o m e s a c c e s s i b l e to t h e p u b l i c . C a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n o f t h e r a d i o i s o t o p e a n d e q u i p m e n t w i th h i g h d e t e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n a s s u r i n g th a t t h e d o s e to m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c i s m a i n t a i n e d a s lo w a s p r a c t i c a b l e . T h e r e l a t i v e d o s e o r d o s e c o m m i t m e n t f r o m a v a r i e t y o f r a d i o i s o t o p e s f e a s i b l e f o r a n y g i v e n a p p l i c a t i o n s h o u ld s e r v e a s a f i n a l b a s i s f o r r a d i o i s o t o p e s e l e c t i o n . O n c e a r a d i o i s o t o p e h a s b e e n s e l e c t e d , p l a n n i n g s h o u ld i n c l u d e a s p e c i f i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n t h a t th e s m a l l e s t p r a c t i c a b l e a m o u n t o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y w i l l b e u s e d , r e l e a s e d to t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , o r c o n t a i n e d in p r o d u c t s .

2 . 3 . T h e c r i t i c a l p a t h w a y a n d c r i t i c a l g r o u p s

R e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e r e l e a s e d r a d i o a c t i v i t y , a l o n g a p a t h w a y l e a d i n g to m a n , s h o u ld b e t a k e n in to a c c o u n t in t h e d o s e a s s e s s m e n t . T r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w h ic h c o u l d r e s u l t i n r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s b e i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d i n p r o d u c t s t h a t a r e i n t e n d e d f o r i n g e s t i o n , i n h a l a t i o n o r a p p l i c a t i o n to m a n 1, s h o u ld n o t b e c o n d u c t e d u n l e s s c l e a r l y j u s t i f i e d b y s u f f i c i e n t b e n e f i t s to s o c i e t y . T h e d e c i s i o n a s to w h e t h e r s u c h r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e p e r m i s s i b l e i s o n e o f n a t i o n a l p o l i c y . S o m e c o u n t r i e s h a v e r e g u l a t i o n s w h ic h p r o h i b i t s u c h u s e .

I C R P r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o n d o s e l i m i t s f o r m e m b e r s o f th e p u b l i c a r e i n t e n d e d to p r o v i d e s t a n d a r d s f o r d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f r a d i a t i o n s o u r c e s s o t h a t i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t i n d iv id u a l s in th e p u b l i c w i l l r e c e i v e m o r e th a n a s p e c i f i e d d o s e . T h e v a r i a b i l i t y r e s u l t i n g f r o m a r a n g e o f p e r s o n a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p a r a m e t e r s m a k e s i t i m p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e w i th p r e c i s i o n t h e m a x i m u m d o s e s t h a t m i g h t b e r e c e i v e d b y t h e i n d iv id u a l f r o m a g i v e n o p e r a t i o n . In p r a c t i c e i t i s f e a s i b l e to t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y b y th e s e l e c ­t io n o f a p p r o p r i a t e " c r i t i c a l g r o u p s " in th e p o p u l a t io n . T h e s e s m a l l a n d r e l a t i v e l y h o m o g e n e o u s g r o u p s s h o u ld b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s in t h e p o p u l a t io n e x p e c t e d to r e c e i v e t h e h i g h e s t d o s e s , an d t h e I C R P c o n s i d e r s i t a p p r o p r i a t e to a p p l y t h e r e l e v a n t D o s e

1 Typical products that would be excluded by this requirement are foods, drugs, cos­metics, or their components. The term "products intended for application to man" usually refers to products which are applied to the skin (such as ointment) or are in close contact with the skin (such as jewellery).

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L i m i t to th e m e a n d o s e o f t h e s e g r o u p s . A s p o in t e d o u t in I C R P P u b l i c a t i o n N o . 7, in s o m e s i t u a t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e in p r e l i m i n a r y p l a n n i n g o r w h e n t h e d o s e to t h e c r i t i c a l g r o u p w i l l c l e a r l y b e v e r y s m a l l , i t m a y n o t b e n e c e s s a r y to m a k e t h e d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s r e q u i r e d f o r th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e c r i t i c a l g ro u p a n d th e a s s e s s m e n t o f i t s d o s e . I t w i l l t h e n b e c o n v e n i e n t to p o s t u l a t e a h y p o t h e t i c a l g ro u p o f e x t r e m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e e s t i m a t e d d o s e to t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l g r o u p w i l l t h u s p r o v i d e a n u p p e r l i m i t to th e d o s e t h a t a n y r e a l c r i t i ­c a l g r o u p c o u ld p o s s i b l y r e c e i v e . In t h e c a s e o f s e v e r a l s o u r c e s o f e x p o s u r e s o f t h e p o p u l a t io n , t h e I C R P d o e s n o t r e c o m m e n d h o w f r a c t i o n s o f t h e l i m i t s c o u ld b e a p p o r t i o n e d a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s . H o w e v e r , I C R P d o e s p o in t o u t t h a t n o s i n g l e ty p e o f p o p u l a t io n e x p o s u r e s h o u ld t a k e up a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e s h a r e o f th e t o t a l d o s e a n d a n y e x p o s u r e m u s t b e j u s t i f i e d b y a r e s u l t i n g b e n e f i t .

3 . D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F R A D I A T I O N D O S E

3 . 1. D o s e to r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s

T h e d o s e r e c e i v e d b y r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s d u r i n g i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l n o r m a l l y r e s u l t f r o m e x t e r n a l r a d i a t i o n . T r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s h o u ld b e p l a n n e d s o t h a t r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s w i l l n o t i n h a l e o r i n g e s t r a d i o n u c l i d e s a l th o u g h th e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r d o in g s o e x i s t s u n d e r e m e r g e n c y o r a c c i d e n t c o n d i t i o n s . E s t i m a t e s o f th e d o s e f r o m e x t e r n a l r a d i a t i o n s h o u ld b e m a d e u s i n g c o n v e n ­t i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n a l m e t h o d s [5 ] d u r i n g th e p l a n n i n g p h a s e o f th e s t u d y , a n d w o r k e r s s h o u ld b e i n d iv id u a l l y m o n i t o r e d f o r e x p o s u r e , i n a d d i t i o n to m e a s u r e m e n t o f r a d i a t i o n l e v e l s d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p h a s e .

3 . 2. D o s e to t h e p u b l i c

T h e p r i n c i p a l p a t h w a y b y w h ic h t h e p u b l i c c a n b e e x p o s e d w i l l n o r m a l l y b e t h r o u g h i n h a l a t i o n o r i n g e s t i o n o f r a d i o n u c l i d e s r e l e a s e d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s s h o u ld b e d e s i g n e d s o t h a t t h e d o s e r e c e i v e d b y m e m b e r s o f th e p u b l i c w h e n e x p o s e d to e x t e r n a l r a d i a t i o n i s n e g l i g i b l e . In r e l a t i o n to e x t e r n a l r a d i a t i o n th e D o s e L i m i t s r e c o m m e n d e d b y I C R P c o r r e s p o n d to I n t a k e L i m i t s b y i n g e s t i o n o r i n h a l a t i o n f o r e a c h i n d iv id u a l r a d i o n u c l i d e [4] . F o r r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n p u r p o s e s i t i s c o n v e n i e n t to d e f i n e a D e r i v e d W o r k i n g L i m i t f o r c o n c e n t r a -

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t i o n , ( D W L C) 2 , a s s u m i n g a n e x t r e m e h y p o t h e t i c a l c r i t i c a l g r o u p d r i n k i n g o r b r e a t h i n g u n d i lu t e d e f f l u e n t . E x p o s i n g t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l g r o u p to t h i s D e r i v e d W o r k i n g L i m i t ( D W L ) c o n t i n u o u s l y f o r o n e y e a r w o u ld g iv e a d o s e c o m m i t m e n t e q u a l to th e r e l e v a n t D o s e L i m i t . I f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f r a d i o n u c l i d e s in l iq u i d a n d g a s e o u s e f f l u e n t s f r o m a t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n a t t h e p o in t o f r e l e a s e f r o m th e c o n ­t r o l l e d a r e a i s w e l l w i th in t h e s e v a l u e s o f u n c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s , p e r ­s o n s d e s i g n i n g t h e t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w o u ld n o t o r d i n a r i l y n e e d to c a l c u l a t e t h e e x p e c t e d r a d i a t i o n d o s e to m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c . T h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y s h o u ld a s s e s s th e p o t e n t i a l e x p o s u r e to m e m b e r s o f th e p u b l i c w i th in a s e l e c t e d p o p u l a t io n g r o u p e x p e c t e d to b e m o s t h i g h l y e x p o s e d , t a k i n g in to a c c o u n t th e d u r a t i o n o f t h e t r a c e r i n v e s t i ­g a t io n an d o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s w h ic h m i g h t c o n t r i b u t e to t h e t o t a l d o s e .I f i t a p p e a r s t h a t s u c h r e l e a s e s m a y c a u s e e x p o s u r e i n e x c e s s o f a v e r y s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f th e t o t a l d o s e l i m i t f o r m e m b e r s o f th e p u b l i c , t h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y s h o u ld i m p o s e s p e c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s .

3 . 3 . I n c o r p o r a t i o n o f r a d i o n u c l i d e s i n c o n s u m e r s ' p r o d u c t s an d r e l e a s e o f a c t i v i t y to e n v i r o n m e n t

W i th r e s p e c t to i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f r a d i o n u c l i d e s in p r o d u c t s w h ic h b e c o m e a v a i l a b l e to m e m b e r s o f th e p u b l i c , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f th e r a d i o n u c l i d e s e x p e c t e d in t h e p r o d u c t s s h o u ld b e c a l c u l a t e d a n d w h e r e p o s s i b l e t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s s h o u ld b e c o n f i r m e d b y m e a s u r e ­m e n t . I f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f r a d i o n u c l i d e s in p r o d u c t s do n o t e x c e e d t h e D W L C v a l u e s f o r a i r and w a t e r in u n c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s 3 a n d i f r e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e r a d i o n u c l i d e s i s u n l i k e l y a n d th e p r o d u c t s a r e n o t d e s i g n e d f o r i n h a l a t i o n , i n g e s t i o n o r a p p l i c a t i o n t o m a n , c a l c u l a t i o n s o f d o s e to m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c w o u ld n o t o r d i n a r i l y b e r e q u i r e d . I f t h e s e c r i t e r i a a r e n o t m e t , t h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y s h o u ld r e q u i r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e g r o u p o f in d iv id u a l s e x p e c t e d to b e m o s t h i g h ly e x p o s e d and t h e a v e r a g e e x p o s u r e o f a s u i t a b l e s a m p l e o f t h e m o s t h i g h l y e x p o s e d g r o u p e s t i m a t e d .

T h e r e l e a s e o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y to t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o r t h e i n ­c o r p o r a t i o n o f r a d i o n u c l i d e s in p r o d u c t s a s a r e s u l t o f r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s b e e n s m a l l , a n d i s l i k e l y to b e s o in t h e f o r e s e e ­a b l e f u t u r e , r e l a t i v e to o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s . T h e t o t a l g e n e t i c d o s e i s ,

2 The DWLC for a nuclide is given by DWLC = (Intake Limit)/V, where the Intake Limitis the value given in Ref. [4 ] for inhalation or injection,as appropriate, and V is the annual intake of air or water (7 . 3 x 10 9 ml and 8.03 x 10s ml respectively).

3 Some national authorities have specific regulations pertaining to types and permissibleconcentrations of radionuclides in consumer products as a result of this type of activity. Forexample, USAEC regulations on the subject are contained in 10 CFR 30, para.30.70.

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t h e r e f o r e , b e l i e v e d to b e a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f th e l i m i t r e c o m m e n d e d b y I C R P [ 3 ] . T h e g e n e t i c d o s e n e e d n o t o r d i n a r i l y b e t a k e n in to a c c o u n t d u r i n g th e p l a n n i n g o r o p e r a t i o n p h a s e o f a t r a c e r i n v e s t i ­g a t io n . H o w e v e r , th e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y s h o u ld r e q u i r e p e r i o d i c r e p o r t s o f q u a n t i t i e s o f r a d i o n u c l i d e s d i s t r i b u t e d in p r o d u c t s w h ic h , w h e n t a k e n t o g e t h e r w i th r e p o r t s o f s i m i l a r r e l e a s e s f r o m o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s , s e r v e a s a b a s i s f o r t h e n a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y to m a i n t a i n s u r v e i l l a n c e o v e r b o t h t h e g e n e t i c a n d s o m a t i c d o s e s to a p o p u l a t i o n 4 .

4 . R O L E O F C O M P E T E N T A U T H O R I T Y

T h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s in i n d u s t r y i s u s u a l l y s u b j e c t to c o n t r o l b y t h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y [4] . In d i s c h a r g i n g i t s d u t i e s , t h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y n o r m a l l y p e r f o r m s t h e f o l l o w in g f u n c t i o n s w i th r e g a r d to t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f r a d i o t r a c e r s :

4 . 1. D e v e l o p s p o l i c y a n d c r i t e r i a

T h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y d e v e l o p s a p o l i c y r e g a r d i n g th e u s e o r c o n d i t i o n s o f u s i n g r a d i o t r a c e r s . T h e p o l i c y d e c i s i o n o r d i n a r i l y i n c l u d e s b e n e f i t - c o s t j u d g e m e n t s 'w h ich w i l l b e a f o r m a l b e n e f i t - c o s t a n a l y s i s in s o m e i n s t a n c e s o r i t w i l l b e i m p l i c i t in th e p o l i c y d e c i s i o n . T h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y a l s o p r o v i d e s c r i t e r i a o r i s s u e s r e g u l a t i o n s a b o u t t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h m u s t b e m e t b y i n d u s t r y to c o m p l y w ith e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i c y in c a r r y i n g o u t r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

4 . 2 . G r a n t s a u t h o r i z a t i o n

In m a k i n g a r e q u e s t to c o n d u c t a r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e i n d u s t r y n o r m a l l y p r o v i d e s r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n a n d p o s s i b l y a s a f e t y a n a l y s i s o f th e p r o p o s e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y t h e n d e t e r m i n e s w h e t h e r t h e p r o p o s e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s l i k e l y to b e in

. 4 After a meeting in April 1971, rhe ICRP issued the following statement with regard to dose from consumer products: "The Commission noted the increasing use of a number of consumer products containing small amounts of radioactive material, and the contribution to the population dose that these taken together could make even though the dose from individual sources is at present extremely small. In considering the relevance of this to the dose limit for the population, the Commission emphasized the importance of national authorities assessing the contribution being made by these products, so that an effective means of control may be instituted. In this regard, the Commission wishes to draw attention to a publication of the European Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA) Ref. [6 ] , as an example of a method by which the total individual and population doses from all consumer products may be subject to administrative control".

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c o n f o r m i t y w i th e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i c y a n d c r i t e r i a on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s u b m i t t e d b e f o r e g r a n t i n g a u t h o r i z a t i o n . (A b r i e f b u t n o t e x h a u s t i v e l i s t i n g o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n to b e m a d e a v a i l a b l e b y i n d u s t r i e s in t h e i r r e q u e s t f o r a u t h o r i z a t i o n i s g i v e n i n A p p e n d ix I I . )

4 . 3 . C o n d u c t s i n s p e c t i o n

T h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y m a y c o n d u c t i n s p e c t i o n s to d e t e r m i n e c o m p l i a n c e w ith s a f e t y r e q u i r e m e n t s . I t a l s o u n d e r t a k e s a p p r o ­p r i a t e a c t i o n i f s a f e t y r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e n o t b e i n g m e t . R e c o r d s o f t h e r e c e i p t , t r a n s f e r , u s e a n d d i s p o s a l o f r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l a n d o f e x p o s u r e t o p e r s o n n e l p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o u ld b e a v a i l a b l e to t h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y to c o n d u c t i n s p e c t i o n .

4 . 4 . M a i n t a i n s s u r v e i l l a n c e o v e r th e p o p u l a t io n d o s e

5. P L A N N I N G A N D D E S I G N

5 . 1. P l a n n i n g

O n c e t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f a p r o p o s e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a v e b e e n d e f i n e d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to s e l e c t a s u i t a b l e t e c h n i q u e ( r a d i o a c t i v e o r n o n ­r a d i o a c t i v e ) . I f th e r a d i o t r a c e r t e c h n i q u e o f f e r s a d v a n t a g e s , th e p a r t i c u l a r m e t h o d to b e a d o p t e d h a s to b e s e l e c t e d a n d e a c h s t a g e e x a m i n e d w ith r e g a r d to r a d i a t i o n s a f e t y . C a r e f u l t e c h n i c a l p l a n n i n g a t t h e o u t s e t w i l l a s s i s t t o w a r d a n e f f e c t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w ith th e m i n i m u m r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e . D i s c h a r g e o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , o r i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s in to p r o d u c t s m u s t a l s o r e c e i v e c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n to e n s u r e t h a t i t i s k e p t to t h e l o w e s t p r a c t i c a b l e l e v e l .

In t h e m a j o r i t y o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , t h e e f f e c t o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t w i l l b e n e g l i g i b l e o w in g to :

(a ) t h e s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s o f a c t i v i t y in v o lv e d ;(b) t h e s h o r t h a l f - l i f e o f t h e r a d i o n u c l i d e s ;(c ) t h e e x p e c t e d d i lu t io n c o u p l e d w ith l i m i t e d p e r i o d o f

d i s c h a r g e .

In t h e s e c a s e s , t h e d a t a r e q u i r e d b y th e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y f o r r e v i e w a n d a p p r o v a l w i l l o r d i n a r i l y b e m i n i m a l , s i n c e i t c a n r e a d i l y b e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y a t th e p o in t o f r e l e a s e w i l l b e w e l l w i th in t h e D W L v a lu e s . . In o t h e r s w h e r e t h i s c a n n o t b e r e a d i l y d e m o n s t r a t e d , e s t i m a t e o f p o p u l a t io n d o s e

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s h o u ld b e m a d e ( i . e . in r e l a t i o n to t h e " c r i t i c a l g r o u p " a s d e f in e d in I C R P P u b l i c a t i o n N o . 7 , R e f . [ 7 ] ).

C o m p l e t e i n f o r m a t i o n on c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a c t i v i t y in l iq u id and g a s e o u s e f f l u e n t s a n d in p r o d u c t s , p r o d u c t d i lu t io n f a c t o r s and d e t a i l s o f t h e c r i t i c a l g r o u p m a y n o t b e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e d u r i n g th e p l a n n i n g s t a g e . H o w e v e r , o n th e b a s i s o f k no w n d a ta o r f in d i n g s o f p r e v i o u s r a d i o t r a c e r w o r k o f a s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r , l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s o r c a l c u l a t i o n s b a s e d on c o n s e r v a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n s , i t i s p o s s i b l e to e s t i m a t e t h e o r d e r o f m a g n i tu d e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n in e f f l u e n t o r m a t e r i a l o f i n t e r e s t .

5 . 2 . D e s i g n

5. 2 . 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

In d e s i g n i n g a r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s h a v e to b e c o n s i d e r e d :

(a ) A s s i g n m e n t o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y(b) S e l e c t i o n o f m e t h o d( c ) E x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n(d) R a d i a t i o n s a f e t y a n d p r o t e c t i o n .

T h e s e f a c t o r s a r e a l l i n t e r r e l a t e d an d w i l l t h u s h a v e to b e d e a l t w ith t o g e t h e r .

5 . 2 . 2 . A s s i g n m e n t o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

B e c a u s e o f t h e n a t u r e o f r a d i o t r a c e r w o r k w h ic h i s c a r r i e d out in i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s p l a n t , o r in t h e f i e l d , i t i s e s s e n t i a l to c l e a r l y d e f i n e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I t i s n e c e s s a r y to d e s i g n a t e a p e r s o n a s p r o j e c t l e a d e r to b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e r e i s a l s o n e e d to m a k e a s p e c i f i c p e r s o n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r a d i a t i o n s a f e t y who m a y o r m a y n o t b e t h e p r o j e c t l e a d e r . T h e g e n e r a l t r a i n i n g and e x p e r i e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p e r s o n n e l u n d e r t a k i n g r a d i o t r a c e r w o r k in i n d u s t r y a r e o u t l i n e d in t h e A p p e n d ix I I I . In a d d i t i o n , b a c k g r o u n d k n o w le d g e o f i n d u s t r i a l c o n d i t i o n s a n d a c q u a i n t a n c e w ith th e s p e c i f i c p l a n t o p e r a t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y .

5. 2 . 3 . S e l e c t i o n o f m e t h o d

T h e s e l e c t i o n o f m e t h o d f o r a r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n v o l v e s th e c h o i c e o f t e c h n i q u e , r a d i o t r a c e r an d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . F a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g s e l e c t i o n i n c l u d e :

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(a) S a t i s f a c t o r y b e h a v i o u r o f t r a c e r : th e b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t f o ra r a d i o t r a c e r i s t h a t i t s h o u ld a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t t h e c o m p o ­n e n t o f i n t e r e s t in th e s y s t e m to b e s t u d i e d [ 1 , 8] .

(b) N a t u r e a n d e n e r g y o f th e r a d i a t i o n e m i t t e d an d e f f i c i e n c y w ith w h ic h i t c a n b e d e t e c t e d .

( c ) H a l f - l i f e ( a s s h o r t a s p o s s i b l e ) c o n s i s t e n t w i th t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

(d) A s p e c t s r e l a t i n g to r a d i a t i o n s a f e t y a n d p r o t e c t i o n ( s e e 4 . 2 . 5 ) .

5 . , 2 . 4 . E x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n

T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n w h ic h w i l l y i e ld t h e d e s i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e m o s t e f f i c i e n t w a y m u s t b e e s t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e c o n d u c t i n g th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h i s i n v o l v e s :

(1 ) T h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t r a c e r b e h a v i o u r u n d e r p r o c e s s c o n d i t i o n s a n d p o s s i b l e d e v i a t i o n s f r o m a n t i c i p a t e d b e h a v i o u r .

( 2 ) " D u m m y r u n s " to p e r f e c t o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e s a n d to o v e r ­c o m e p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e s p o t s . A n a l t e r n a t i v e i s a p r e l i m i n a r y e x p e r i ­m e n t o n t h e f u l l s c a l e s y s t e m i t s e l f u s i n g a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f th e r a d i o t r a c e r a c t i v i t y to b e e m p l o y e d in t h e a c t u a l a p p l i c a t i o n .

(3 ) I d e n t i f y i n g c r i t i c a l s t e p s in h a n d l i n g th e r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l .(4 ) P r e p a r a t i o n o f d e t a i l e d p l a n f o r t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f th e

i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n c l u d i n g e v a l u a t i o n o f th e a n t i c i p a t e d e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . F o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e t o t a l t r a c e r r e q u i r e m e n t a n d f o r th e e s t i m a t i o n o f r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e s , e n g i n e e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e p r o c e s s i s r e q u i r e d . S u c h i n f o r m a t i o n i n c l u d e s a p p r o x i m a t e f lo w r a t e s , v e s s e l v o l u m e s , d i m e n s i o n s o f p l a n t u n i t s a n d t h e l o c a ­t i o n o f d i s c h a r g e p o i n t s .

5 . 2. 5 . R a d i a t i o n s a f e t y an d p r o t e c t i o n

5 . 2 . 5 . 1. G e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s

R a d i a t i o n s a f e t y a n d p r o t e c t i o n a s p e c t s e n t e r in to a l l t h e s t e p s o f d e s i g n d e a l t w i th a b o v e . T h e c h o i c e m e t h o d d e t e r m i n e s t h e r a d i a t i o n d o s e i n h e r e n t in t h e o p e r a t i o n . T h e s e l e c t i o n o f t r a c e r w i l l b e a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n v a r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a s p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d . T h e r a d i a t i o n d o s e w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d b y f a c t o r s s u c h a s :

( 1 ) A c t i v i t y o f t r a c e r(2 ) N a t u r e a n d e n e r g y o f e m i t t e d r a d i a t i o n(3 ) H a l f - l i f e(4 ) R a d i o t o x i c i t y(5 ) R a d i o c h e m i c a l p u r i t y .

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T h e a c t i v i t y o f th e t r a c e r s h o u ld b e k e p t a s lo w a s p r a c t i c a b l e b y j u d i c i a l s e l e c t i o n o f m e t h o d , e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n , a n d t h e u s e o f d e t e c t o r s o f h ig h e f f i c i e n c y . In p r a c t i c e i t i s n e c e s s a r y to c h o o s e a r a d i o n u c l i d e w i th a h a l f - l i f e c o n s i s t e n t w i th t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t . A s h o r t - l i v e d r a d i o n u c l i d e w o u ld i n c r e a s e t h e i n i t i a l a c t i v i t y (w ith c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e in d o s e d u r i n g t r a c e r p r e ­p a r a t i o n a n d i n s p e c t i o n ) ; t h e u s e o f l o n g - l i v e d r a d i o n u c l i d e s , on th e o t h e r h a n d , l e n g t h e n s th e p e r i o d o f t i m e d u r i n g w h ic h t h e p o t e n ­t i a l f o r r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e e x i s t s . A c o m p r o m i s e in s e l e c t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y . C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f f a c t o r s a s i n d i c a t e d a b o v e m a y e s t a b l i s h t h a t s e v e r a l r a d i o i s o t o p e s w i l l b e s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r t h e w o r k . T h e o n e f i n a l l y s e l e c t e d s h o u ld b e t h a t g iv in g r i s e to th e l e a s t p o t e n t i a l r a d i a t i o n d o s e w h i le s u c c e s s f u l l y a c h i e v i n g th e p u r p o s e o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

5 . 2 . 5 . 2 . P r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g a n d e q u i p m e n t

In t h e m a j o r i t y o f i n d u s t r i a l r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , p r o ­t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g a n d e q u i p m e n t a r e r e q u i r e d a t th e t r a c e r p r e p a r a ­t io n s t a g e a n d d u r i n g th e c o u r s e o f t r a c e r i n j e c t i o n . T h i s i s u s u a l l y o f a s i m p l e n a t u r e c o n s i s t i n g o f p e r s o n a l p r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g , s u c h a s g l o v e s a n d c o v e r a l l / o v e r a l l s , w h ic h m i n i m i z e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f b o d i l y c o n t a m i n a t i o n ; a n d h a n d l i n g e q u i p m e n t w h i c h m i n i m i z e s e x p o s u r e b y d i s t a n c e . M o r e d e t a i l e d g u i d a n c e o n t h i s s u b j e c t i s g i v e n i n I A E A S a f e t y S e r i e s N o . 2 2 [ 9 ] .

5 . 2 . 5 . 3 . S u r v e y an d m o n i t o r i n g e q u i p m e n t

S u r v e y a n d m o n i t o r i n g e q u i p m e n t f o r i n d u s t r i a l r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y s i m p l e . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n to (a) c o n f i r m t h e d o s e r a t e s e s t i m a t e d f o r th e c o n t r o l l e d a r e a , (b) d e t e r m i n e w h e r e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f a c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s h o u ld b e e s t a b l i s h e d , an d (c ) s e a r c h f o r r e s i d u a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n in th e w o r k i n g a r e a w h e r e t h e t r a c e r w a s i n t r o d u c e d in to t h e s y s t e m o r e l s e w h e r e w ith in th e c o n t r o l l e d a r e a b e f o r e t h e a r e a i s r e l e a s e d f o r u n r e s t r i c t e d a c c e s s . P e r s o n n e l m o n i t o r i n g d e v i c e s f o r t h e r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s s h o u ld b e p r o v i d e d a s m a y b e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r r a d i o i s o t o p e u s e d .

5 . 2 . 5 . 4 . E m e r g e n c y p r o c e d u r e

A n a c c i d e n t i s a n a b n o r m a l o c c u r r e n c e a r i s i n g in a n i n v e s t i g a ­t io n a n d m a y in c l u d e

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( 1 ) a s p i l l o f r a d i o t r a c e r(2 ) c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f p e r s o n n e l(3 ) m a l f u n c t i o n o f p r o c e s s p l a n t r e s u l t i n g in u n a n t i c i p a t e d

t r a c e r b e h a v i o u r(4 ) a n u n a n t i c i p a t e d r e l e a s e o f th e r a d i o t r a c e r to th e

e n v i r o n m e n t .

P o s s i b l e a c c i d e n t s in t h e v a r i o u s s t e p s o f a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o u ld b e i d e n t i f i e d b e f o r e h a n d , and t h e p r o c e d u r e s to b e f o l l o w e d in t h e e v e n t o f s u c h a c c i d e n t s s h o u ld b e d e f i n e d . T h e a p p r o a c h in r e l a t i o n to i n d u s t r i a l r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i s s i m i l a r to t h a t d e f i n e d i n I A E A S a f e t y S e r i e s N o s . 1, 6 a n d 3 2 [ 1 0 - 1 2 ] , D e c o n t a m i n a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s a r e a l s o d e a l t w i th in th e s a m e d o c u m e n t s .

6. O P E R A T I O N A L P R O C E D U R E S

6. 1. P r e l i m i n a r y m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e t r a c e r

T h e i n i t i a l h a n d l i n g o f th e t r a c e r w i l l n o r m a l l y t a k e p l a c e in a r a d i o c h e m i c a l l a b o r a t o r y w h ic h s h o u ld a l r e a d y b e e q u ip p e d w ith a p p r o p r i a t e t o o l s , s h i e l d i n g , a n d s t o r a g e [ 1 3 ] , H e r e , t h e r a d i o ­a c t i v i t y to b e e m p l o y e d i s m e a s u r e d and t r a n s f e r r e d to a n a p p r o ­p r i a t e u n b r e a k a b l e c o n t a i n e r o r i n j e c t i o n e q u i p m e n t . I t i s s o m e ­t i m e s a w k w a r d to s h i e l d l a r g e i n j e c t i o n e q u i p m e n t d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t , a n d , in s u c h c a s e s , t h e f i n a l t r a n s f e r m a y b e m o r e c o n v e n i e n t l y a c c o m p l i s h e d i n t h e f i e l d .

I n - p l a n t t r a n s p o r t f r o m t h e l a b o r a t o r y to t h e f i e l d s h o u ld b e m a d e i n a v e h i c l e w i th s u f f i c i e n t s h i e l d i n g to k e e p t h e e x t e r n a l d o s e r a t e s s u i t a b l y s m a l l a n d p r o v i d i n g f o r a c c i d e n t p r o t e c t i o n . T r a n s ­p o r t o u t s i d e t h e p l a n t s h o u ld c o n f o r m to t h e t r a n s p o r t r e g u l a t i o n s c o n t a i n e d in I A E A S a f e t y S e r i e s N o . 6 o r a p p r o p r i a t e n a t i o n a l r e g u l a t i o n s .

6. 2 . I n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e t r a c e r in to th e s y s t e m

In i n d u s t r i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , t h e t r a c e r i s f r e q u e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d in to p i p e s o r o t h e r c o n d u i t s t h r o u g h a v a l v e a n d u n d e r p r e s s u r e .T h e t r a c e r i s a t i t s m o s t c o n c e n t r a t e d f o r m a t th e i n j e c t i o n s i t e .I t i s u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y to e s t a b l i s h a c o n t r o l l e d a r e a f r o m w h ic h a l l b u t p a r t i c i p a t i n g r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s a r e e x c l u d e d . T h e c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s h o u ld b e e s t a b l i s h e d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e I A E A S a f e t y S e r i e s N o . 9 o r in c o m p l i a n c e w ith r e q u i r e m e n t s s p e c i ­

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f i e d b y n a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e a r e a m a y b e m a r k e d o f f o r l i m i t e d w ith r o p e s a n d p o s t e d w ith w a r n i n g s i g n s . P r o v i s i o n s h o u ld b e m a d e ( a s n e c e s s a r y ) f o r r a d i a t i o n s h i e l d i n g . In th e c a s e o f a t r a c e r s o l u ­t i o n , p r o v i s i o n s h o u ld b e m a d e to c o n t a i n a n y s p i l l a g e e . g . b y u s e o f t r a y s l i n e d w ith a b s o r b e n t m a t e r i a l .

P r i o r to i n t r o d u c i n g th e r a d i o t r a c e r in to a s t r e a m o r p r o c e s s , i n j e c t i o n e q u i p m e n t s h o u ld b e l e a k - t e s t e d a s a p p r o p r i a t e o r o t h e r ­w i s e c h e c k e d f o r p r o p e r f u n c t i o n i n g . In s o m e c a s e s , i t m a y b e d e s i r a b l e to c a r r y o u t a t r i a l i n j e c t i o n u s i n g i n a c t i v e m a t e r i a l . I t i s go o d p r a c t i c e to m o n i t o r th e i n j e c t o r a f t e r w a r d s to e s t a b l i s h t h a t th e i n j e c t i o n h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e b e f o r e d i s m a n t l i n g i t .

6. 3 . M e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e t r a c e r w i th in t h e s y s t e m

A f t e r t h e t r a c e r h a s b e e n i n j e c t e d in to t h e s y s t e m , t h e d i lu t io n w h ic h u s u a l l y f o l l o w s i s o r d i n a r i l y s u f f i c i e n t to e l i m i n a t e t h e n e e d f o r a l l b u t t h e s i m p l e s t r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n m e a s u r e s a t a s a m p l i n g o r in s i t u d e t e c t i o n p o in t . F u r t h e r d i l u t i o n s t y p i c a l l y o c c u r a s th e s t r e a m m i x e s w i th o t h e r s t r e a m s o r e n t e r s a s t o r a g e t a n k . In t h o s e c a s e s w h e r e l a r g e d i l u t i o n s do n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y o c c u r , c o n s i d e r a ­t io n m u s t b e g iv e n to t e m p o r a r y r e s t r i c t i o n s o n s a m p l i n g o r to p r e ­c a u t i o n s in s a m p l e h a n d l i n g . I t i s u s u a l l y u n n e c e s s a r y to r e s t r i c t th e a c c e s s o f p e r s o n s to a n y s i t e o t h e r t h a n t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e .

6. 4 . P o s t - o p e r a t i o n a l s u r v e i l l a n c e

P r i o r to d i s c o n n e c t i n g th e i n j e c t o r f r o m th e p r o c e s s s y s t e m , i t s h o u ld b e c o n f i r m e d t h a t r e s i d u a l r a d i o t r a c e r l e v e l s in th e i n j e c t o r i t s e l f o r in t h e p a r t o f th e p r o c e s s s y s t e m to w h i c h i t i s c o n n e c t e d (e . g. a v a l v e ) a r e n e g l i g i b l y s m a l l . I f n e c e s s a r y , t h e s y s t e m s h o u ld b e f l u s h e d t h r o u g h ( a s i n d i c a t e d i n S e c t i o n 6. 2) to r e d u c e c o n t a m i n a ­t io n to a c c e p t a b l y s m a l l l e v e l s . W h e r e t h i s p r o c e d u r e i s u n s u c c e s s ­f u l , th e e q u i p m e n t s h o u ld b e i s o l a t e d b y b a r r i e r s p o s t e d w ith a p p r o ­p r i a t e w a r n i n g n o t i c e s , u n t i l s p e c i a l p r o c e d u r e s h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d to d i s m a n t l e o r d e c o n t a m i n a t e t h e e q u i p m e n t o r u n t i l r a d i o a c t i v e d e c a y h a s r e d u c e d c o n t a m i n a t i o n s u f f i c i e n t l y f o r f r e e a c c e s s to b e p e r m i t t e d .

P r o c e s s m a t e r i a l ( s o l i d o r l iq u i d ) w h ic h i s b e i n g r e t a i n e d to p e r m i t r e d u c t i o n o f a c t i v i t y b y d e c a y , s h a l l b e k e p t in i s o l a t i o n in c o n t r o l l e d s t o r a g e u n t i l s u c h t i m e a s i t i s a c c e p t a b l e f o r d i s p o s a l .In t h e e v e n t o f a n a c c i d e n t l e a d i n g to th e d i s p e r s a l o f r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l , th e e x t e n t o f th e c o n t a m i n a t e d a r e a m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d an d r o p e d o f f , p o s t e d w ith w a r n i n g s i g n s a n d o t h e r w i s e s e c u r e d

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a g a i n s t u n a u t h o r i z e d a c c e s s u n t i l d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d an d t h e a r e a d e c l a r e d s a f e b y t h e p e r s o n a s s i g n e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r a d i a t i o n s a f e t y .

R E F E R E N C E S

[1 ] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Radioisotope Tracers in Industry and Geophysics (Proc. Symp. Prague, 1966), IAEA, Vienna (1967).

[2 ] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Nuclear Techniques in the Basic Metal Industries (Proc. Symp. Helsinki, 1972), IAEA, Vienna (1973).

[3 ] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Recommendations on Radiation Protection, ICRP Publication No. 9, Pergamon Press, Oxford (1966),

[4 ] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Basic Safety Standards for Radiation Protection (1967 edition), Safety Series No. 9, IAEA, Vienna (1967).

[5 ] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Safe Handling of Radioisotopes: Health Physics Addendum, Safety Series No. 2, IAEA, Vienna (I960),

[6 ] OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY, Basic Approach for Safety Analysis and Control of Products Containing Radionuclides and Available to the General Public, June 1970.

[7 ] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Principles of Environmental Monitoring Related to the Handling of Radioactive Materials, ICRP Publication No.7, Pergamon Press, Oxford (1965).

[8 ] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Industrial Radioisotope Economics,Technical Reports Series No.40, IAEA, Vienna (1965).

[9 ] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Respirators and Protective Clothing,Safety Series No. 22, IAEA, Vienna (1967).

[10] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Safe Handling of Radioisotopes, Safety Series No. 1, IAEA, Vienna (1962).

[11] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials — 1967 Edition, Safety Series No. 6, IAEA , Vienna (1967).

[12] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Planning for the Handling of Radiation Accidents, Safety Series No. 32, IAEA, Vienna (1969).

[13] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Manual on Safety Aspects of the Design and Equipment of Hot Laboratories, Safety Series No. 30, IAEA, Vienna (1969).

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This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

APPENDIX I

NOTE ON ICRP PUBLICATION No. 9

T h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i s t a k e n f r o m I C R P P u b l i c a t i o n N o . 9. T h o s e p a r a g r a p h s s e l e c t e d a r e f o r e a s y r e f e r e n c e to r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e to t h e u s e o f r a d i o t r a c e r s in i n d u s t r y . I t i s s u g g e s t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t f o r a n a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f I C R P r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , t h e r e a d e r s h o u ld r e f e r d i r e c t l y to th e r e p o r t s .

G E N E R A L

A s a n y e x p o s u r e m a y i n v o lv e s o m e d e g r e e o f r i s k , t h e C o m m i s ­s i o n r e c o m m e n d s t h a t a n y u n n e c e s s a r y e x p o s u r e b e a v o id e d , a n d t h a t a l l d o s e s b e k e p t a s lo w a s i s r e a d i l y a c h i e v a b l e , e c o n o m i c and s o c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s b e i n g t a k e n in to a c c o u n t . I t s h o u ld b e n o t e d t h a t t h e d o s e l i m i t s a r e in t e n d e d f o r p l a n n i n g t h e d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f s o u r c e s l e a d i n g to f o r e s e e a b l e c o n d i t i o n s o f e x p o s u r e ; th e s e t t i n g o f " a c t i o n l e v e l s " f o r e x p o s u r e s f r o m u n c o n t r o l l e d s o u r c e s d e p e n d s on o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

E X P O S U R E O F I N D I V I D U A L S

O c c u p a t i o n a l e x p o s u r e

In a n y o r g a n o r t i s s u e , t h e D o s e E q u i v a l e n t due to o c c u p a t i o n a l e x p o s u r e s h a l l c o m p r i s e t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d b y e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l s o u r c e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i m p o s e d b y th e o c c u p a t i o n . I t s h a l l n o t b e h e ld to in c l u d e t h e d o s e f r o m a n y m e d i c a l e x p o s u r e , f r o m e x p o s u r e to n a t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d r a d i a t i o n o r f r o m o t h e r e x p o s u r e s r e c e i v e d b y t h e i n d iv id u a l a s a m e m b e r o f t h e p u b l i c .T h e C o m m i s s i o n w i s h e s to e m p h a s i z e t h a t " m e d i c a l e x p o s u r e " r e f e r s to t h e e x p o s u r e o f p a t i e n t s in t h e c o u r s e o f m e d i c a l p r o c e ­d u r e s a n d n o t to t h e e x p o s u r e o f th e p e r s o n n e l c o n d u c t i n g o r i n c i ­d e n t a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith s u c h p r o c e d u r e s .

In p r a c t i c e , t h e p r o b l e m o f c h i e f c o n c e r n i s c h r o n i c e x p o s u r e e i t h e r a t lo w d o s e r a t e s o r b y i n t e r m i t t e n t s m a l l d o s e s a t h ig h d o s e r a t e s . U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i t i s r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e t h a t t h e d o s e a c c u m u l a t e d o v e r a p e r i o d o f y e a r s i s th e c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r in d e t e r m i n i n g th e r i s k , p r o v i d e d t h e i n t e r m i t t e n t d o s e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y s m a l l . T h e C o m m i s s i o n b e l i e v e s t h a t a p e r i o d o f o n e y e a r i s th e

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m o s t r e a s o n a b l e l e n g t h o f t i m e o v e r w h ic h to a s s e s s a c c u m u l a t e d e x p o s u r e s , b u t t h a t i t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y to l i m i t t h e m a g n i t u d e o f a s i n g l e d o s e . T h e C o m m i s s i o n t h e r e f o r e r e c o m m e n d s t h a t in a n y o n e y e a r t h e M a x i m u m P e r m i s s i b l e D o s e s s h o u ld n o t b e e x c e e d e d , b u t t h a t in a p e r i o d o f a q u a r t e r o f a y e a r up to o n e - h a l f o f th e a n n u a l M a x i m u m P e r m i s s i b l e D o s e , o r , f o r i n t e r n a l e x p o s u r e , a d o s e c o m m i t m e n t r e s u l t i n g f r o m a n i n t a k e o f a r a d i o n u c l i d e e q u i v a l e n t in a m o u n t to t h e i n t a k e f o r o n e h a l f y e a r a t t h e M a x i m u m P e r m i s s i b l e C o n c e n t r a t i o n , m a y b e a c c u m u l a t e d in c o n f o r m i t y w ith c o n s i d e r a t i o n s on a d d i t i v i t y a n d m u l t i p l e o r g a n i r r a d i a t i o n . T h e r e c o m m e n d e d v a l u e s f o r t h e q u a r t e r l y q u o t a s m a y b e r o u n d e d u p w a r d to t h e n e x t w h o le n u m b e r . I f n e c e s s a r y , t h e q u a r t e r l y q u o ta m a y b e r e c e i v e d a s a s i n g l e d o s e , b u t th e C o m m i s s i o n b e l i e v e s t h a t i t w o u ld b e u n d e s i r a b l e f o r d o s e s o f t h i s m a g n i t u d e to b e r e p e a t e d a t c l o s e i n t e r v a l s .

M e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c

T h e M a x i m u m P e r m i s s i b l e D o s e s t h a t h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d f o r o c c u p a t i o n a l e x p o s u r e a r e r e g a r d e d a s u p p e r l i m i t s , an d th e d o s e s m a y h a v e to b e i n d iv id u a l l y m o n i t o r e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d to e n s u r e t h a t t h e M a x i m u m P e r m i s s i b l e D o s e s a r e n o t e x c e e d e d . T h e d o s e l i m i t a t i o n f o r m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c i s a m o r e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t , in t e n d e d to p r o v i d e s t a n d a r d s f o r th e d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f r a d i a t i o n s o u r c e s s o t h a t i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t i n d iv id u a l s in t h e p u b l i c w i l l r e c e i v e m o r e t h a n a s p e c i f i e d d o s e . T h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h i s i s c h e c k e d n o t b y o b s e r v i n g i n d i v i d u a l s b u t b y a s s e s s m e n t s t h r o u g h s a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e s in th e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d s t a t i s t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s , an d b y a c o n t r o l o f th e s o u r c e s f r o m w h ic h th e e x p o s u r e i s e x p e c t e d to a r i s e . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s i t i s s e l d o m m e a n i n g f u l to s p e a k o f M a x i m u m P e r m i s s i b l e D o s e s f o r i n d iv id u a l m e m b e r s o f th e p u b l i c ; i n s t e a d , t h e C o m m i s s i o n r e c o m m e n d s t h a t th e t e r m D o s e L i m i t s h o u ld b e u s e d in c o n n e c t i o n w ith l i m i t a t i o n o f th e e x p o s u r e o f m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c .

In a n y o r g a n o r t i s s u e t h e D o s e E q u i v a l e n t i s t h e s u m o f th e D o s e E q u i v a l e n t s c o n t r i b u t e d b y b o th e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l s o u r c e s .I t s h a l l n o t b e h e ld to in c l u d e a n y e x p o s u r e f r o m n a t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d r a d i a t i o n o r m e d i c a l p r o c e d u r e s .

T h e a n n u a l D o s e L i m i t s f o r m e m b e r s o f th e p u b l i c s h a l l b e o n e - t e n t h o f th e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a n n u a l o c c u p a t i o n a l M a x i m u m P e r m i s s i b l e D o s e s . T h e f i g u r e s a r e g i v e n in T a b l e I , w h i c h s u m m a r i z e s th e d o s e l i m i t s f o r i n d i v i d u a l s .

T h e b a s i s f o r t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f e x p o s u r e s o f m e m b e r s o f th e p u b l i c i s t h e d o s e to t h e v a r i o u s b o d y o r g a n s a n d n o t t h e d e r i v e d

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T A B L E I. SUMMARY OF DOSE LIMITS FOR INDIVIDUALS

Organ or tissue

Maximum Permissible Doses for adults

exposed in the course of their work

(rems/yr)

Dose Limits for members of the

public (rems/yr)

Gonads, red bone-marrow 5 0 .5

Skin, bone, thyroid 30 3

Hands and forearms; feet and ankles

75 7 .5

Other single organs 15 1. 5

c r i t e r i a b y w h ic h th e d o s e i s c o n t r o l l e d . T h e a c t u a l d o s e s r e c e i v e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l v a r y d e p e n d in g o n f a c t o r s s u c h a s d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e i r a g e , s i z e , m e t a b o l i s m , and c u s t o m s , a s w e l l a s v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e v a r i a t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e s e s o u r c e s m a k e s i t i m p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e th e m a x i m u m d o s e s t h a t m i g h t b e r e c e i v e d i n d iv id u a l l y . In p r a c t i c e , i t i s f e a s i b l e to t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e s e s o u r c e s o f v a r i a b i l i t y b y t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e c r i t i c a l g r o u p s w i th in th e p o p u l a t io n , p r o v i d e d t h e c r i t i c a l g ro u p i s s m a l l e n o u g h to b e h o m o g e n e o u s w i th r e s p e c t to a g e , d ie t a n d t h o s e a s p e c t s o f b e h a v i o u r t h a t a f f e c t t h e d o s e s r e c e i v e d . S u c h a g r o u p s h o u ld b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e p o p u l a t io n e x p e c t e d to r e c e i v e t h e h i g h e s t d o s e , a n d t h e C o m m i s s i o n b e l i e v e s t h a t i t w i l l b e r e a s o n a b l e to a p p l y th e a p p r o p r i a t e D o s e L i m i t f o r m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c to th e m e a n d o s e o f t h i s g r o u p . B e c a u s e o f th e i n n a te v a r i a b i l i t y w i th in a n a p p a r e n t l y h o m o g e n e o u s g r o u p , s o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e c r i t i c a l g r o u p w i l l r e c e i v e d o s e s s o m e w h a t h i g h e r t h a n th e D o s e L i m i t ; h o w e v e r , a t t h e v e r y lo w l e v e l s o f r i s k i m p l i e d , i t i s l i k e l y to b e o f m i n o r c o n s e q u e n c e to t h e i r h e a l t h i f th e D o s e L i m i t i s m a r g i n a l l y o r e v e n s u b s t a n t i a l l y e x c e e d e d .

In s o m e s i t u a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e p l a n n i n g o f p r o p o s e d o p e r a t i o n s o r i n s t a l l a t i o n s , i t m a y n o t b e p r a c t i c a b l e to m a k e th e d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e c r i t i c a l g r o u p . T o a l lo w f o r i n d iv id u a l v a r i a b i l i t y i t w i l l t h e n b e n e c e s s a r y to a p p ly a n o p e r a t i o n a l " s a f e t y f a c t o r " to th e d e r i v e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n l i m i t s a p p l i c a b l e to a m e m b e r o f t h e p u b l i c . In p r e v i o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s th e

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C o m m i s s i o n h a s s u g g e s t e d v a l u e s f o r s a f e t y f a c t o r s f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l e x p o s u r e s to r a d i o n u c l i d e s . H o w e v e r , a s th e v a l u e s to b e r e c o m ­m e n d e d f o r s u c h f a c t o r s w ou ld v a r y o v e r a w id e r a n g e , d e p e n d in g o n th e p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , no g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e v a l u e s a r e g i v e n in t h i s r e p o r t .

E X P O S U R E O F P O P U L A T I O N S

G e n e r a l

T h e m e a n d o s e f o r w h o le p o p u l a t i o n s i s d e t e r m i n e d n o t o n l y b y th e d o s e s to in d iv id u a l m e m b e r s b u t a l s o b y th e n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s e x p o s e d . T h e m a i n c o n t r i b u t i o n s , in a d d i t i o n to t h a t f r o m t h e n a t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d r a d i a t i o n , a r e a t p r e s e n t m a d e b y th e m e d i c a l u s e s o f r a d i a t i o n f o r d i a g n o s t i c p u r p o s e s , t h e i n c r e a s i n g u s e o f r a d i o a c t i v e s u b s t a n c e s , a n d t h e r e l e a s e o f r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l in to t h e e n v i r o n ­m e n t . P r o t e c t i o n m e a s u r e s w i l l in c l u d e b o t h r e d u c t i o n o f in d iv id u a l d o s e s a n d , w h e r e v e r a p p r o p r i a t e , l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s e x p o s e d .

G E N E T I C D O S E

A s s e s s m e n t o f g e n e t i c d o s e

T h e g e n e t i c d o s e to a p o p u l a t io n i s t h e d o s e w h ic h , i f i t w e r e r e c e i v e d b y e a c h p e r s o n f r o m c o n c e p t i o n to th e m e a n a g e o f c h i l d ­b e a r i n g , w o u ld r e s u l t in t h e s a m e g e n e t i c b u r d e n to th e w h o le p o p u l a t io n a s do t h e a c t u a l d o s e s r e c e i v e d b y t h e i n d i v i d u a l s .

T h e g e n e t i c d o s e t o a p o p u l a t io n c a n b e a s s e s s e d a s t h e a n n u a l g e n e t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d o s e 5 m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e m e a n a g e o f c h i l d ­b e a r i n g , w h i c h f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e s e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s i s t a k e n to b e 3 0 y e a r s . T h e a n n u a l g e n e t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d o s e to a p o p u l a ­t i o n i s th e a v e r a g e o f th e i n d iv id u a l g o n a d d o s e s , w e i g h t e d in e a c h i n d i v i d u a l f o r t h e e x p e c t e d n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n c o n c e i v e d s u b s e q u e n t to th e e x p o s u r e .

5 The reader is referred to the 1962 report of UNSCEAR (UN General Assembly Official Records: Seventeenth Session, Supplement No. 16 (A/5216)) for a detailed discussion of gene­tically significant dose.

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G enetic dose lim it

T h e C o m m i s s i o n r e c o m m e n d s t h a t t h e g e n e t i c d o s e to th e p o p u l a t io n s h o u ld b e k e p t to th e m i n i m u m a m o u n t c o n s i s t e n t w ith n e c e s s i t y a n d s h o u ld c e r t a i n l y n o t e x c e e d 5 r e m s f r o m a l l s o u r c e s a d d i t i o n a l to t h e d o s e f r o m n a t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d r a d i a t i o n a n d f r o m m e d i c a l p r o c e d u r e s . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n to g e n e t i c d o s e f r o m m e d i c a l p r o c e d u r e s s h o u ld b e k e p t to t h e m i n i m u m v a l u e c o n s i s t e n t w ith m e d i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s .

T h e C o m m i s s i o n w i s h e s to p o in t o u t t h a t i t i s i m p o r t a n t to e n s u r e t h a t n o s i n g l e ty p e o f p o p u l a t io n e x p o s u r e t a k e s up a d i s ­p r o p o r t i o n a t e s h a r e o f t h e t o t a l . T h e w a y in w h ic h t h i s i s d one w i l l d e p e n d up on c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h ic h m a y v a r y f r o m c o u n t r y to c o u n t r y , an d w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d b y n a t i o n a l , e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

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APPENDIX II

INFORMATION SUBM ITTED TO CO M PETEN T AUTHORITY

T h e f o l l o w in g p o i n t s o u t l i n e th e t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n w h ic h i s f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e d b y t h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y p r i o r to g r a n t i n g a u t h o r i z a t i o n to c o n d u c t r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h i s l i s t i s i l l u s t r a t i v e . I t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o m p l e t e n o r i s a l l th e i n f o r m a ­t io n l i s t e d n e c e s s a r i l y n e e d e d . T h i s d e p e n d s on m a t t e r s s u c h a s p r e v i o u s l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n f o r m a t i o n on c e r t a i n t y p e s o f r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o r p r e v i o u s l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t th e c o m p e t e n c e o f th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s .

1. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . N a m e and a d d r e s s o f i n v e s t i g a t o r a n d l o c a ­t io n o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

2 . O b j e c t i v e s . A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e r e a s o n f o r c h o o s i n g a r a d i o t r a c e r t e c h n i q u e a n d t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r th e r a d i o n u c l i d e and a c t i v i t y s e l e c t e d s h o u ld b e e x p l a i n e d .

3 . R a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . T h e r a d i o t r a c e r u s e d , r a d i o n u c l i d i c c o m p o s i t i o n , t o t a l q u a n t i t y u s e d p e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , an d c h e m i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l f o r m o f th e r a d i o t r a c e r .

4 . P e r s o n n e l . T h e t r a i n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e o f th e p r o j e c t l e a d e r a n d t h e p e r s o n s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r a d i a t i o n s a f e t y , an d th e i n s t r u c t i o n g iv e n to t e a m m e m b e r s . (N a m e a n d a d d r e s s . )

5 . F a c i l i t i e s an d e q u i p m e n t . T h e f a c i l i t i e s a n d e q u i p m e n t to b e e m p l o y e d i n t h e c o n d u c t o f r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d e q u i p ­m e n t a v a i l a b l e in c a s e o f a c c i d e n t s .

6. O p e r a t i n g a n d e m e r g e n c y p r o c e d u r e s . P r o c e d u r e s u t i l i z e d b y th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n t e a m s , i n c l u d i n g th e f o l l o w in g :

(a ) P r o c e d u r e f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e r a d i o t r a c e r(b) P r o c e d u r e f o r i n j e c t i o n(c ) P r o c e d u r e f o r s a m p l i n g(d) P r o c e d u r e f o r f l u s h i n g and d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f e q u i p m e n t(e ) M e t h o d s an d o c c a s i o n s f o r c o n d u c t i n g r a d i a t i o n s u r v e y s(f) U t i l i z a t i o n o f p e r s o n n e l m o n i t o r i n g e q u i p m e n t and

p r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g(g) M e t h o d s f o r r e s t r i c t i n g a c c e s s to c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s

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(h) M e t h o d f o r s t o r a g e o f r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l(i) M e t h o d f o r d i s p o s a l o f w a s t e s( j ) M e t h o d f o r i n s p e c t i o n , m a i n t e n a n c e a n d t e s t i n g o f e q u i p m e n t(k) M e a s u r e s to b e t a k e n i n t h e e v e n t o f a n a c c i d e n t , i n c l u d i n g

p r o c e d u r e f o r n o t i f i c a t i o n .

7. H a z a r d s e v a l u a t i o n

(a) M a x i m u m f r e q u e n c y f o r c o n d u c t i n g r e p e t i t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .( F o r i n s p e c t i o n o r s u r v e i l l a n c e p u r p o s e s th e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y m a y r e q u e s t n o t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e d a t e s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . )

(b) A n a n a l y s i s o f t h e d e s i g n o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e s w h ic h d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t d o s e s to w o r k e r s w i l l b e w i th in p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t s a n d a s lo w a s p r a c t i c a b l e ; a n d t h a t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e l i k e l y to b e c o n d u c t e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i th r e g u l a t i o n s a n d c r i t e r i a p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y .

( c ) A n e s t i m a t e o f t h e a c t i v i t y an d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f r a d i o n u c l i d e s e x p e c t e d to b e r e l e a s e d a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f r e l e a s e , i n a i r a n d l iq u i d e f f l u e n t s t r e a m s r e s u l t i n g f r o m a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o r s e r i e s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ; a s a p p r o p r i a t e ( s e e S e c t i o n 3 ) , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e c r i t i c a l g r o u p a n d a n e s t i m a t e o f t h e a v e r a g e d o s e to i n d i v i d u a l s w i th in t h e g r o u p .

(d) T h e c h e m i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l f o r m o f t h e r a d i o n u c l i d e a s i t i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o p r o d u c t s ( i f a n y ) , i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n in th e p r o d u c t , a n d t h e t o t a l a c t i v i t y to b e i n c o r p o r a t e d in to th e p r o d u c t ; th e n a t u r e a n d u s e o f t h e p r o d u c t a n d t h e t o t a l q u a n t i ty o f p r o d u c t i n v o lv e d ; a s a p p r o p r i a t e ( s e e S e c t i o n 3 ) , i d e n t i f i c a ­t i o n o f t h e c r i t i c a l g r o u p a n d a n e s t i m a t e o f t h e a v e r a g e d o s e to i n d i v i d u a l s w i th in th e g r o u p .

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APPENDIX III

T r a i n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p e r s o n s e n g a g e d in th e u s e o f r a d i o i s o t o p e s f o r t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d f r o m tw o a s p e c t s : p l a n n i n g and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . F o r m a l t r a i n i n g e q u i v a l e n t to c o l l e g e l e v e l i n s t r u c t i o n in s u b j e c t s r e l a t e d to r a d i a t i o n i s o r d i n a r i l y n e e d e d to p l a n a r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h i s w i l l i n v o lv e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e i s o t o p e , w r i t i n g o f th e p r o c e d u r e s , and d e v i s i n g a n d e v a l u a t i n g c o n t r o l s a d e q u a t e to p r o t e c t w o r k e r s and m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c . M a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t w i s h to c o n d u c t r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s m a y n o t h a v e , n o r n e e d , an in d iv id u a l w i th t h i s t y p e o f c o m p e t e n c e on t h e i r s t a f f on a f u l l - t i m e b a s i s . C o n s u l t a n t s a r e o f t e n u s e d .

T r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s h o u ld b e c a r r i e d ou t b y p e r s o n n e l who a r e t r a i n e d in h a n d l i n g o f r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s . T h e y s h o u ld h a v e a w o r k i n g k n o w le d g e o f : (a ) c a l c u l a t i o n s b a s i c to t h e u s e a n dm e a s u r e m e n t o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y , (b) r a d i o a c t i v i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s , s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n a n d m o n i t o r i n g t e c h n i q u e s , ( c ) b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n , (d) th e p r i n c i p l e s a n d p r a c t i c e s o f r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n .

O f t h e o r d e r o f 3 0 h o u r s , o r a o n e w e e k ' s t r a i n i n g c o u r s e , c a n u s u a l l y b e c o n s i d e r e d s u f f i c i e n t f o r i n s t r u c t i o n in t h e s e r a d i a t i o n s a f e t y o r i e n t e d s u b j e c t s f o r t h e n e c e s s a r y l e v e l o f c o m p e t e n c e . In a d d i t i o n , a p e r i o d o f t r a i n i n g in p r a c t i c a l r a d i o t r a c e r w o r k b y a s s i g n ­m e n t to a n e x p e r i e n c e d t e a m i s a d v i s a b l e b e f o r e a n y p e r s o n n e l i s g i v e n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h e s u p e r v i s o r o f a n e x p e r i m e n t a l t e a m s h o u ld h a v e p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e in r a d i o ­a c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n s .

A l l p e r s o n n e l t a k i n g p a r t in r a d i o t r a c e r w o r k s h o u ld b e t h o r o u g h ­l y f a m i l i a r w i th t h e p r o c e d u r e t h e y m u s t f o l l o w in t h e e v e n t o f a c c i ­d e n t . F o r t e c h n i c i a n s , t h e p r o c e d u r e w i l l b e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , c o n s i s t i n g p r i m a r i l y o f a c t i o n d e s i g n e d to c o n t a i n t h e i n c i d e n t , m a k i n g t h e a f f e c t e d a r e a a s s a f e a s p o s s i b l e a n d p r o m p t l y r e p o r t i n g t h e o c c u r r e n c e to th e s u p e r v i s o r o f th e t e a m . T h e s u p e r v i s o r s h o u ld h a v e s u f f i c i e n t k n o w le d g e an d e x p e r i e n c e o f r a d i a t i o n s a f e t y to t a k e c h a r g e o f th e i n c i d e n t , d e f i n i n g a c t i o n s to b e t a k e n to r e m o v e a l l h a z a r d s a n d , i f n e c e s s a r y , t a k i n g s p e c i f i e d a c t i o n to s u m m o n s u c h a d d i t i o n a l e x p e r t a s s i s t a n c e a s m a y b e r e q u i r e d .

I t i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t t r a i n i n g s h o u ld in c l u d e s o m e p r a c t i c e in d e a l i n g w i th s i m u l a t e d a c c i d e n t s . A l l p e r s o n n e l s h o u ld b e f a m i l i a r w i th t h e u s e o f p e r s o n a l m o n i t o r i n g d e v i c e s , r a d i a t i o n s u r v e y i n s t r u m e n t s a n d a n y p r o t e c t i o n c l o t h i n g w h ic h m a y b e r e q u i r e d in c a r r y i n g o u t r a d i o t r a c e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

TRAINING AND E X P E R IE N C E REQUIREM ENTS

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ANNEXES

S e v e r a l s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f t r a c e r t e c h n i q u e s i n v a r i o u s i n d u s t r i a l b r a n c h e s a r e d e s c r i b e d in th e f o l l o w in g s e c t i o n . A l l o f t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d o u t a f t e r b e i n g a p p r o v e d b y th e r e l e v a n t c o m p e t e n t a u t h o r i t y . In a l l t h e q u o te d e x a m p l e s t h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d c o u ld m o s t e f f i c i e n t l y b e o b t a i n e d b y t h e u s e o f r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s .

M o s t o f t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n r e f e r to i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f u n i t s o r o p e r a t i o n s w h ic h w e r e p a r t o f th e p r o c e s s s y s t e m in l a r g e - s c a l e i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s . O n e e x a m p l e d e s c r i b e s t h e s t u d y o f t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l e f f l u e n t , w h i l e a n o t h e r e x a m p l e d e m o n s t r a t e s th e u s e o f a r a d i o a c t i v e g a s t r a c e r f o r v e n t i l a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y s t u d y i n a n i n d u s t r i a l l a b o r a t o r y .

I n a l l c a s e s d e s c r i b e d t h e e x p o s u r e o f t h e p u b l i c w a s v e r y s m a l l , a s s e s s e d in t e r m s o f t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l c r i t i c a l g r o u p a s d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 2 . 3 and S e c t i o n 3 .

T h e R e f e r e n c e s c i t e d i n t h e s e A n n e x e s a r e g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r in o n e l i s t a t t h e e n d o f A n n e x 9.

E X A M P LE S OF TRA CER APPLICATIONS

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ANNEX 1

MEASUREM ENT OF LIQUID FLO W R A TE WITH A PULSEDINJECTION OF G O LD -198 TRA CER [l]

P r o c e d u r e a d o p te d

F o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , m a n y r a d i o i s o t o p e s a r e a v a i l a b l e in c h e m i ­c a l f o r m s r e a d i l y s o l u b l e in a q u e o u s s y s t e m s an d p o s s e s s i n g c o n ­v e n i e n t h a l f - l i v e s an d g a m m a - r a y e n e r g i e s f o r e x t e r n a l d e t e c t i o n i n p r o c e s s s y s t e m s . T h e s y s t e m u n d e r s t u d y i n v o lv e d t h e f lo w o f a b o u t 4 0 m 3/ m in o f c o n c e n t r a t e d s u l f u r i c a c i d i n a l a r g e r e c i r c u l a t i n g s y s t e m .

198A u w a s s e l e c t e d a s th e t r a c e r . I t s 2 . 7 - d a y h a l f - l i f e w a s lo n g e n o u g h to p e r m i t r e p e t i t i v e m e a s u r e m e n t s o v e r a p e r i o d o f s e v e r a l d a y s , y e t s h o r t e n o u g h to a l lo w f o r r e a s o n a b l y r a p i d d e c a y a f t e r a d d i t i o n to t h e p r o c e s s s y s t e m . B e c a u s e o f t h e r a p i d r e c i r c u l a t i o n o f th e a c i d in t h i s c l o s e d s y s t e m , o t h e r r a d i o a c t i v e f lo w m e t h o d s w e r e n o t c o n v e n i e n t ; a n d t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n w a s b a s e d on t i m i n g th e i n i t i a l a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e t r a c e r w i th r a d i a t i o n d e t e c t o r s a t two p o i n t s on th e 5 0 - c m d i a m e t e r f lo w l i n e f o l l o w in g a r a p i d i n j e c t i o n .

I n i t i a l h a n d l i n g i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y

T h e t r a c e r a s r e c e i v e d w a s c o u n t e d f o r i t s a c t i v i t y a n d an a p p r o p r i a t e q u a n t i t y (10 m C i ) a d d e d to a l a r g e r v o lu m e o f w a t e r c o n t a i n e d i n a 5 0 0 m l u n b r e a k a b l e p l a s t i c b o t t l e . T h e s e m a n i p u l a ­t i o n s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g t y p i c a l r a d i o a c t i v i t y l a b o r a t o r y p r o c e ­d u r e s e m p l o y i n g s i m p l e , r e m o t e - h a n d l i n g t o o l s , a n d a p p r o p r i a t e s h i e l d i n g . T h e g a m m a r a d i a t i o n l e v e l i s a b o u t 0 . 2 4 m R / h p e r m C i a t 1 m , b u t t h e 0 . 4 1 - M e V g a m m a r a y s a r e e a s i l y s h i e l d e d w ith 2 - 3 c m o f l e a d . T r a n s f e r s o f th e s o l u t i o n w e r e m a d e w ith a g l a s s p i p e t t e o p e r a t e d w ith a s y r i n g e to s u c k up a n d to d i s c h a r g e th e s o l u t i o n .

H a n d l in g a t th e a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e

T h e t r a c e r s o l u t i o n w a s t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e f i e l d w i th in a l e a d s h i e l d . A t t h e f i e l d s i t e , t h e t r a c e r s o l u t i o n w a s p o u r e d d i r e c t l y in to t h e i n j e c t o r u s i n g l o n g t o n g s to g r a s p t h e b o t t l e . T h e i n j e c t i o n s y s t e m h a d b e e n f i r s t c o m p l e t e l y a s s e m b l e d o n to t h e p l a n t l in e a n d p r e s s u r e t e s t e d f o r l e a k s a t i t s c o n n e c t i o n an d v a l v e s , t h e n p a r t i a l l y d i s a s s e m b l e d f o r lo a d in g .

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T o c a r r y o u t t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s , th e t r a c e r s o l u t i o n w a s k e p t in a l e a d s h i e l d u n t i l th e f i n a l t r a n s f e r . O n c e t h e i n j e c t o r w a s l o a d e d , t h e i n j e c t i o n w a s m a d e a s s o o n a s p o s s i b l e . D u r i n g t h i s t r a n s f e r a n d i n j e c t i o n , th e t r a c e r w a s n o t s h i e l d e d ; h o w e v e r , th e o p e r a t i o n s w e r e c o m p l e t e d r a p i d l y (a f e w m i n u t e s a t t h e m o s t ) and t h e r e w a s v e r y l i t t l e r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e to t h e o p e r a t o r , a s m e a s u r e d w i th d o s i m e t e r s on t h e h a n d s a n d t h e b o d y . T e n m C i g a v e l e s s t h a n2 m R to th e h a n d a n d l e s s th a n 1 m R to th e b o d y .

T h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f th e i n j e c t i o n w a s v e r i f i e d b y s u r v e y i n g th e i n j e c t o r w i th a g a m m a - r a y s u r v e y m e t e r p r i o r to d i s m a n t l i n g th e i n j e c t o r . O n c e i n th e p l a n t s y s t e m , t h e t r a c e r w a s i m m e d i a t e l y d i lu t e d w ith a l a r g e v o l u m e o f f lo w ; t h e r e w a s n o f u r t h e r h a n d l i n g h a z a r d .

R a d i o l o g i c a l s a f e t y

T h e i n i t i a l h a n d l i n g p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n e d t h e t r a c e r i n c o n c e n ­t r a t e d f o r m w h e r e th e p r i n c i p a l r e q u i r e m e n t w a s to r e d u c e g a m m a - r a y e x p o s u r e b y s h i e l d i n g a n d d i s t a n c e . A f t e r t h e t r a c e r w a s i n j e c t e d , t h e r e w e r e no f u r t h e r e x t e r n a l r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e p r o b ­l e m s a s th e h i g h i n i t i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n w a s r a p i d l y r e d u c e d b y d i lu t io n an d d i s p e r s i o n .

T h e r e m a i n i n g r a d i o l o g i c a l s a f e t y p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n e d i n t e r n a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n a n d d i s c h a r g e o f th e r a d i o a c t i v i t y to t h e e n v i r o n m e n t .In t h e s e r i e s o f m e a s u r e m e n t s d e s c r i b e d in [ l ] , th e h i g h e s t c o n c e n ­t r a t i o n r e a c h e d a f t e r th e i n j e c t i o n o f 2 5 0 m C i w a s 0 . 0 0 3 juCi 198Au p e r g r a m o f s u l f u r i c a c i d . T h i s w a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r t h a n th e M P C , 5 X 1 0 ' 5 p C i / g , f o r d i s c h a r g e o f e f f l u e n t s to u n c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s . H o w e v e r , n o n e o f t h i s a c i d w a s r e l e a s e d a s a n e f f l u e n t .T h e s p e n t a c i d w a s c o m b i n e d w ith o t h e r a c i d s o u r c e s a n d w a s r e g e n e r a t e d an d r e - u s e d .

T h e h a z a r d o u s n a t u r e o f t h e a c i d i t s e l f h a d a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e s in t h e p l a n t w h ic h a v o id e d d i r e c t c o n t a c t w ith t h e a c i d b y p e r s o n n e l . T h e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t h a l f - l i f e l e d to r a p i d d e c a y .

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ANNEX 2

P r o c e d u r e a d o p te d

F o r d e t e r m i n i n g th e f lo w o f a c o n d e n s a b l e g a s , s u c h a s s t e a m w h ic h e x i s t s in tw o p h a s e s d u r in g t h e m e a s u r e m e n t , i t i s d e s i r a b l e to u s e an i s o t o p i c t r a c e r ; in t h i s c a s e , h y d r o g e n , to a v o id f r a c ­t i o n a t i o n o f t h e t r a c e r b e t w e e n t h e tw o p h a s e s . T h e t r a c e r in th e f o r m o f l iq u i d w a t e r i s i n j e c t e d r a p i d l y in to t h e s t e a m l i n e ; d o w n ­s t r e a m a s m a l l s i d e f lo w o f s t e a m i s w i th d r a w n a n d c o n d e n s e d to w a t e r . S a m p l e s a r e c o l l e c t e d c o n t i n u o u s l y s o a s to e n c o m p a s s t h e t r a c e r w a v e . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s b a s e d o n t h e t o t a l s a m p l e m e t h o d .

3 H e m i t s b e t a r a y s o n ly . T h e v e r y s o f t r a d i a t i o n (0 . 0 1 8 M e V ) m a y b e c o u n t e d d i r e c t l y in th e f o r m o f w a t e r w ith a l iq u i d s c i n t i l l a ­t i o n c o u n t e r o r in an i n t e r n a l g a s c o u n t e r a f t e r c o n v e r s i o n to h y d r o ­g e n o r o t h e r s u i t a b l e g a s e s .

I n i t i a l h a n d l i n g in t h e l a b o r a t o r y

T h e r e i s no e x t e r n a l r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e h a z a r d f r o m 3H, b u t c a r e m u s t b e e x e r c i s e d to a v o id i n g e s t i o n , i n h a l a t i o n , o r a b s o r p t i o n t h r o u g h th e s k i n . T h e v a p o u r p r e s s u r e o f w a t e r a t a m b i e n t t e m p e r a ­t u r e s i s h ig h e n o u g h s o t h a t w h en c o n c e n t r a t e d s o l u t i o n s o r t r i t i a t e d w a t e r a r e h a n d l e d , t h e s k i n o f t h e h a n d s a n d a r m s s h o u ld b e c o v e r e d w ith g l o v e s a n d o p e r a t i o n s sh o u ld b e c o n d u c t e d in a c h e m i c a l f u m e h o o d .

T r a n s f e r o f s o l u t i o n s w a s c a r r i e d o u t w i th a p i p e t t e o p e r a t e d w ith a s y r i n g e ; p o u r i n g w a s a v o id e d . A r a d i o a c t i v e g a s m o n i t o r ( t r i t i u m m o n i t o r ) w a s u s e d d u r i n g t h e t r a n s f e r . T h e i n l e t o f th e m o n i t o r h o s e w a s p o s i t i o n e d a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e f a c e . T h e q u a n t i t y u s e d f o r th e m e a s u r e m e n t w a s l o a d e d d i r e c t l y in to a p r e s s u r e i n j e c t i o n v e s s e l in t h e f u m e h o o d o r d i lu t e d in to a l a r g e v o l u m e o f w a t e r ( c a . s e v e r a l h u n d r e d m l ) f o r l a t e r t r a n s f e r s in t h e f i e l d .T h e s e l a t e r t r a n s f e r s w e r e d on e in a w e l l v e n t i l a t e d a r e a .

H a n d l i n g a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e

A l l f i t t i n g s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s w e r e f i r s t l e a k t e s t e d u n d e r p r e s s u r e , t h e n t h e l o a d e d i n j e c t o r w a s c o n n e c t e d to t h e v a l v e o n t h e p l a n t l i n e a n d to a h i g h p r e s s u r e g a s c y l i n d e r to i n j e c t t h e t r a c e r .

M EASUREM ENT OF STEAM FLO W R A T E WITH A PULSEDINJECTION OF HYDROGEN-3 TRA CER [2]

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R adiological safety

T h e i n i t i a l h a n d l i n g p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n e d i n t e r n a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n b y t h e t r a c e r . In t h e e v e n t o f an a c c i d e n t in w h ic h th e t r a c e r s o l u t i o n i s s p i l l e d , d i l u t i o n w i th l a r g e a m o u n t s o f w a t e r s h o u ld b e c a r r i e d o u t a t o n c e . I f s p i l l e d o n t h e s k i n o r on g l o v e s w h ic h h a v e s o m e p e r m e a b i l i t y , th e t r a c e r s o l u t i o n s h o u ld b e w a s h e d o f f f i r s t , t h e n th e b a l a n c e o f t h e s p i l l s h o u ld b e f l u s h e d a w a y .

A f t e r t h e i n j e c t i o n in to t h e p l a n t l i n e , t h e h i g h i n i t i a l c o n c e n ­t r a t i o n w a s r a p i d l y r e d u c e d to lo w c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , u s i n g t h e d a ta o f R e f . [2 ] , c o n s i d e r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f a f lo w o f 4 5 0 0 0 k g / h o f s u p e r h e a t e d s t e a m a t 3 5 a t m u s i n g 80 m C i o f 3H.A t t h e d o w n s t r e a m s a m p l i n g p o i n t , n e a r l y a l l t h e a c t i v i t y w a s fo u n d in t h e f i r s t 1 0 0 - s e c o n d s a m p l e . T h i s g a v e a n a v e r a g e c o n ­c e n t r a t i o n o f 6 X 1 0 "2 p C i / c m 3 o v e r t h i s s h o r t t i m e i n t e r v a l . T h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t th e s a m p l i n g p o in t w a s a l r e a d y b e lo w t h e M P C f o r t h i s i s o t o p e i n c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s . O n ly a 2 0 - f o l d g r e a t e r d i lu t io n w a s n e c e s s a r y to r e a c h t h e M P C f o r u n c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s . T h i s a d d i t i o n a l d i l u t i o n w a s r a p i d l y r e a c h e d a t g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s d o w n ­s t r e a m a n d b y b l e n d i n g w ith o t h e r s t r e a m s o f s t e a m o r c o n d e n s a t e .

A b i o a s s a y s h o u ld b e c o n d u c t e d on a n y i n d iv id u a l s u s p e c t e d o f r e c e i v i n g 3H i n t e r n a l l y . T h i s i s m o s t s i m p l y d o n e b y c o u n t i n g a u r i n e s p e c i m e n c o l l e c t e d a f e w h o u r s to a d a y a f t e r p o s s i b l e e x p o s u r e u s i n g t h e s a m e c o u n t e r a s f o r t h e s a m p l e s . F o r e x a m p l e , a b o d y b u r d e n a s lo w a s 0 . 1 ptCi c a n b e r e a d i l y d e t e c t e d .

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ANNEX 3

M EASUREM ENT OF GAS FLO W R A T E WITH APU LSED INJECTION OF K R Y PT O N -85 TRA CER [4]

P r o c e d u r e a d o p te d

T h e u s e o f a n i n e r t g a s t r a c e r p e r m i t s i t s a p p l i c a t i o n f o r g a s f l o w s o v e r a w id e r a n g e o f p r e s s u r e , t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d c h e m i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . 85K r (10 y r ) a n d 133X e (5 d) a r e b o t h r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e an d m a y b e c o n v e n i e n t l y d e t e c t e d . In t h i s e x a m p l e , 85K r w a s s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y , b e t a - r a y d e t e c t i o n e q u i p m e n t c o n v e n i e n t f o r c o n t i n u o u s o n - s i t e c o u n t in g . F o l l o w i n g i n j e c t i o n in to th e p l a n t l i n e , a s m a l l s i d e f lo w i s w i t h ­d r a w n d o w n s t r e a m , r e d u c e d to a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , a n d p a s s e d t h r o u g h a c o u n t i n g c h a m b e r c o n t a i n i n g a b e t a - r a y s e n s i t i v e G e i g e r - M u l l e r t u b e . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s b a s e d on t h e t o t a l c o u n t m e t h o d .

I n i t i a l h a n d l i n g in th e l a b o r a t o r y

85K r d e c a y s a b o u t 9 9 . 5% b y t h e e m i s s i o n o f 0 . 7 M e V b e t a r a y s . T h e s e a r e r e a d i l y s h i e l d e d , w h i le t h e r a d i a t i o n l e v e l f r o m th e g a m m a r a y s a n d b r e m s s t r a h i u n g i s o n ly a b o u t 1 m E / h p e r c u r i e a t 1 m e t r e . 85K r s h o u ld b e s t o r e d in a f u m e h o o d . S t o r a g e m a y b e in a p r e s s u r i z e d m e t a l c o n t a i n e r o r a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e o v e r m e r c u r y in a g l a s s b u r e t t e . T h e b e t a r a d i a t i o n i s s t o p p e d b y th e m e t a l o r g l a s s w a l l .

T h e p r e s e n c e o f e v e n a s m a l l a m o u n t o f g a m m a r a y s m a k e s i t c o n v e n i e n t to d e t e r m i n e t h e q u a n t i ty to b e e m p l o y e d b y g a m m a - r a y c o u n t i n g . T h e q u a n t i t y n e e d e d w a s t r a n s f e r r e d in to a n e v a c u a t e d g l a s s t u b e a n d t h e t u b e t h e n s e a l e d . W h e n i m m e d i a t e u s e w a s p l a n n e d , a r u b b e r s e p t u m c a p w a s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r s e a l i n g ; a n d t h e t r a n s f e r w a s m a d e t h r o u g h a h y p o d e r m i c n e e d l e . T h e l o a d in g o f t h e s a m p l e w a s c o n d u c t e d w ith o u t h a n d l i n g t h e t u b e d i r e c t l y .W h e n t h e tu b e w a s m o v e d , i t w a s h a n d le d w ith t o n g s o r o t h e r l o n g - h a n d l e d t o o l s . A l l m a n i p u l a t i o n s w e r e c o n d u c t e d i n a c h e m i c a l f u m e h o o d , a n d a r a d i o a c t i v e g a s m o n i t o r ( t r i t i u m m o n i t o r ) w a s in o p e r a t i o n a t t h e f a c e o f th e h o o d .

H a n d l in g a t th e a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e

T h e g l a s s t u b e c o n t a i n i n g th e t r a c e r w a s i n s e r t e d in to a h i g h - p r e s s u r e i n j e c t o r j u s t b e f o r e u s e . T h e i n j e c t o r , w h ic h c o n t a i n e d

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a m e t a l r o d f o r b r e a k i n g t h e g l a s s , w a s c l o s e d ; t h e tu b e w a s t h e n b r o k e n . T h e i n j e c t o r w a s t h e n c o n n e c t e d to a v a l v e o n t h e p l a n t l i n e a n d a l s o to a c y l i n d e r o f h ig h p r e s s u r e g a s to f l u s h t h e t r a c e r in to t h e l i n e .

T h e c o m p l e t e n e s s o f t h e i n j e c t i o n w a s v e r i f i e d b y s u r v e y i n g t h e i n j e c t o r w i th a g a m m a - r a y s u r v e y m e t e r p r i o r to d i s m a n t l i n g t h e i n j e c t o r . O n c e i n t h e s y s t e m , t h e t r a c e r w a s i m m e d i a t e l y d i lu t e d w ith a l a r g e v o l u m e o f p l a n t g a s ; t h e r e w a s n o f u r t h e r h a n d l i n g h a z a r d .

R a d i o l o g i c a l s a f e t y

T h e i n i t i a l h a n d l i n g p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n e d h a n d l i n g t h e t r a c e r in c o n c e n t r a t e d f o r m , a v o id i n g i n h a l a t i o n , a n d r e d u c i n g g a m m a - r a y e x p o s u r e b y d i s t a n c e a n d s h i e l d i n g . T h e t r a n s f e r w a s c o n d u c t e d in a f u m e h o o d to r e d u c e a n y p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n h a l a t i o n o f t h e t r a c e r .In t h e e v e n t o f a n a c c i d e n t , w h e r e b y t h e g l a s s tu b e i s b r o k e n in th e l a b o r a t o r y , t h e r o o m s h o u ld b e e v a c u a t e d a t o n c e a n d n o t r e - e n t e r e d u n t i l t h e t i m e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e v o l u m e a n d v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e o f t h e r o o m s h o w s t h a t i t i s a g a i n p e r m i s s i b l e t o e n t e r . A b e t a r a d i ­a t i o n s u r v e y m e t e r o r r a d i o a c t i v e g a s m o n i t o r s h o u ld b e u s e d w h e n r e - e n t e r i n g .

D o w n s t r e a m f r o m t h e i n j e c t i o n p o in t , t h e h ig h i n i t i a l c o n c e n t r a ­t io n w a s r a p i d l y r e d u c e d to c o n c e n t r a t i o n s f a r b e lo w t h e M P C .F o r e x a m p l e , u s i n g t h e d a t a o f R e f . [3 ] , c o n s i d e r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f a f lo w o f 3 0 0 0 m 3 /h w ith a n i n j e c t i o n o f 70 m C i o f 85K r . T h e t r a c e r w a s i n j e c t e d s l o w l y o v e r s e v e r a l m i n u t e s to h o ld t h e m a x i ­m u m c o u n t r a t e to 1 0 0 - 2 0 0 c o u n t s / s on t h e G e i g e r - M u l l e r t u b e . D o w n s t r e a m i t w a s o b s e r v e d t h a t th e t r a c e r w a v e r e q u i r e d 10 m i n to p a s s . T h e p e a k c o n c e n t r a t i o n w a s 4 X 1 0 ' 4 / jC i/c m 3 a n d th e a v e r a g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o v e r 10 m i n w a s 3 X 10 ' 5 /nCi/cm3. H e n c e , w i th in t h e f lo w l i n e a t t h e s a m p l i n g p o in t , t h e t r a c e r c o n c e n t r a ­t io n w a s a l r e a d y a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l to t h e M P C f o r t h i s i s o t o p e in c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s . A d d i t i o n a l d i l u t i o n o c c u r r e d a t g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s d o w n s t r e a m a n d b y d i lu t io n w ith o t h e r g a s s t r e a m s .T h i s g a s w a s t h e n v e n t e d to t h e a t m o s p h e r e .

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ANNEX 4

M E A S U R E M E N T O F L A R G E G A S F L O W R A T E S U S IN G X E N O N - 1 3 3 [4]

P r o c e d u r e a d o p te d

T h i s e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s a r e q u i r e m e n t to m e a s u r e l a r g e f lo w r a t e s ( a p p r o x . 100 0 0 0 m 3/h) o f s y n t h e s i s g a s (C O , C 0 2 , H 2 , A r ) f e e d i n g a c o m p l e x o f c h e m i c a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t s . A n a c c u r a c y o f ± 1 % ( o r b e t t e r ) w a s r e q u e s t e d in o r d e r to c a l i b r a t e a s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d o r i f i c e p l a t e s y s t e m i n s t a l l e d in th e m a i n , d a ta f r o m w h ic h w o u ld b e u s e d s u b s e q u e n t l y f o r c o s t i n g a n d p l a n t e f f i c i e n c y e v a l u a t i o n s . A b s o l u t e c a l i b r a t i o n a t s u c h r a t e s w a s e v i d e n t l y i m p r a c t i c a b l e ; f a c t o r s s u c h a s t h e c o m p l e x g a s c o m p o s i t i o n c o u p l e d w ith t h e h ig h a c c u r a c y r e q u i r e m e n t r u l e d o u t a l l p o s s i b l e m e t h o d s w ith t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a r a d i o i s o t o p e t e c h n i q u e . A m o n g t h e r a d i o i s o t o p e m e t h o d s , t h o s e d e p e n d in g on p u l s e i n j e c t i o n o f t r a c e r w e r e r e j e c t e d a s b e i n g i n s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e f o r t h i s e x a m p l e . A c c o r d i n g l y , a m e t h o d b a s e d o n t h e c o n t in u o u s i n j e c t i o n o f g a s e o u s t r a c e r (d i lu t io n p r i n c i p l e ) w a s d e v e l o p e d , in w h ic h s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s c o u ld b e m a i n t a i n e d f o r p e r i o d s up to 3 0 m i n f o r e a c h i n d iv id u a l t e s t .

O f t h e t h r e e g a s e o u s t r a c e r s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e (41A r , 85K r , 133X e ) , 41 A r w a s r e j e c t e d a s i m p r a c t i c a l l y s h o r t - l i v e d . 85K r w a s c o n s i d e r e d l e s s d e s i r a b l e th a n 133X e , b e c a u s e i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a b e t a e m i t t e r a n d h e n c e th e a s s a y w ou ld b e s u b j e c t to i n d e t e r m i n a t e e r r o r s due to m o i s t u r e c o n d e n s i n g f r o m s a m p l e g a s d u r i n g c o u n t in g . T h i s e r r o r w o u ld n o t b e s i g n i f i c a n t i f t h e a s s a y w e r e to b e b a s e d o n th e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c r a d i a t i o n e m i t t e d f r o m 133X e . S e l e c t i o n o f 133X e w a s a l s o s u p p o r t e d b y t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e f r e e z i n g p o in t o f x e n o n l e n t i t s e l f to a c o n v e n i e n t m e t h o d f o r e x t r a c t i n g x e n o n f r o m l a r g e g a s s a m p l e s b y a s i m p l e r e f r i g e r a t i o n p r o c e d u r e b a s e d on l iq u i d n i t r o g e n . T h i s p r o c e d u r e a l l o w e d x e n o n a s s a y to b e c a r r i e d ou t u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f h ig h e f f i c i e n c y in t h e w e l l o f a s o d i u m io d id e c r y s t a l , t h e r e b y a s s i s t i n g a c c u r a c y a n d r e d u c i n g t h e a m o u n t o f a c t i v i t y r e q u i r e d in th e f lo w m e a s u r e m e n t s .

I n i t i a l h a n d l i n g in t h e l a b o r a t o r y

T h e p r i n c i p a l l a b o r a t o r y p r o c e d u r e c o n s i s t e d o f t h e p r e p a r a ­t i o n o f t h e i n j e c t i o n g a s r e s e r v o i r . F o r e a c h o n - s i t e t e s t , a p p r o x i ­m a t e l y 1 0 0 m C i o f x e n o n - 133 w a s r e q u i r e d . T h i s w a s o b t a i n e d in

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a g l a s s c a p s u l e , th e s e a l o f w h ic h c o u ld b e b r o k e n w ith th e c a p s u l e a t t a c h e d t o a g a s h a n d l i n g l i n e , b y m e a n s o f a n i r o n s l u g o p e r a t e d b y a m a g n e t e x t e r n a l to th e l i n e . T h e c o m p l e t e h a n d l i n g a p p a r a t u s w a s a c c o m m o d a t e d in a f u m e c o n s i s t e n c y " h o o d " o r " c u p b o a r d " . P r i o r to b r e a k a g e , th e c a p s u l e l i m b w a s i m m e r s e d in l iq u i d n i t r o ­g e n to f r e e z e t h e x e n o n . I n a c t i v e c a r r i e r x e n o n w a s m i x e d w ith th e r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l a n d i n t r o d u c e d in to a p r e - e v a c u a t e d c y l i n d e r o f 3 0 l i t r e ( s . t . p . ) v o l u m e . T h e g a s c y l i n d e r w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y p r e s ­s u r e d to 100 a t m w ith n i t r o g e n .

H a n d l in g a t th e a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e

T h e t r a c e r r e s e r v o i r w a s c o u p le d to t h e f lo w c o n t r o l a n d m e t e r i n g e q u i p m e n t a t t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e . A t e m p o r a r y c o n t r o l l e d a r e a w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a r o u n d th e i n j e c t i o n s i t e . S a m p l e s w e r e d r a w n f r o m t h e m a i n s o m e 2 5 0 m d o w n s t r e a m f r o m t h e i n j e c t i o n p o in t .

R a d i o l o g i c a l s a f e t y

D u r i n g i n i t i a l h a n d l i n g , th e b e t a d o s e r a t e f r o m t h e x e n o n w a s s m a l l due to a t t e n u a t i o n b y t h e g l a s s w a l l s o f t h e h a n d l i n g l i n e .T h e g a m m a d o s e r e c e i v e d b y th e o p e r a t o r w a s a l s o s m a l l (~ 1 - 2 m R ) b e c a u s e o f th e s p e e d w ith w h ic h th e t r a n s f e r o p e r a t i o n w a s c o m ­p l e t e d . O n c e in th e g a s c y l i n d e r , t h e e x t e r n a l g a m m a r a d i a t i o n w a s l e s s t h a n 2 m R / h o n t h e s u r f a c e o f th e c y l i n d e r . P o s s i b l e a c c i d e n t a l r e l e a s e o f t h e x e n o n d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l h a n d l i n g o p e r a ­t io n (e . g . f o l l o w i n g l e a k a g e o r b r e a k a g e ) w a s t a k e n in to a c c o u n t b y m o u n t i n g t h e a p p a r a t u s in a f u m e h o o d .

O n s i t e , l e a k a g e w a s a g a i n t h e p r i n c i p a l h a z a r d , t h e s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t y o f t h e i n j e c t i o n g a s b e i n g a p p r o x . 3 X 10 ' 2 ju C i/ c m 3 . T h i s w a s g u a r d e d a g a i n s t b y l e a k t e s t i n g o f th e i n j e c t i o n e q u i p m e n t p r i o r to u s e .

S a m p l e s (~ 5 l i t r e v o l u m e ) f r o m t h e m a i n p r e s e n t e d n o h a z a r d a t t h e a c t i v i t y c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 X 10 ' 7 p C i / c m 3 .

T h i s lo w c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r e s e n t e d no h a z a r d i n th e c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t s u s i n g t h e s y n t h e s i s g a s , w h i c h in a n y c a s e i n t r o d u c e d f u r t h e r d i lu t io n .

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ANNEX 5

D I S P E R S I O N O F I N D U S T R I A L E F F L U E N T IN A R I V E R U S IN G A C O N T I N U O U S I N J E C T I O N O F B R O M I N E - 82 T R A C E R [5]

P r o c e d u r e a d o p te d

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y w a s to o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e c i r c u ­l a t i o n a n d m i x i n g p r o c e s s e s g o v e r n i n g t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f e f f l u e n t d i s c h a r g e d f r o m a l a r g e c h e m i c a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g s i t e to th e e s t u a r y o f a r i v e r w h e r e i n t e r f e r i n g s u b s t a n c e s p r e s e n t in t h e w a t e r p r e ­c lu d e d th e u s e o f d y e s a s t r a c e r s , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y , to d e v e lo p a m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l o f th e e s t u a r y .

In o r d e r to t a k e s u f f i c i e n t a c c o u n t o f t i d e s , i t w a s n e c e s s a r y to m a i n t a i n t h e i n j e c t i o n o f t r a c e r in to th e e f f l u e n t f o r a m i n i m u m p e r i o d o f t h r e e d a y s . S a m p l i n g a t t h r e e d e p th s w a s c o n t in u e d f o r t e n d a y s f r o m t h e s t a r t o f t h e i n j e c t i o n , a t e i g h t s t a t i o n s a l o n g a1 9 - k m l e n g t h o f t h e e s t u a r y . T h e e f f l u e n t w a s e s s e n t i a l l y a q u e o u s an d d i s c h a r g e d c o n t i n u o u s l y t h r o u g h a s i n g l e o u t l e t c h a n n e l .

B r o m i n e - 8 2 a s K B r w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e t r a c e r : 82B r h a s a n e x c e l l e n t g a m m a y i e ld ( 3 2 5 % ) o f h ig h m e a n e n e r g y e n a b l i n g l a r g e s a m p l e s ( s e v e r a l l i t r e s ) to b e a s s a y e d w ith good e f f i c i e n c y w i th a s o d i u m io d id e s c i n t i l l a t i o n c o u n t e r ; th e h a l f - l i f e o f 3 6 h e n s u r e d t h e r a p i d r e m o v a l o f r e s i d u a l r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e r i v e r ; t h e c h e m i c a l f o r m , K B r , e n s u r e d t h a t th e t r a c e r w o u ld r e m a i n in s o l u t i o n in s a l t w a t e r .

H a n d l in g a t th e a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e

T h e s c a l e a n d n a t u r e o f t h i s s t u d y c a l l e d f o r s p e c i a l a u t h o r i z a ­t i o n b y t h e r e l e v a n t n a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y a s w e l l a s a p p r o v a l f r o m l o c a l r i v e r and p o r t a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e w a s d e s i g n e d to m i n i m i z e h a n d l i n g o p e r a t i o n s a t t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e b e ­c a u s e o f t h e v e r y l a r g e a m o u n t o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n v o lv e d ( i n i t i a l l y 3 0 0 C i 82B r ) . T h e i n j e c t i o n r e s e r v o i r c o m p r i s e d a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l c y l i n d r i c a l v e s s e l w i th a p r i m a r y s h i e l d o f 10 c m l e a d s u r r o u n d e d b y s a n d b a g s , e r e c t e d o n a c o n c r e t e a p r o n a d j a c e n t to t h e e f f l u e n t c h a n n e l . T h e h e i g h t o f t h e v e s s e l w a s c h o s e n to b e t h e s a m e a s t h a t o f t h e a c t i v i t y c o n t a i n e r , th e l a t t e r b e i n g d e l i v e r e d f r o m th e i s o t o p e p r o d u c t i o n u n it a s a s p e c i a l c o n s i g n m e n t . S e v e r a l p r a c t i c e a c t i v i t y t r a n s f e r o p e r a t i o n s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g 3 - m l o n g t o n g s in a m a n n e r s i m u l a t i n g t h e a c t u a l t r a n s f e r o p e r a t i o n . P r o v i s i o n w a s m a d e to a s s i s t s o l u t i o n o f th e a c t i v i t y ( c o n s i s t i n g o f s e v e r a l

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h u n d r e d p e l l e t s ) b y p n e u m a t i c a g i t a t i o n o f t h e w a t e r i n t h e i n j e c t i o n r e s e r v o i r . I n j e c t i o n w a s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y m e a n s o f a r e m o t e l y c o n t r o l l e d e l e c t r i c p u m p f e e d i n g t h e t r a c e r s o l u t i o n t h r o u g h s h i e l d e d m e t a l c a p i l l a r y t u b in g to t h e s u r f a c e o f th e e f f l u e n t s t r e a m . T w o r e s e r v e p u m p i n g s y s t e m s w e r e a l s o i n s t a l l e d . T h e i n j e c t i o n v e s s e l , l i n e s a n d p u m p s w e r e c a r e f u l l y c h e c k e d f o r l e a k a g e b e f o r e th e a c t i v i t y w a s t r a n s f e r r e d .

R a d i o l o g i c a l s a f e t y

T h e c h i e f p o t e n t i a l h a z a r d in t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n c o n c e r n e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n a c c i d e n t a t t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e . T h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e w a s i s o l a t e d b y b a r r i e r s . C a r e f u l c h e c k i n g a n d r e h e a r s a l , p a r t i ­c u l a r l y o f th e a c t i v i t y t r a n s f e r o p e r a t i o n , r e d u c e d th e p e r i o d in w h ic h t h e c o n s i g n m e n t w a s e x p o s e d ( u n s h i e l d e d ) to a p p r o x i m a t e l y3 s e c o n d s a n d t h e m a x i m u m d o s e r e c e i v e d b y a m e m b e r o f th e i n j e c t i o n s i t e t e a m w a s 1 5 0 m r e m . H o s e s w e r e a v a i l a b l e to d e a l w i th t h e r e m o t e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l e a k a g e b y f l u s h i n g in to t h e e f f l u e n t s t r e a m . T h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e w a s m a n n e d c o n t i n u o u s l y t h r o u g h ­o u t th e t h r e e - d a y i n j e c t i o n p e r i o d .

T h e i n i t i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a c t i v i t y in t h e i n j e c t i o n r e s e r v o i r w a s 8 m C i / c m 3. A t th e i n j e c t i o n r a t e o f 0 . 5 1/h, th e m a x i m u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a c t i v i t y in th e e f f l u e n t s t r e a m p r i o r to d i s c h a r g e f r o m t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g s i t e w a s 8 X 10"4 p C i / c m 3 . A d d i t i o n a l d i l u t i o n a t t h e o u t f a l l r e d u c e d t h e m a x i m u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n to a p p r o x i ­m a t e l y 2 X 1 0 "4 /LiCi/cm3 . ( T h e m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e c o n c e n t r a ­t i o n i n d r i n k i n g w a t e r f o r m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c i s 3 X 10"4 p C i / c m 3 — s e e I C R P P u b l i c a t i o n N o . 2 . ) B e c a u s e t h e m a x i m u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n q u o te d w o u ld p e r s i s t f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d o n l y , a n d in v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e e s t u a r y i s n o t a s o u r c e o f d r i n k i n g w a t e r , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n w a s c o n s i d e r e d to p r e s e n t n o h a z a r d to m e m b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c .

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ANNEX 6

M E A S U R E M E N T O F M I X I N G IN A L A R G E S T I R R E D T A N K W I T H G O L D - 1 9 8 T R A C E R [ 6]

P r o c e d u r e a d o p te d

T h e t i m e n e e d e d f o r c o m p l e t e m i x i n g w a s to b e d e t e r m i n e d in a v e r y l a r g e t a n k h o l d i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 1 000 m 3 o f h e a v y f u e l o i l ( B u n k e r C ) . S i n c e t h i s w a s a c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t t h a t w o u ld b e s o l d a f t e r t h e s t u d y , i t w a s n e c e s s a r y t o u s e a t r a c e r w h ic h h a d a s h o r t h a l f - l i f e , b u t w h ic h c o u ld b e p r e p a r e d in a n o i l - s o l u b l e f o r m c h e m i c a l l y s t a b l e in th e o i l a t 86° C , th e t e m p e r a t u r e in th e t a n k .

T h e t r a c e r c h o i c e w a s n a r r o w e d t o s e v e r a l g a m m a - r a y e m i t t i n g i s o t o p e s w i th h a l f - l i v e s r a n g i n g up to 10 d. 198A u w a s s e l e c t e d .I t s 2 . 7 -d h a l f - l i f e p r o v i d e d s u f f i c i e n t t i m e f o r d e l i v e r y f r o m th e s o u r c e o f s u p p ly , c h e m i c a l c o n v e r s i o n to a n o i l - s o l u b l e f o r m , a n d u s e ; w h i l e i t s r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t h a l f - l i f e p r o v i d e d f o r r a p i d d e c a y .

T o o b t a i n a h i g h v o l u m e s e n s i t i v i t y f o r c o u n t i n g a n d t h e r e f o r e a l o w e r t r a c e r r e q u i r e m e n t , a n d to o b s e r v e m i x i n g a t s e v e r a l p o i n t s w i th in th e t a n k , t h e d e t e c t o r s w o u ld b e s u s p e n d e d d i r e c t l y in th e l iq u i d i n t h e t a n k . B e c a u s e o f th e r e l a t i v e l y h ig h t e m p e r a t u r e , l i q u i d - t i g h t b u n d l e s , e a c h c o n t a i n i n g f o u r l a r g e G e i g e r - M u l l e r t u b e s , w e r e u s e d a s t h e d e t e c t o r s .

I n i t i a l h a n d l i n g in th e l a b o r a t o r y

A l a r g e a m o u n t o f r a d i o t r a c e r w a s r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n . T h e i n i t i a l a m o u n t h a n d l e d w a s 1 C i , a n d a b o u t 0 . 5 C i w a s a d d e d to th e t a n k . T h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e t r a c e r and i t s c h e m i c a l c o n ­v e r s i o n t o th e o i l - s o l u b l e f o r m w e r e c o n d u c t e d i n a l e a d - s h i e l d e d f u m e h o o d . A l l t r a n s f e r s w e r e m a d e w ith r e m o t e - h a n d l i n g e q u i p ­m e n t . T h e c h e m i c a l c o n v e r s i o n w a s k e p t a s s i m p l e a s p o s s i b l e to m i n i m i z e h a n d l i n g . T h e f i n a l p r o d u c t w a s d i lu t e d w ith o i l in a 1 - l i t r e b o t t l e f o r u s e .

H a n d l in g a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e

T h e t r a c e r s o l u t i o n w a s t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e f i e l d s i t e w i th in a l e a d s h i e l d . T h e b o t t l e w a s c a r r i e d to t h e to p o f t h e t a n k a t t h e e n d o f a l o n g p o l e , t h e c a p w a s r e m o v e d w ith a l o n g - h a n d l e d d e c a p p i n g

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t o o l , a n d t h e s o l u t i o n w a s r a p i d l y p o u r e d in to t h e t a n k . T h e b o t t l e w a s t h e n r i n s e d w ith a s o l v e n t a n d th e r i n s e s a l s o a d d e d to t h e t a n k .

T h e r a d i a t i o n l e v e l f r o m th e u n s h i e l d e d b o t t l e (0 . 5 C i ) w a s a b o u t 1 0 0 m R / h a t 1 m b u t o n l y a b o u t 10 m R / h a t t h e e n d o f th e h a n d l i n g p o l e . T h e p e r i o d f r o m r e m o v i n g t h e b o t t l e f r o m i t s s h i e l d u n t i l t h e c o n t e n t s w e r e p o u r e d in to t h e t a n k r e q u i r e d o n l y a f e w m i n u t e s , a n d th e e x p o s u r e to t h e p e r s o n h a n d l i n g th e t r a c e r a t th e s i t e w a s l e s s t h a n 5 m R , O n c e i n t h e t a n k , t h e r e w a s no f u r t h e r h a n d l i n g h a z a r d .

R a d i o l o g i c a l s a f e t y

T h e i n i t i a l h a n d l i n g o f t h e t r a c e r r e q u i r e d e x t r e m e c a r e in a v o i d i n g r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e a n d th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n a c c i d e n t a l s p i l l b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e a m o u n t o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n v o lv e d . T h e u s e o f l o n g t o o l s , a d e q u a t e s h i e l d i n g , s i m p l e p r o c e d u r e s , and w e l l - r e h e a r s e d p r a c t i c e o f a l l o p e r a t i o n s r e s u l t e d in m i n i m a l e x p o s u r e .

T h e f i n a l s t e p i n v o lv in g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e t r a c e r in to th e t a n k r e q u i r e d h a n d l i n g w ith o u t s h i e l d i n g , b u t th e u s e o f d i s t a n c e b y m e a n s o f l o n g t o o l s a n d o f s p e e d s u c c e s s f u l l y r e d u c e d t h e e x ­p o s u r e to lo w v a l u e s .

T h e f i n a l s a f e t y p r o b l e m c o n c e r n e d t h e u l t i m a t e d i s p o s a l o f th e t r a c e r . T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r in t h e o i l a f t e r c o m p l e t e m i x i n g w a s 4 . 5 X 1 0 ‘ 5 ju C i/ c m 3 . T h i s w a s j u s t l e s s t h a n th e M P C (5 X 1 0 “5 p C i / c m 3 ) f o r d i s c h a r g e to e f f l u e n t s a n d w e l l b e lo w t h e e x e m p t c o n c e n t r a t i o n (5 X 1 0 ' 4 p C i / c m 3 ) f o r c o n s u m e r p r o d u c t s p e r m i t t e d b y t h e U S A E C r e g u l a t i o n s (1 0 C F R 3 0 , p a r a g r a p h 3 0 . 7 0 ) . H e n c e , i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o r e l e a s e t h i s m a t e r i a l f o r s a l e w i th o u t a d d i t i o n a l h o l d i n g t i m e f o r d e c a y .

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ANNEX 7

V E N T I L A T I O N S T U D Y ON A P R O C E S S D E V E L O P M E N T L A B O R A T O R Y U S I N G K R Y P T O N - 8 5 A N D X E N O N - 133 [7]

P r o c e d u r e a d o p te d

V e n t i l a t i o n s t u d i e s a r e g r e a t l y a s s i s t e d b y th e u s e o f r a d i o ­t r a c e r s i n t h a t d a ta a r e o b t a in e d i m m e d i a t e l y a n d c o n t i n u o u s l y .133X e a n d 85K r a r e u s u a l l y t h e m o s t s u i t a b l e t r a c e r g a s e s f o r s u c h m e a s u r e m e n t s ; b o t h i s o t o p e s c a n b e m e a s u r e d w ith h ig h s e n s i t i v i t y a n d a r e o f lo w r a d i o t o x i c i t y ( s e e I A E A c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n T e c h . R e p . S e r . N o . 1 5 , I A E A , V i e n n a , 1 9 6 3 ) .

In t h e p r e s e n t e x a m p l e , i t w a s r e q u i r e d to d e t e r m i n e th e v e n t i ­l a t i o n r a t e a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r , to s e a r c h f o r " d e a d z o n e s " in a p r o ­c e s s d e v e l o p m e n t l a b o r a t o r y i n w h ic h t o x i c g a s e s (e . g . c a r b o n m o n o x i d e ) w e r e u s e d in e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k b e i n g c o n d u c t e d in h ig h p r e s s u r e r e a c t i o n v e s s e l s . 85K r w a s e m p l o y e d to m e a s u r e th e r a t e s o f f lo w in t h e a i r i n t a k e and o u t l e t d u c t s o f th e b u i ld i n g b y t h e p u l s e v e l o c i t y m e t h o d . 133X e w a s e m p l o y e d to s i m u l a t e t o x i c g a s r e l e a s e in s e l e c t e d p a r t s o f t h e b u i ld in g .

I n i t i a l h a n d l i n g in th e l a b o r a t o r y

A s m a l l v o l u m e i n j e c t o r w a s c h a r g e d w ith a p p r o x i m a t e l y1 m C i 85 K r .

A g a s c y l i n d e r w a s c h a r g e d w ith 2 5 m C i 133 X e b y t h e m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d in A n n e x 4 . A l l p r e p a r a t i v e w o r k w a s c o n d u c t e d in a f u m e h o o d v e n t e d to t h e a t m o s p h e r e t h r o u g h i n d e p e n d e n t d u c t in g .

H a n d l in g a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e

T h e i n j e c t i o n s y s t e m s w e r e i s o l a t e d in t e m p o r a r y c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s e s t a b l i s h e d w i th in th e t e s t l a b o r a t o r y , e a c h s y s t e m b e i n g c h e c k e d b e f o r e h a n d f o r l e a k a g e .

R a d i o l o g i c a l s a f e t y

T h e e x t e r n a l r a d i a t i o n p r i o r to i n j e c t i o n f r o m b o t h t r a c e r g a s c o n t a i n e r s w a s n e g l i g i b l e , r e q u i r i n g o n l y t h a t n o n - r a d i a t i o n w o r k e r s b e k e p t a w a y f r o m t h e i r i m m e d i a t e v i c i n i t y . T h e d i l u t i o n w i th in th e b u i ld i n g a n d r e s i d e n c e t i m e o f t h e 85 K r p u l s e s e m p l o y e d f o r

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d u c t f lo w d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w a s s u c h t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t i n h a l a t i o n h a z a r d w a s p r e s e n t e d to w o r k e r s w i th in th e b u i ld i n g . A p p l i c a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g d e l i b e r a t e i n t e r n a l ( in h a l a t io n ) e x p o s u r e to p e r s o n s a r e v e r y r a r e . In t h i s e x a m p l e w h e r e 133X e w a s r e l e a s e d a t a lo w r a t e a n d i t s m o v e m e n t o b s e r v e d b y i n s t a l l e d d e t e c t o r s , t h e a v e r a g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r s e v e r a l p a r t s o f t h e t e s t s c h e d u l e w a s ~ 10 ' 6 jL(Ci/cm3 a n d i t w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y to t a k e s p e c i a l p r e c a u t i o n s f o r t e s t s a t t h e s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . In o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e s c h e d u l e , h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w e r e e m p l o y e d a n d in t h e s e , e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e th e e x p o s u r e c o u ld n o t b e p r e d i c t e d w ith c o n f i d e n c e , t e s t s w e r e c o n ­d u c t e d w i th th e b u i ld i n g t e m p o r a r i l y e v a c u a t e d , u n t i l th e c o n t i n u o u s l y r e c o r d e d d e t e c t o r r e s p o n s e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e t r a c e r h a d d i s p e r s e d to c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f a r a d i o l o g i c a l l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l .

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ANNEX 8

C O N T I N U O U S M E A S U R E M E N T O F L I N I N G W E A R IN A S T E E L F U R N A C E W I T H I R I D I U M - 192 T R A C E R [ 8, 9]

P r o c e d u r e a d o p te d

T h e r a t e o f l i n i n g w e a r in an e l e c t r i c a r c f u r n a c e w a s to b e m e a s u r e d in o r d e r to a n a l y s e t h e f a c t o r s w h ic h f u n d a m e n t a l l y a f f e c t i t . T h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s w a s n o t to b e d i s t u r b e d i n a n y w a y an d t h e r e s h o u ld b e no r e s t r i c t i o n s i m p o s e d on th e s a l e o f th e p r o d u c t a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t . I t w a s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y to u s e a t r a c e r f o r t h e l i n i n g w e a r in s u c h a f o r m t h a t i t c o u ld b e e a s i l y a s s e s s e d in s t e e l s a m p l e s t a k e n f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s ( r o u t i n e a n a l y s e s ) . T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r s h o u ld n o t e x c e e d 0 . 2 m C i / m e t r i c t o n o f s t e e l , w h i c h i s th e m a x i m u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n p e r m i t t e d i n s t e e l f o r (3- a n d 7 - e m i t t e r s w ith a h a l f - l i f e s h o r t e r t h a n 1 y e a r , a c c o r d i n g to th e r e g u l a t i o n s l a i d dow n b y th e S w e d i s h r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s .

T h e t r a c e r s h o u ld m e e t s e v e r a l p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , s u c h a s :

It s h o u ld (a) b e s o l u b l e in th e m o l t e n s t e e l(b) h a v e a lo w a f f i n i t y to o x y g e n( c ) b e i n e r t w ith r e s p e c t to a l l c o m p o n e n t s o f th e

r e f r a c t o r y m a t e r i a l .

T h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s w ou ld o n l y b e m e t b y a n o b l e m e t a l o r a l l o y o f h ig h m e l t i n g p o in t . T h e f i n a l c h o i c e w a s a p l a t i n u m - i r i d i u m a l l o y , c o n t a i n i n g 10% i r i d i u m , in t h e f o r m o f a w i r e o f 0 . 2 m m d i a m e t e r . O n i r r a d i a t i o n i t g a v e r i s e to a n u m b e r o f s h o r t - l i v e d i s o t o p e s o f p l a t i n u m , i r i d i u m a n d g o ld i n a d d i t i o n to i r i d i u m - 1 9 2 . A f t e r a s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g a g e i n g p e r i o d , o n l y i r i d i u m - 1 9 2 o f 7 4 - d h a l f - l i f e r e m a i n e d . S a m p l e s f o r o r d i n a r y s p e c t r o g r a p h y a r e t a k e n r o u t i n e l y d u r i n g p r o c e s s i n g . T h e s e s a m p l e s a r e m a d e in t h e s h a p e o f c y l i n d e r s o f d i a m e t e r 3 5 m m a n d t h i c k n e s s 15 m m . T h e s a m e s a m p l e s w e r e to b e u s e d f o r a c t i v i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e m a s s o f a h e a t w a s a b o u t 5 0 m e t r i c t o n s a n d t h e w e a r w a s e s t i m a t e d to b e 10 m m / h e a t in t h e h o t - s p o t a r e a ,5 m m / h e a t in t h e v a u l t a r e a a n d 10 m m / h e a t in th e b o t t o m a r e a .T h e w e a r w a s to b e m e a s u r e d s e p a r a t e l y in t h e s e t h r e e r e g i o n s d u r i n g t h r e e c a m p a i g n s in s u c c e s s i o n .

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A s c i n t i l l a t i o n d e t e c t o r e q u ip p e d w ith a 0 75 m m X 75 m m N a l ( T l ) c r y s t a l c o n n e c t e d to a s c a l e r w a s u s e d f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e a c t i v i t y c o n c e n t r a t i o n in th e s a m p l e s .

I n i t i a l h a n d l i n g in t h e l a b o r a t o r y

B e f o r e i r r a d i a t i o n 1. 25 m o f t h e w i r e w a s w ou nd on a n a l u m i n i u m b o b b i n . O n e e n d o f t h e w i r e w a s f i x e d in a n o t c h o n th e b o b b i n . T o t h e o t h e r e n d a 1 - m l o n g c o p p e r w i r e o f th e s a m e d i a m e t e r w a s s o l d e r e d . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t w a s to m i n i m i z e th e r i s k f o r o b t a i n i n g n o n - u n i f o r m s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t y a l o n g th e w i r e a f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n a n d to e n s u r e s i m p l e and s a f e h a n d l i n g o f t h e i r r a d i a t e d w i r e . T e n d a y s a f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n , w h i c h w a s t h e t i m e n e c e s s a r y f o r th e s h o r t - l i v e d i s o t o p e s to d e c a y , t h e b o b b i n w a s p l a c e d in a r i g s h i e l d e d b y 3 0 m m o f l e a d . T h e e n d o f t h e c o p p e r w i r e w a s l o o s e d f r o m t h e b o b b i n b y m e a n s o f t w e e z e r s o f 30 c m l e n g t h and t h e n a t t a c h e d to a n i n a c t i v e c o p p e r w i r e , w h i c h h a d b e f o r e b e e n p u l l e d t h r o u g h a d e v i c e d e s i g n e d f o r c u t t i n g t h e a c t i v a t e d w i r e in s e g m e n t s o f s u i t a b l e l e n g t h . T h e p u l l i n g d e v i c e w a s d r i v e n b y a s y n c h r o n o u s m o t o r a n d w a s e f f e c t i v e l y s h i e l d e d b y m o r e t h a n 20 m m o f l e a d . B y l e t t i n g t h e m o t o r r u n f o r a k n o w n t i m e , a p r e d e t e r ­m i n e d l e n g t h o f w i r e w a s p u l l e d o u t . W h i l e i t w a s b e i n g p u l l e d ou t i t w a s e n c l o s e d b e t w e e n tw o s t r i p s o f a d h e s i v e t a p e . T h e w i r e w a s c u t a n d t r a n s f e r r e d to a s h i e l d e d t r a n s p o r t c o n t a i n e r . B e c a u s e o f t h e t a p e e n c l o s u r e t h e w i r e r e m a i n e d s t r e t c h e d , w h i c h w a s a r e ­q u i r e m e n t f o r f u r t h e r h a n d l in g .

H a n d l in g a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e

W h e n t h e b r i c k - l a y i n g h a d r e a c h e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e f u r n a c e w h ic h w a s to b e i n v e s t i g a t e d a t a p e - c o v e r e d w i r e w a s p l a c e d in a g r o o v e o n e a c h b r i c k to b e t a g g e d . T h e w i r e w a s l i f t e d f r o m t h e t r a n s p o r t s h i e l d to t h e b r i c k b y m e a n s o f a p a i r o f t w e e z e r s . I t w a s t h e n i m m e d i a t e l y c o v e r e d w ith m o r t a r . T h e g r o o v e a n d h e n c e th e w i r e r a n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y to t h e w o r k i n g s u r f a c e o f t h e b r i c k . T h e w i r e e n d e d a f e w m i l l i m e t r e s b e lo w t h e s u r f a c e . T h e b r i c k w a s p l a c e d i n i t s p o s i t i o n in th e l i n i n g , w h e r e a f t e r i t w a s c o v e r e d b y a 6- m m l e a d s h e e t to p r o t e c t th e b r i c k l a y e r s a g a i n s t r a d i a t i o n d u r i n g th e r e s t o f t h e l a y i n g . W h e n t h e b r i c k l a y i n g w a s c o m p l e t e d , t h e l e a d s h e e t w a s r e m o v e d . T h e f u r n a c e w a s t h e n r e a d y f o r u s e .

S a m p l e s f r o m t h e t a g g e d f u r n a c e w e r e m e a s u r e d f o r a c t i v i t y .A s t a n d a r d w a s p r e p a r e d f r o m s a m p l e s t a k e n f r o m a n o t h e r f u r n a c e in to w h i c h a k n o w n l e n g t h o f w i r e w a s t h r o w n . B y th e u s e o f k no w n v a l u e s f o r t h e m a s s o f t h e h e a t s in t h e f u r n a c e u n d e r s tu d y a n d in

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the fu rn ace used for p rep arin g the stan d ard , re sp e ctiv e ly , a ccu ra te figures for the actu al w ear at a ll tim es during the cam paign could be calcu lated .

R adiological safety

The activ ity of the w ire was 0. 04 m C i/m m and the w ear in the h ot-sp ot a r e a , which was subjected to the la rg e s t ero sion , was2 0 -5 0 m m /h eat. Hence the highest sp ecific activ ity in the s tee l produced was 0. 04 m C i/m e tric ton, which correspon d ed to ap p roxi­m ately 2000 cou nts/m in in the m easu rem en t of a sam ple. The activ ity content was evidently well below the specified lim it, while at the sam e tim e perm ittin g the m easu rem en ts to be m ade with sufficient p recisio n .

During the initial handling of the active w ire c a re m ust be taken to avoid exp o su re . The dose ra te clo se to the unshielded w ire was con sid erab le but the use of shielding and long tools reduced the dose to the o p era to r to v e ry sm all values.

This w as also the ca se for the handling at the application site .The risk connected with active w ire left in the furnace when the

cam paign is o ver also had to be taken into account. The b est way of elim inating this risk was to use only so much w ire that it would be consum ed with certa in ty during the cam paign.

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ANNEX 9

INVESTIGATION OF WOOD-CHIP TRANSPORT IN A CONTINUOUS DIGESTER FOR PULP-M AKIN G [10]

P ro ced u re adopted

The quality of the pulp produced in continuous digesting equip­m ent depends on the wood-chip m ovem ent and cooking liquor flow through the equipment. F o r obtaining a high and uniform quality all chips should m ove along p a ra lle l v e rtica l paths at uniform velo ­city , hence spending the sam e period of tim e in the d ig ester.

In an exp erim en tal investigation Teflon chips containing a ra d io ­active sa lt (24Na2 C 0 3) w ere used to study the chip tran sp o rt through a continuous d ig ester of 45 m height and 4 .5 m d iam eter. 24Na was selected as a t r a c e r b ecause of its p enetrating gam m a radiation and suitable h alf-life . The t r a c e r chip should be m easu rab le from outside the d ig ester a lso if it moved along the a x is of the d ig ester, which correspon d ed to an ab so rb er thickness of 2. 25 m of ch ip /liqu or and 43 m m of s teel. To m eet this condition, 5 0 -1 0 0 m Ci of 24Na had to be used in each chip. The chip resid en ce tim e in the d igester was of the o rd e r of 3 -6 hours depending on production ra te . The only feasible way of introducing an activ ity of 100 m C i 24Na in a volume of the size of a chip was to use hollow Teflon con tain ers (dim ensions 40 m m X 20 m m X 10 m m with a ce n tra l cy lin d rical cavity) filled with the rad ioactive sa lt and subsequently sealed .Teflon was chosen due to its re s is ta n ce to the p ro ce ss ch em icals .The higher density of Teflon as com pared to wood was not con­sid ered to lead to erron eou s re su lts as the chip bed was fa irly com p act.

One chip at a tim e was introduced with the chip feed and its p assag e p ast a num ber of p re se le cte d observation lev els was re g is te re d by m eans of se v e ra l scin tillation d etecto rs equally spaced around the d ig ester.

B y this method each chip could be a ccu ra te ly followed through the d ig ester. At the ob servation levels the chips could be located with a rad ia l a c c u ra c y of within ± 5 cm and an angular a c c u ra c y of within ± 5° in the d ig ester c ro s s -s e c tio n with a corresponding tim ing p recisio n of b e tte r than 30 seconds.

In all, s ix rad ioactive chips w ere used.

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In itia l handling in the lab o ra to ry

The Teflon chips to be used in the t r a c e r investigation were loaded with rad io active sodium carb on ate at the isotope production lab o ra to ry of the re a c to r cen tre where adequate manipulation equip­m ent and facilities w ere provided for safe handling of the ra th e r larg e a c tiv itie s of 24Na req u ired for each chip (of the o rd er of 200 m C i at the tim e of p rep aration).

It was not con sid ered safe to irra d ia te the Teflon con tain ers a fte r n on -active sodium carbonate had been introduced because of the risk of degradation of the Teflon which might im pair its m ech an ical and ch em ical re s is ta n c e .

Handling a t the application site

The Teflon chips w ere receiv ed in shielded tran sp o rt con tain ers. B efore a chip was introduced into th e .d ig ester , a calibration was made in a controlled a re a with the chip positioned 20 m from an instrum ent which had previou sly been in tercalib rated with all other in strum ents used. Once this calib ration had been m ade, the chip position within the d igester could be calcu lated from the instrum ent read in gs.

A ll tra n s fe rs during the calib ration p roced u re w ere made with long handling tools. A fter calib ration , the chip was hoisted up in a bucket to the d ig ester feed level and quickly tra n sfe rre d to the chip feed s tre a m by m eans of long tongs. The dose to the p erson handling the chip could be kept to le ss than 5 m rem .

R adiological safety

The initial handling of the t r a c e r m a te ria l was p erform ed at the re a c to r ce n tre . Hence th ere was no exp osure to the m em b ers of the exp erim en tal team .

The handling at the in d ustrial site involved only lim ited exp o su res, of the o rd er of 5 m rem for each active chip run, since the manual op erations involved w ere sim ple and quick.

The minim um distan ce between any chip and the d ig ester wall was ap proxim ately 1 m in the actu al investigation. If a chip had been tran sp o rted clo se to the d igester wall the dose ra te on the outside would have been v e ry high. This p ossib ility w as, how ever, of no g rea t con cern from the point of view of radiation safety since the d ig ester was physically in accessib le excep t at the top and the bottom . The d etecto rs w ere in fact suspended from the s tru ctu re at the top of the d ig ester.

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When the Teflon chips p assed out of the d ig ester into the blow tank, they d isin tegrated due to the sudden p re ssu re drop. The active m a te ria l then dissolved rapidly in the blow tank liquor. The con centration of t r a c e r in the liquor would be ap proxim ately 5 X 10"4 /uC i/cm 3 which was som ew hat higher than the M PC for d isch arge (2 X 10"4 /uCi/cm 3 ).

The con centration was fu rth er reduced by additional dilution in the sy stem , by decay and by blending with oth er effluent s tre a m s b efore final d isch arg e , resu ltin g in a con centration much below the MPC when the effluent reach ed the re c e iv e r .

24The con centration of Na in the pulp produced was calcu lated to be so low that th ere would be no re s tr ic tio n s on its fu rth er p ro ce ssin g o r re le a s e for sa le .

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R E F E R E N C E S T O A N N E X E S

[ 1 ] HULL, D . E . , FRIES, B . A . , GILMORE, J . T . , A cid c irc u la tio n , v o lu m e, re p la c e m e n t, and en tra in m en t m easured in an a lk y la tio n plan t w ith ra d io tra ce r, In t. J . A ppl. R ad iat. Iso t. 16 19 (1 9 6 5 ) .

[ 2 ] FRIES, B. A . , S tea m -flo w m easu rem en t by the to ta l-s a m p le m eth od , In t. J . Appl.R ad iat. Iso t. 16 35 (1 9 6 5 ) .

[ 3 ] FRIES, B . A . , Gas flow m easurem ents by th e to ta l-c o u n t m eth o d , In t. J . A ppl. R ad iat. Iso t. 13 2 7 7 (1 9 6 2 ) .

[ 4 ] JOHNSON, P . , "A p p lica tio n o f the d ilu tio n p rin cip le to th e m easu rem en t o f gas flow rates in la r g e -s c a le c h e m ic a l p ro cesses", Radioisotope T ra cers in Industry and G eophysics (P ro c. Sym p . Prague, 1 9 6 6 ) , IA EA, V ienna (1 9 6 7 ) 6 1 5 .

[ 5 ] JO H N SO N ; P . E . , p riv ate co m m u n ica tio n .[ 6 ] FRIES, B. A . , p rivate co m m u n ica tio n .[ 7 ] JOHNSON, P . E . , p rivate co m m u n ica tio n .[ 8 ] M A T T SSO N , H . , e t a l . (Isotop es T ech n iq u es, I n c . , S to ck h o lm , Sw eden), p rivate

c o m m u n ica tio n .[ 9 ] BERGH, S . , SANDBERG, H . , STA H L, N . , Continuous m easu rem en t o f lin in g w ear

in s tee l furnaces w ith rad io isotop es, J . M e t. 21 No. 2 19 (1 9 6 9 ) .[ 1 0 ] ERWALL, L . G . , FORSBERG, H. G . , LJUNGGREN, K . , Industrial Isotope T ech n iq u es,

M unksgaard, C openhagen (1 9 6 4 ) ,

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L I S T O F P A N E L M E M B E R S

CHAIRMAN

Cunningham, R . E .

PA N E L M EM BERS

Beninson, D.

Johnson, P .

Ljunggren, K.

Michon, G.

N akazawa, K.

D irecto ra te of L icen sin g , United S tates A tom ic E n erg y

C om m ission,W ashington, D. C. 20545 , United S tates of A m erica

N ational A tom ic E n erg y C om m ission, M anager for Health and Safety,Avenida L ib ertad o r 8250,Buenos A ire s ,A rgentina

Im p erial C hem icals Industries Ltd . , P e tro ch e m ica ls Division,R e se a rch and Developm ent D epartm ent, B illingham , T ee side,United Kingdom

Isotope Techniques L ab o rato ry , Drottning K ristin as Vag 4 5 -4 7 ,S - l l 4 28 Stockholm ,Sweden

D epartem ent des rad ioelem en ts,C entre de re ch e rch e s n u cle a ire s , S aclay , B . P . No. 2,91 -G if- su r-Y v e tte ,F ra n c e

D ire cto r of Radiation Safety,A tom ic E n erg y B ureau,Science and Technology Agency,No. 1 -2 -2 -c h o m e , K asum igaseki, Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo,Japan

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Subbaratnam , T . Bhabha A tom ic R e se a rch C entre, Health P h y sics Division, RHC Section, Bom bay,India

V agner, J . C zechoslovak A tom ic E n erg y C om m ission,

S lezska 9, P ra h a 2, C zechoslovakia

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

Shalmon, E .(C o-S cien tific S e cre ta ry )

E nviron m en tal Pollution,Division of Environm ental Health, W orld Health O rganization,1211 Geneva 27,Switzerland

OBSERVERS

H am ard, J . D epartem ent de p rotection , C o m m issaria t A l'en erg ie atom ique, P a r is 15e ,F ra n ce

Jahn, Dr. Z entralabteilung Forsch u n g sreak to ren der K ernforschungsanlage Ju lich ,

517 Ju lich ,F e d e ra l Republic of G erm any

Yuan, H. International A tom ic E n erg y A gency, Division of R e se a rch and L a b o ra to rie s , Vienna

SCIEN TIFIC S EC R ET A R Y

B ern ard o , B . C. International A tom ic E n erg y A gency, Division of N u clear Safety and

Environm ental P ro tectio n ,Vienna

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Pushing Section,

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INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA, 1974

PRICE, US $2.50 SUBJECT GROUP: IIAustrian Schillings 48,- Health, Safety and Waste Management/(£1.10; F.Fr.11,-; DM 7,.| Radiation Protection

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