52
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#50
;Dkfbs d08n
;"o{eQm ;fFuf5]
pk–dxflgb]{zs
s[i0fk|;fb 9'ª\ufgfpk;lrj
bofgfy zdf{k|d'v n]vf lgoGqs
;'/f]h/fh /fhsl0f{sf/l;lgo/ l8lehgn OlGhlgo/
lbJo]Zj/k|;fb >]i7jl/i7 cy{zf:qL
o; a'n]l6gdf ;dfj]z ePsf n]vx¿df JoQm ljrf/ Pjd\ wf/0ff
n]vssf lghL x'g\ . pQm ljrf/ tyf wf/0ffn] g]kfn ;/sf/, ef}lts
of]hgf tyf lgdf{0f dGqfno, zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefu jf
To; cGtu{tsf l8lehg sfof{nox¿ tyf sf7df8f}+ pkTosfsf gu/
ljsf; ;ldlt cflb lgsfox¿sf] gLlt Pjd\ wf/0ffnfO{ k|ltlglwTj
ub}{gg\ .
– ;Dkfbs d08n
;DkfbsLo
ljut jif{df em}F cfjf;, zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0fsf]
If]qdf eP u/]sf lqmofsnfkx¿nfO{ ;d]6L ;"rgfd"ns hfgsf/L
kf7s ;dIf k'¥ofpg] p2]Zon] zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f
ljefusf] cw{ jflif{s k|sfzg æzx/L ljsf;Æ sf] ljZj a;f]af;
lbj; ljz]iff° k|sfzg ul/Psf] 5 .
o; k|sfzgdf ;d]l6Psf ;fdu|L zx/L tyf cfjf; ljsf;sf]
If]qdf ;+nUg ljleGg ;/sf/L, u}/;/sf/L :yfgLo lgsfo k]zfut
tyf lghL If]qsf JolQm, ;+3;+:yfx¿nfO{ ;d]t dxTjk"0f{ x'g] g}
5 .
o; jif{ ;+o'Qm /fi6« ;+3 dfgj a;f]af; sfo{qmdn] ljZj
a;f]af; lbj; dgfpg "Cities : Magnets of Hope" cyf{t\ æzx/ M
cfzfsf] s]Gb|Æ sf] gf/f lbPsf] 5 . o; gf/fn] zx/L If]qx¿df
a9\bf] a;fO{+ ;/fO{Fsf] k|j[lQ tkm{ xfd|f] Wofg tfGg vf]h]sf] 5 .
/f]]huf/sf cj;/ tyf lzIff tyf :jf:Yoh:tf ;'ljwfx¿sf]
vf]hLdf xf]; jf u|fdL0f If]qdf ljBdfg u/LaLsf] sf/0fn] cyjf
xfd|f] b]zsf] ;Gbe{df xfn b]lvPsf] åGå / c;'/Iffh:tf sf/0fn]
xf];\ zx/L If]qx¿tkm{ a;fO{+ ;/fOF{ ug]{ k|j[lQ a9\bf] g} /x]sf] 5 . of]
s'/f xfd|f] b]zsf] ;Gbe{df dfq xf]Og ;+;f/s} ;Gbe{df plQs} nfu"
x'G5 .
o; ;Gbe{df cfly{s, ef}lts, ;fdflhs k"jf{wf/ tyf
jftfj/0fLo ljsf; cflbsf dfWodaf6 zx/L ljsf;sf ljljw
kIfx¿df pko'Qm /0fgLltsf] ljsf; ug'{ ;du| b]z ljsf;sf
kIfdf cfhsf] k|d'v cfjZostf x'g cfPsf] 5 . o; k|sfzgdf
;d]l6Psf ljljw n]vx¿n] zx/L ljsf;sf log} ljljw kIfx¿sf]
rrf{ u/]sf 5g\ .
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 53
;Gbe{ M cfjf;sf] clwsf/ – cf]d3/fgGb /fhf]kfWofo !
;dsfnLg g]kfnL jf:t'snfsf] ljsf;df zx/L
ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefusf] e"ldsf – lszf]/ yfkf #
hUuf PsLs/0f cfof]hgfdf k"jf{wf/ ljsf;sf] nflu lghL If]qsf] ;xeflutf –;'/]zk|sfz cfrfo{ ^
zx/ M cfzfsf] s]Gb| –lbJo]Zj/k|;fb >]i7 !)
g]kfnsf] æ/fli6«o ejg ;+lxtfÆ Ps lrgf/L –cd[tdfg t'nfw/ !#
cfjf; ljsf;sf lglDt lghL If]qsf] e"ldsf – a'l4gf/fo0f >]i7 !̂
zx/L jftfj/0f Joj:yfkg lgb]{lzsf –e"if0f t'nfw/ !(
Sustainable Development and Principles of Sustainability
in Urban Design - Surya B. Sangachhe 22
Cities of Hope -Dr.Jibgar Joshi 24
Kathmandu Roads: Pointing in the Right Direction - Amrit Siddhi Bajracharya 26
Electronic Governance for Strengthening Good Governance
- Suresh Dhoj Shrestha 29
Food Green City: A Way of Achieving Millennium
Development Goals in Nepal -Dr. Sunil Babu Shrestha 32
UN Habitat Day: Cities: Magnet of Hope
Regulating Growth of Cities to Achieve Human Security- Bijaya K. Shrestha, Ph. D. 34
Discipline in Urban Growth - V Rajgopalan 36
Kathmandu Valley: City of Hope and Despair - Ar. Sanjaya Uprety 38
Shelter for the Rural Poor: An Introduction -B.L. Shrestha 42
Satellite Town-Solutions to Subsidize the Overwhelming Cities-Roma Maiya Manandhar47
ljifo–;"rL
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 1
jt{dfg ljZjdf sl/a !) s/f ]8 JolQmx¿
3/af/ljxLg cj:yfdf hLjg ofkg ul//x]sf 5g\ .
To;}u/L k|To]s ^ hgfdf Ps hgf;+u cfjf; t 5, t/
kof{Kt dfgjf]lrt ;'ljwf pknJw 5}g . ;+o'Qm /fi6« ;+3sf]
Ps cWoogn] oL tYox¿nfO{ ;fj{hlgs u/]sf] xf] . o;n]
cfjf;df JolQmsf] clwsf/ / kx'+rsf] k|Tofe"ltnfO{
dxTjk"0f{ ljifosf] ¿kdf u|x0f ug{ cfjZos ePtkm{
O+lut u/]sf] 5 .
cfjf;sf] clwsf/sf] ;DaGwdf k|ToIf jf k/f]If k|efj
kfg]{ cGt/f{li6«o ;lGw, dxf;lGw nufot /fli6«o gLlt tyf
sfg"gL ;+/rgfx¿ ljBdfg 5g\ . cGt/f{li6«o :t/df
dfgjflwsf/sf] If]qdf sfo{/t The European Court ofHuman Rights tyf The UN Committee on Economic,Social and Cultural Rights, The UN Committee on theElimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination cflbn]
cfjf;sf] clwsf/nfO{ cf–cfk\mgf] If]qflwsf/leq ;dfj]z
ul/;s]sf] 5 .
UNCESCR sf] General Comment No. 4 n] lgDg
^ cj:yfdf cfjf;sf] clwsf/ :yflkt u/fpg sfg"gL
lkm/fbkq ;d]t bfo/ ug{ ;lsg] Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 M
– cfjf;af6 lgsfnf x'g;Sg] lgof]lht cfb]z la?4,
– cfjf;af6 sfg"g adf]lhd lgsfnf x'Fbf kof{Kt Ifltk"lt{
glbOPsf] lj?4,
– ef8f b/ jf cfjf;sf] dd{t ;DaGwdf tyf /Ëe]b jf
cGo s'g} lje]bk"0f{ sf/0f hgfO{ 3/ jf hUufwgLaf6
ePsf] kIfkftsf] lj?4,
– cfjf;df ;flwsf/ k|j]z ;DaGwdf x'g] e]befj lj?4,
– kof{Kt / :j:Yos/ ;]jf glbg] 3/wgL lj?4, /
– 3/af/ljxLgx¿sf] lg/Gt/ a9\bf] ;d:ofsf ;aGwdf
Joj:yf ug{ sfg"gL cfb]z hf/L u/fpg .
cfjf;sf] clwsf/ :jLsf/ ubf{ /fHon] ljBdfg
sfg"gL ;+/rgf adf]lhd ;Dk"0f{ gful/sx¿sf] nflu lgMz'Ns
cfjf;sf] Joj:yf ug'{kg]{ x'G5 ls eGg] ;f]r klg obfsbf
k|s6 ePsf] kfOG5 . t/ oyfy{ To;f] eg] xf]Og . /fHon]
cfjf; gLlt / cGo sfg"gL Joj:yfsf] dfWodaf6 ;a}sf]
nflu cfjf; k|fKt x'g ;Sg] jftfj/0f tof/ ul/lbg];Dd
xf] . tyflk lkmgn}08 h:tf s]xL d'n'sdf :yfgLo ;/sf/n]
c;Ifd kl/jf/x¿sf] nflu a;f]af;sf] k|aGw ug'{kg]{ Joj:yf
nfu" ul/Psf] 5 . lj3l6t ;f]leot ;+3df klg k|To]s
gful/ssf] nflu /fHon] g} cfjf;sf] ;'ljwf lbg] ;+j}wflgs
Joj:yf /x]sf] lyof] . t/ o:tf] Joj:yf /fHosf] lgldQ
afWofTds x'Fb}g .
g]kfnsf] /fli6«o cfjf; gLlt, @)%# n] ;f] gLltsf]
d"ne"t cjwf/0ffdf cGtlg{lxt lgb]{zs l;4fGtsf] ¿kdf
;Dk"0f{ hgtfsf] nflu cfwf/e"t cfjZostfsf] ¿kdf
cfjf;sf] kl/k"lt{ ug]{ ljifonfO{ cËLsf/ u/]sf] 5 . o;
gLltn] cfjf;nfO{ s]jn pkef]Uo j:t'sf] ¿kdf dfq
glnO{ /fi6«sf] cfly{s pTkfbgsf] cleGg cËsf] ¿kdf
dfGotf lbPsf] 5 . o;sf ;fy} ljkGg ju{sf] nflu cfjf;
Joj:yfsf] nflu s]xL dfqfdf ;/sf/L :t/af6 cg'bfg
pknJw u/fpg] Joj:yf ;d]t ;f] gLltdf /x]sf]n] /fHon]
cfkm"nfO{ cfjf;sf] clwsf/sf] kIfdf ;an ¿kdf k|:t't
u/]sf] :ki6 x'G5 .
cfjf;sf] clwsf/nfO{ JolQmsf] g};lu{s clwsf/sf]
¿kdf lnOP klg ;+;f/el/ ;a}eGbf a9L pNn+3g x'g]
dfgjflwsf/dWo] cfjf;sf] clwsf/ klg kb{{5 . ul/a
d'n'sx¿df o;sf] l:ylt eofjx 5, t/ ;DkGg / ljsl;t
d'n'sx¿df klg ;8sd} a;f]af; ug{ afWo ePsf
kl/jf/x¿ xfdLn] b]lvcfPs} 5f}+ . cfjf; ljxLgx¿sf]
t'ngfdf cfjf;sf] …wgLÚ x'g] ;f}efUo k|fKt u/]sfx¿n]
klg cToGt Go"g jf ;'ljwfljxLg cj:yfd} u'hf/f rnfpg
kl//x]sf] 5 .
cfjf; ;'ljwfsf] pkef]unfO{ d"ntM pQd, kof{Kt,
ckof{Kt / cfjf; ljxLg u/L rf/j6f cj:yfdf ljefhg
ug{ ;lsG5 . ;a}sf] nflu pQd cfjf;sf] l:ylt jf~5gLo
xf], tyflk Jofjxfl/s ¿kdf o;sf] kl/sNkgf ug{ ;ls+b}g .
ljZjsf] em08} cfwf hg;+Vof cBflk …ckof{KtÚ cfjf;d}
/dfpg afWo 5g\ . t;y{ cfk\mgf gful/sx¿nfO{ …kof{KtÚ
cfjf;sf] k|Tofe"lt u/fpg' /fHosf] bfloTj x'G5 .
dfgjf]lrt hLjg ofkgsf] nflu cTofjZos ;'ljwf ;lxtsf]
;Gbe{ M cfjf;sf] clwsf/
– cf]dw/fgGb /fhf]kfWofo
;x;lrj, ef}lts of]hgf tyf lgdf{0f dGqfno
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#2
cfjf;nfO{ …kof{KtÚ cfjf; eGg ;lsG5 . j:t'tM …kof{KtÚ
cfjf;sf] clwsf/ x/]s gful/ssf] hGdl;4 cfwf/e"t
clwsf/ xf] . o;sf] cefjdf dflg; ef}lts / dfgl;s
¿kdf :j:Yo /xg ;Sb}g . …ckof{KtÚ cfjf;sf] cj:yfdf
g t JolQmn] z}lIfs pGglt ug{ ;Sb5, g t ck]lIft
¿kdf cfk\mgf] j[lQljsf; g} . o; cltl/Qm cfjf;sf]
cefjnfO{ cfGtl/s åGå / kfl/jfl/s snxsf] k|d'v
sf/ssf] ¿kdf klg lng ;lsG5 .
jf:tjdf eGg] xf] eg] s]jn rf/j6f leQf / 5fgfn]
…kof{KtÚ cfjf;sf] dfkb08 k"/f x' Fb}g . cGt/f{li6«o
dfgjflwsf/ ;DaGwL sfg"gn] cfjf;sf] clwsf/nfO{
k|Tofe"t ug]{ ;Gbe{df cfjf;nfO{ …kof{KtÚ dfGgsf] nflu
k|d'v ¿kdf ljleGg ;ftj6f ;'ljwfx¿ pknAw x'g'kg]{
Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 M
-!_ ;]jf, ;fwg, ;'ljwf / k"jf{wf/sf] pknJwtf M lkpg
of]Uo kfgL, 9n lgsf;sf] Joj:yf, kof{Kt k|sfz,
xfjf, tfk, vfgf ksfpg] OGwg, vfB e08f/0f, kmf]x/
Joj:yfkg / cfsl:ds ;]jfsf] pknJwtf cfjf;df
x'g' kb{5 .
-@_ cfjf;Lotf M cfjf;df lgjf; ug]{ ;a}sf] nflu kof{Kt
:yfg pknJw x'g'sf ;fy} udL{, ;bL{, jiff{ tyf xfjfx'/L
h:tf k|fs[lts ljifdtfaf6 hf]lug] :jf:Yos/ /
;+/rgfTds b[li6n] ;'/lIft cfjf; x'g' kb{5 .
-#_ :jfldTj M cfjf; ;'ljwf pkef]u ug]{ JolQmn] To;sf]
lgjf{w ef]urng ug{ kfpg'k5{ . s;}nfO{ klg
-vf;u/L dlxnf / czQm tyf afnaflnsfsf] xsdf_
cfjf;af6 lgjf{;g gul/g] s'/fdf cfZj:t t'NofOPsf]
x'g'kb{5 .
-$_ cf}sft M k|To]s JolQm jf kl/jf/n] cfjf;Lo k|of]hgdf
ug]{ vr{n] cGo cfwf/e"t cfjZostfsf] k|flKtdf
k|lts"n k|efj kg'{ x'Fb}g . ;+;f/el/ g} cf}sft
adf]lhdsf] cfjf; pknJw u/fpg] sfo{ uDeL/
;d:ofsf] ¿kdf /x]sf] 5 . cJojl:yt j:tL jf
;'s'Daf;L j:tLsf] ljsf;sf] k|d'v sf/s g} cfly{s
cIfdtf xf] . ef8fsf] 3/df a:g]x¿sf] nflu klg
cfjf; ef8f Ps ;d:ofs} ¿kdf /xg] u/]sf] 5 .
-%_ kx'Fr M cfjf;df kx'Fr ;a}sf] nflu cTofjZos 5 .
zf/Ll/s ¿kdf czQm, j[4 jf pTkLl8t / blntx¿sf]
cfjf;df kx'FrnfO{ k|fyldstf lbOg' kb{5 . cfjf;
gLlt / sfg"gL ;+/rgfn] pko'Qm Joj:yf gu/];Dd
5'jf5't h:tf ljs[ltsf sf/0f cfjf;;Dd ;a}sf]
;dfg kx'Fr sfod x'g ;Sb}g .
-^_ cjl:ylt M cfjf;sf] cjl:ylt To;df lgjf; ug]{
;a}sf] nflu cToGt dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 . /f]huf/Lsf] cj;/,
:jf:Yo ;'ljwf, ljBfno / cGo ;fdflhs s]Gb|af6
cfjf;sf] cjl:ylt 6f9f x'g' x'Fb}g . ;fdfGotof k'gjf{;
u/fpFbf ;'ud 7fpFsf] ;§f l;Q} jf ;:tf]df hUuf
kfOg] k|b"lift If]qlt/ u/fpg] k|rng 5 . o;n] cfjf;sf]
kof{Kttfdf of]ubfg k'Ub}g .
-&_ ;fdflhstf M ;fdflhs ;+/rgf cg's"n ;f+:s[lts
;Gt'ngdf s'g} k|lts"n k|efj gkg]{ u/L a;f]af;
u/fpg' kg]{ x'G5 . ljBdfg ;f+:s[lts ljljwtfnfO{
k|f]T;fxg ug]{ t/ s'g} k|sf/sf] cfk;L dgd'6fj jf
ljå]if km}ng g;Sg] u/L cfjf; gLlt / sfo{qmdx¿
th'{df ug'{kb{5 .
cfjf;sf] clwsf/nfO{ ;DDffg ug{] Ifdtfsf] ljsf;
ug{ lk5l8Psf tyf lgd'vf ju{sf] nflu ;fd"lxs tyf
lskmfotL cfjf;sf] aGbf]j:t ug'{ cfjZos 5 . o;tkm{
cfjf; If]qdf nufgL ug]{ cfly{s tyf ljQLo ;+:yfx¿
vf;} pT;fxsf ;fy nfluk/]sf] kfOFb}g . cfjf;nfO{ Joj;fo
xf]Og, clwsf/sf] ¿kdf :yfkgf ug{' ;dosf] dfu xf] .
o; lgldQ cfjf; / zx/L ljsf;;+u ;Da4 ;+:yfx¿n]
cfjf; lgdf{0faf6 cTolws nfe dfq sdfpg] ;f]rdf
kl/jt{g Nofpg' k5{ . cfhsn k|rngdf /x]sf] tyfslyt
cf}sft cg';f/sf] (Affordable) cfjf; slt k|ltzt
g]kfnLsf] cf}sftleq kb{5, ;a}n] hfg] a'em]s} s'/f xf] .
To;}u/L, cfjf;df nufgL ug]{ ;+:yfx¿n] k|bfg ug]{ cfjf;
C0fsf] Go"gtd cÍ g} cfd g]kfnLsf] cf}sft aflx/ 5 eg]
To;dflysf] rsf]{ Aofhb/ / dx+uf] C0f :jLs[lt k|lqmofn]
cfd g]kfnLsf] kx'Fr To:tf] C0f;Dd k'Ug ;s]sf] 5}g .
cfjf; k|j4{gs} nflu eg]/ :yflkt sltko ;+:yfn] t zx/L
If]qd} klg ;8sn] g5f]Psf] hUufdf nufgL;Dd ub}{gg\ .
csf]{ s'/f, s]xL jf:t'ljb\x¿ lskmfotL / Go"g nfutsf] 3/
eGbf cfd g]kfnLsf] sNkgftLt l8hfOgsf] lxdfotL eP/
a;]sf] kfOG5 . oL ;a sf/0fx¿n] cfjf;sf] If]qdf x'g]
nufgL cGttM ;DkGg ju{s} lxtdf dfq eO/x]sf] 5 .
cfjf; lgdf{0f tyf hUuf ljsf;sf] sfo{df ljQLo
;+:yfx¿nfO{ C0f k|jfx ug{ k|f]T;flxt ug]{ gLlt /fli6«o
cfjf; gLltn] cËLsf/ u/]sf] 5 . ;f] gLltn] ;Lldt cfo
ePsf ju{sf] nflu ls:tfaGbLdf cfjf; pknJw u/fpg
C0f pknJw u/fpg] sfo{gLlt ;d]t to u/]sf] 5 .
Jojxf/df ;f] gLlt ck]lIft tj/n] lqmoflGjt x'g eg]
;ls/x]sf] 5}g .
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 3
g]kfnL jf:t'snfsf] ljsf;qmd
g]kfnL jf:t'snfsf] ljsf;qmdnfO{ s]nfpFb} hfFbf
xfdL lnR5jLsfn b]lv xfn;Ddsf] jf:t'snf;Dd k'Ub5f}+ .
lnR5jLsfnLg lznfn]v tyf rLlgofF ofqLsf] ofqf j0f{gdf
pNn]v ePsf] s}nfzs"6 ejg / dfgu[xsf] cjz]if gb]lvP
klg rf}yf] ztfAbLdf lgld{t rfFu'gf/fo0f dlGb/ ce}m xfd|f]
;fd' v8f /x]sf] 5 . O{6f, sf7 / 9'Fufsf] ;dfof]hg u/L
cToGt snfTds z}nLdf ag]sf] rfFu'gf/fo0fsf] dlGb/
g]kfnsf] Oltxf;df æ:j0f{sfnÆ dflgPsf] lnR5jLsfnsf]
jf:t'snfsf] clåtLo gd"gf xf] .
lnR5jLsfnLg jf:t'snf dNnsfndf uP/ cem
kl/is[t / Jofks aGof] . dNnsfndf ag]sf sf7df08f},
nlntk'/ / eQmk'/ zx/df /x]sf dlGb/, b/jf/, kf6L
kf}jf, 9'Ë]wf/fx¿ af/] cWoog ubf{ tL ;+/rgfx¿df qmdzM
gofF k|ljlwsf] k|of]u x'Fb} uPsf] b]lvG5 . ltgsf] lgdf{0fdf
k/Dk/fut ;fdu|Lsf] cltl/Qm kmnfd, tfdf / lzzfsf]
;d]t k|of]u ePaf6 dNn /fhfx¿ ef/tsf] ;dsfnLg
jf:t'snfaf6 klg k|efljt ePsf lyP eGg ;lsG5 .
zfxsfnsf] k"jf{4{sf] jf:t'snf dNnsfns} lg/Gt/tf
h:tf] b]lvP tfklg kl5 uP/ o'/f]k]nL z}nL lelqPsf] kfOG5 .
/f0f zf;gsf ;+:yfks h+uaxfb'/sf] o"/f]k e|d0fkl5 t
leS6f]l/ofnL jf:t'snfn] g]kfndf 7f8f] k|j]z kfPsf] xf]
h'g xg'dfg 9f]sfsf] u2La}7sdf b]Vg ;lsG5 . h+uaxfb'/sf]
zf;gsfn kl5 t pgsf efOx¿sf aLr ljzfn b/jf/x¿
agfpg] xf]8jfhL g} rNof] . a]nfot nufot cGo o"/f]k]nL
d'n'ssf ejgx¿sf] gSsn ub}{ /f0ff k|wfgdGqL / pgsf
zfvf–;Gtfgx¿n] 7"nf ;fgf b/jf/ agfpg yfn] . ltgsf]
l;sf] ub}{ /f0ffx¿sf ef/bf/ / gft]bf/x¿n] klg ;dfhdf
cfk\mgf] /jfkm b]vfpg cfk\mgf 3/x¿ agfpg yfn] .
dNnsfnLg jf:t'snfnfO{ cfk\mgf] ;+:sf/sf] ¿kdf lnPsf
g]kfnL sfnLu9x¿ klg ;do cg';f/ ?kfGt/0f x'Fb} o'/f]k]nL
z}nLsf ejg agfpg kf/Ët eP .
;dsfnLg g]kfnL jf:t'snfsf] ljsf;df
zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefusf] e"ldsf
– lszf]/ yfkf
pk–dxflgb]{zs
zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefu
/f0ff zf;gsf] cGTokl5 g]kfn aflx/L ljZjsf
nfuL v'nf eof] . /f0ffsfndf OlGhlgol/Ë k9\g ljb]z
uPsf Ol~hlgo/x¿n] ToxL a]nfb]lv g} cfk\mgf] sf}zn
b]vfpg yfln;s]sf lyP . ljb]zaf6 k9]/ cfpg]
Ol~hlgo/x¿n] cfw'lgs jf:t'snfsf ljleGg k|of]ux¿
ub}{ b]zsf ljleGg efudf ejgx¿ agfpg yfn] . /f0ffsfn
kl5 clwsf+z g]kfnL Ol~hlgo/x¿ ef/t tyf tTsfnLg
;f]leot ;+3af6 k9]/ cfPsf x'g\ . To;n] ubf{ ef/tsf]
cfw'lgs jf:t'snfsf] z}nL tyf k|ljlwsf] k|of]u x'g'
:jfefljs} xf] . To;}u/L tTsfnLg ;f]leot ;+3af6 k9]/
cfPsf g]kfnL Ol~hlgo/ tyf cfls{6]S6x¿n] b]zdf ljleGg
vfn] ejgx¿df cfk\mgf] zLksf] k|of]u ug{ yfn] . cf/=;L=;L=
k|ljlw;+u} z'? ePsf] ;dsfnLg g]kfnL jf:t'snf ljleGg
b]zaf6 k9]/ cfPsf g]kfnL Ol~hlgo/sf z}nL tyf k|ljlwsf]
k|of]uzfnf ag]sf] b]lvG5 . @))& ;fnb]lv @)!^ ;fn;Dd
ef/tLo z}nLn] k|efljt g]kfnsf] jf:t'snf To;kl5
a]nfot, cd]l/sf, :jL6\h/Nof08, Oh/fon, cli6«of,
hd{gLsf OlGhlgo/ / cfls{6]S6sf gjLgtd\ z}nLaf6
k|efljt ePsf] b]lvG5 . ljb]zL ;xof]u;+u} g]kfn lelqPsf
tL k|fljlwsx¿n] g]kfnsf ljleGg :yfgdf cf–cfk\mgf]
z}nLdf ejg agfP . pbfx/0fsf nflu :jL;x¿n] lh/Ldf,
cd]l/sgn] lslt{k'/ / l7dLdf, /l;ogn] hgsk'/df,
a]nfotLx¿n] w/fgdf, hfkfgLx¿n] l;Gw'nLdf ljleGg
cfof]hgf ;~rfngsf nflu ejg agfPsf 5g\ . kl5
pgLx¿;+u} sfd ug]{ g]kfnL cfls{6]S6 / Ol~hlgo/x¿n]
cGo ejgx¿df To:tf z}nLx¿ bf]xf]¥ofpg yfn]sf]
b]lvG5 . lj=;+= @)@% kl5 cf/=;L=;L= k|ljlwn] Jofkstf
kfPkl5 ;fj{hlgs ejgsf cltl/Qm lglh ejgsf] l8hfOg
z}nLljxLg aGg k'u]sf] b]lvG5 . ljleGg lsl;dsf k|of]u
ug]{ gfddf jf:t'snfsf df}lns l;4fGtsf kfngf gu/L
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#4
agfOPsf ejgx¿ g]kfnsf ljleGg zx/ / ufpFdf
e]l6G5g\ . a]9Ësf] l8hfOg / sd;n k|ljlwn] ubf{ tL
ejgx¿ hL0f{ ag]sf dfq xf]Ogg\ ls ltgn] cfk\mgf]
jl/kl/sf] jftfj/0fnfO{ ;d]t s'?k agfPsf 5g\ .
ejg ljefusf] pbo
rGb| zdz]/sf] kfnfdf æagfpg] c8\8fÆ af6 z'?
eO{ g]kfn ;/sf/sf] ljefu:t/sf] dfGotf kfPsf] ejg
ljefun] cfk\mgf ] :yfkgf sfnb]lv g} ;/sf/L /
cw{;/sf/L ejgx¿sf] lgdf{0fdf cfk\mgf] e"ldsf lgjf{x
ub}{ cfPsf] b]lvG5 . g]kfns} klxnf] cfls{6]S6 uËfw/
e§n] ejg ljefudf ;]jf k|j ]z u/]kl5 l;len
Ol~hlgo/x¿n] ;sL g;sL ejg l8hfOg ug'{kg] {
cj:yfdf ;'wf/ eO{ cfls{6]S6åf/f l8hfOg ug]{ / l;len
OlGhlgo/åf/f lgdf{0f ug]{ rng z'? eof] . lj=;+= @)#)
kl5 ejg ljefudf ef/t / ?;df k9]sf cfls{6]S6 /
OlGhlgo/x¿sf ] afx 'Notf x 'gyfNof ] . Psftk { m
cf/=;L=;L= k|ljlwsf] / csf]{tk{m xl/l;l4, eQmk'/ /
n ' lDjgLdf :yfkgf ePsf cfw ' lgs O {6f 6fon
sf/vfgfaf6 pTkflbt O{6fsf] Jofks k|of ]u ;+u}
;dsfnLg g]kfnL jf:t'snfn] sf]N6f] k]m/]sf] b]lvG5 .
ejg ljefudf Tolta]nf sfo{/t cfls{6]S6 pQd s[i0f
>]i7åf/f l8hfOg ul/Psf] lqe'jg ljdfg:ynsf]
cltljlzi6 sIf -le=cfO=lk=nfpGh_ / ;xsf/L k|lzIf0f
s]Gb|, TolQa]nf s} csf{ cfls{6]S6 gf/fo0f k|;fb
e§/fO{åf/f l8hfOg ul/Psf] s[lif ljsf; a}+ssf] s]lGb|o
sfof{no, k|f]=s]Ghf] 6fË]åf/f l8hfOg ul/Psf] / n'lDjgL
If]qdf lgdf{0f ul/Psf] ;+u|xfno cflbn] cGof]nsf]
l:yltdf /x]sf] ;dsfnLg g]kfnL jf:t'snfnfO{ Pp6f
lbzf lgb]{z ug{ ;xof]u k'¥ofPsf] kfOG5 . Tolt g}
a]nf ;+o'Qm /fi6« ;+3Lo ;xof]u sfo{qmd cGtu{t ejg
ljefudf sfo{/t cli6«og cfls{6]S6 sfn{k| ':rfn]
…rfOlgh O{6fÚ sf] k|of]u x'g]u/L l8hfOg u/]sf lq=lj=
xftf leqsf ;]8f ejg, 5fqfjf;, ;f+:s[lts s]Gb| tyf
tf/fufpF xf]6n cflb nufot /fhwfgLsf ljleGg 7fpFdf
lgdf {0f u/ ]sf lghL 3/x¿n] ;dsfnLg g]kfnL
jf:t'snfdf gofF cfofd yk]sf lyP . …rfOlgh O{6fÚ
nfO{ ejgsf] aflx/L uf/f]df Knfi6/ gu/L h:tfsf t:t}
k|of]u ug]{ rngsf] z'?jft ejg ljefuaf6} z'?jft
eO{ kl5 ;j{;fwf/0f hgtfn] ;d]t u|x0f u/]sf x'g\ .
ejg ljefusf] kl/jlt{t e"ldsf
b]ze/sf ;Dk"0f{ ;/sf/L / cw{;/sf/L ejgx¿sf]
l8hfOg tyf lgdf{0f ug]{ lhDd]jf/L kfPsf] ejg ljefusf]
sfo{If]q lj:tf/ x'Fb} uO{ zx/ lgdf{0f ug]{ tyf ljleGg
;f+:s[lts tyf wfld{s If]qsf] ;+/If0f ug]{ sfo{ ;d]t ;f]
ljefun] x]g]{ u/L lhDd]jf/L tf]lsof] . tTkZrft ljefusf
cg'ejL cfls{6]S6x¿ gofF zx/x¿sf] ef}lts of]hgf th'{df
sfo{df Jo:t x'gyfn] . h;n]ubf{ jf:t'snf ljsf;df
ljefusf] Wofg kof{Kt ¿kdf k'Ug ;s]g . ToxL ;dodf
b]zsf ljsf; cfof]hgfdf ljb]zL ;xof]u lelqg yfn]kl5
ljleGg dGqfno tyf ljefusf ejgx¿sf] l8hfOg ug]{
sfd ljb]zL k/fdz{bftf / ltgsf ;dsIfL g]kfnL
k/fdz{bftfaf6 x'gyfNof] . ljleGg sf/0f b]vfO{ ejg
ljefunfO{ ;f] sfo{af6 jl~rt ug]{ k|of; ul/of] . ahf/df
:jb]zL k/fdz{bftf cfls{6]S6 ;lhn} pknAw x'g] ePkl5
ejg lgdf{0fdf pgLx¿sf] ar{:j sfod x'g' :jefljs}
xf] . ljsf; sfo{df lghL If]q cu|;/ x'g' pT;fxk|b s'/f
xf] t/ b]zdf s:tf] jf:t'snfnfO{ k|j4{g ug'{ plrt x'G5
eGg] ljifodf gLlt lgdf{0f ug]{ / s]xL gd"gf ejgx¿
agfP/ b]vfpg] sfo{ eg] ejg ljefus} xf] . ljz]ifu/L
@)$% ;fnsf] dxfe"sDk kl5 ljefusf] Wofg ejg lgdf{0f
;+lxtf tof/ u/L nfu' ug]{ tk{m s]lGb|t /x]sf] b]lvG5 .
ljefusf] Ps c+z cfjf; tyf zx/L ljsf; ljefu ag]kl5
cfjf; / zx/L ljsf; ;f] ljefun] x]g{yfNof] . Pp6} If]qdf
b'O{ ljefu k|zf;lgs ¿kdf rNg g;s]kl5 @)%* ;fndf
To;nfO{ k'gM Pp6} agfO{ cfhsf] cj:yfdf cfPsf] 5 .
;dsfnLg g]kfnL jf:t'snf / zx/L ljsf;
tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefu
k'gu{l7t zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefun]
ejg lgdf{0f cfjf; / zx/L ljsf; nufot wfld{s
;f+:s[lts If]qsf] ljsf;sf] lhDd]jf/L lnPsf] 5 . k|:t't
n]v ;dsfnLg g]kfnL jf:t'snfdf s]lGb|t ePsf]n] To;
If]qdf ljefusf] e"ldsfsf] dfq rrf{ ug'{ k|f;+lus xf]nf .
g]kfnL jf:t'snf ljut tLg bzssf] cGof}nsf]
l:yltaf6 u'h|b} clxn] cfP/ Pp6f lbzf ;dft]sf] cj:yfdf
5 . afGsL gk/]sf, s'?k Pj+ gfk gS;f gldn]sf ejgx¿n]
zx/L jftfj/0f lau|]sf] b]v]kl5 ;r]t gful/sx¿ / s]xL
jf:t'ljbx¿sf] cys k|of; kl5 df}lns g]kfnL z}nLsf]
vf]hL x'g yfn]sf] xf] . g]kfnL z}nLsf gfddf hyfefjL
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 5
Kofuf]8f /fVg] rngn] g]kfnL z}nLs} pkxf; u/]sf] xfdLn]
b]v]s} xf}+ . hd{g ;xof]udf ;~rflnt eQmk'/ ljsf;
kl/of]hgf cGtu{t w]/} d7 dlGb/x¿sf] lh0ff]{4f/ ePkl5
g]kfnL jf:t'ljb\ / sfnLu9x¿n] cfk\mgf] xf]z v'n]sf]
cg'ej u/]sf x'g\ . ejg ljefuåf/f g} sfof{Gjog ul/Psf]
pQm kl/of]hgf kl5uP/ ;+;f/e/ g} k|Voft aGgk'Uof] /
To;n] sf7df08f} pkTosf nufot b]zsf cGo efudf
k'/fgf ejgx¿nfO{ gofF ?k lbg k|]l/t u¥of] . clxn]
h;/L ;dsfnLg g]kfnL jf:t'snf kl/kSjtf tk{m cl3
a9\b} 5, To;n] xfd|f] pHjn eljiotk{m ;+s]t u/]sf] 5 .
jt{dfg cj:yfdf zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f
ljefuåf/f b]ze/L :jf:Yo sfof{nox¿, c:ktfn, :jf:Yo
tfnLd s]Gb| / cfjf; u[x lgdf{0f ug]{ j[xt\ ejg lgdf{0f
cfof]hgf ;~rflnt 5 . To;}u/L cbfnt ejgx¿,
Ifltu|:t ;/sf/L ejgx¿ tyf l;+xb/jf/ ;lrjfno
leq dGqfno ejgx¿ lgdf{0f ug]{ sfo{ klg eO/x]sf
5g\ . of] ljefu ejg lgdf{0f If]qsf] cu|0fL lgsfo / ky
k|bz{s ePsf] x'Fbf /fi6«n] pRr:t/sf ejgx¿sf] ck]Iff
u/]sf] x'G5 . To;sf ;fy} lghL k/fdz{bftfx¿, lgdf{0f
Joj;foLx¿ / jf:t'snfsf ljBfyL{x¿n] ;d]t of]
ljefuaf6 s]xL gd"gf ejgx¿sf] ck]Iff u/]sf x'G5g\.
kl/df0fsf b[li6n] ljefun] b]zel/ w]/} ejgx¿sf] lgdf{0f
ul//x]sf] eP tfklg u'0ffTds b[li6n] pTs[i6 ejgx¿
/fi6«nfO{ ;'lDkg afFsL g} 5 .
lgisif{{ {{ {
;dsfnLg g]kfnL jf:t'snfsf] ljsf;df zx/L
ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefusf] cu|0fL e"ldsf ePsf]
x'Fbf o; ljefun] lgdf{0f ug]{ 7"nf ;fgf ;a} ejgx¿df
pTs[i6 jf:t'snf / lgdf{0f k|ljlw emlNsg' kb{5 . To;}u/L
7fpF ;'xfpFbf] l8hfOg / cfw'lgs lgdf{0f ;fdu|L / lgdf{0f
k4ltsf] k|of]u klg Jofjxfl/s ?kn] x'Fb} hfg' kb{5 .
ljz]ifu/L of] ljefusf o'jf jf:t'ljb\x¿n] Pp6f lglZrt\
z}nLsf] cjnDag ub}{ ejg lgdf{0f u/]df s]xL jif{df g}
;f] z}nLsf] cg's/0f u/L lghL If]q / ;j{;fwf/0f hgtfnfO{
;d]t dfu{bz{g x'g]5 .
z'e–ljhof bzdL @)^# sf] ;'vb\ cj;/df
;':jf:Yo, bL3f{o' Pj+ ;'v–;d[l4sf]
xflb{s dª\udno z'esfdgf JoQm ub{5f}+ .
zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefu, kl/jf/
aa/dxn, sf7df8f}+
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#6
!= hUUff PsLs/0fsf] kl/efiff
hUuf PsLs/0f zx/L hUuf ljsf; ug]{ Pp6f k|s[of
xf] . h; cGtu{t cfjf;of]Uo If]qdf /x]sf cfsf/ gldn]sf
ef}lts k"jf{wf/sf] ;'ljwf gk'u]sf ljleGg hUufwgLx¿sf
hUufnfO{ Plss[t u/L ;'ljwfo'Qm cfjf;of]Uo 38]/Lsf]
¿kdf ljsl;t ul/G5 . gofF gS;f tof/ u/L k|To]s hUuf
wgL÷df]xLsf lsQfx¿nfO{ Joj:yfkg u/L af6f], 9n lgsf;,
vfg]kfgL, lah'nL cflbsf] ;'ljwfx¿ k'¥ofO{ ljsl;t
38]/Lsf ¿kdf k'gM ;fljs s} hUufwgL÷df]xLnfO{ lkmtf{
lbOG5 / ;]jf ;'ljwf k'¥ofOlbP jfkt k|To]s lsQfaf6
s]xL of]ubfg s§f u/L of]ubfg jfktsf] hUufaf6 k"jf{wf/sf]
ljsf; ul/G5 . o; k|sf/ hUuf wgLn] kfpg] ljsl;t
38]/L ;'ljwfo'Qm cfjf; of]Uo x'G5g\ . t/ If]qkmn ;fljssf]
eGbf 36\5 / of] 36\g] k|lqmof hUufwgLx¿ s} ;xdltdf
of]hgf If]qdf k'¥ofOg] ;]jf ;'ljwfsf] cfwf/df to ul/G5 .
o; k|sf/ 36\g] hUufaf6 of]hgf If]qdf af6f], v'Nnf If]q
/ ;fj{hlgs ;]jf ;'ljwfx¿sf] nflu Joj:yf ul/G5 .
;fy} pQm ;]jf ;'ljwfsf] ljsf;sf] nflu nfUg] vr{ ;d]t
o;/L k|fKt of]ubfgsf] hUuf ljqmL u/L nfut c;'nL
ul/G5 .
o;k|sf/ hUUff PsLs/0fsf] k|s[of cfkm}df Pp6f
hl6n k|s[of xf] . lsgeg] hUuf ljsf;sf] of]hgf agfP/
k|To]s hUufwgLaf6 of]ubfg s§f u/]/ ljsl;t 38]/L
lrQ a'em\bf] 9+uaf6 lkmtf{ ug{sf nflu lgs} k|of; ug'{ kg]{
x'G5, k|fljlws ?kn] ;fy} Joj:yfksLo Ifdtfsf] k|of]usf]
?kn] . zx/L If]qsf hUufx¿ s[lifof]Uoaf6 cfjf;Lo
k|of]hgsf nflu kl/jt{g x'g] k|s[of lg/Gt/ rln/xg]
k|s[of xf] . t/ of] pkof]u kl/jt{g cJojl:yt 9Ën] x'Fbf
af6f], 9n, cflbsf] Joj:yf k'¥ofpg sl7gfO{ x'G5 . af6f];+u
hf]l8Psf hUufn] ;lhn};+u ;]jf ;'ljwf kfPsf x'G5g\ eg]
leqL hUufx¿df ;]jf ;'ljwf k'¥ofpg lgs} sl7gfO{ x'G5 .
o:tf] k|lqmofn] cJojl:yt a:tL lj:tf/ x'g uO{
zx/Ls/0fnfO{ clgolGqt / s'?k agfO{ lbG5 . zx/L
hghLjg emg\ emg\ si6do x'g hfG5 . ;/sf/sf] ;Lldt
;|f]tn] ef}lts k"jf{wf/ kof{Kt dfqfdf k'¥ofpg sl7gfO{
hUuf PsLs/0f cfof]hgfdf k"jf{wf/ ljsf;sf] nflu lghL
If]qsf] ;xeflutf
– ;'/]zk|sfz cfrfo{
;'kl/g6]G8]G6 OlGhlgo/
l8lehg sfof{no, sf7df8f}+
eO/x]sf] cj:yfdf hUuf PsLs/0fsf] k|lqmofåf/f ;/n /
;xh 9+un] ef}lts k"jf{wf/sf] ljsf; ug{ ;lsG5 .
@= k'jf{wf/ ljsf;sf] k|s[of M
hUuf PsLs/0f cfof]hgf k"jf{wf/ ljsf;sf] of]hgf
tof/ ug{ ;j{k|yd hUUffwgLx¿sf] ;xdlt lng' kg]{ x'G5 .
hUufwgLsf] ;xdlt lng] sfo{ pkef]Qmf ;ldlt÷;xof]u
;ldltsf] dfWodaf6 cfof]hgf k|d'vn] 5nkmn u/]/ dfq
lg0f{odf k'Ug' k5{ . o;sf nflu lgDg ljlwx¿ ckgfOG5M
-s_ of]ubfg u0fgf ug]{ M of]ubfg u0fgf ug{sf nflu ;j{k|yd
cfof]hgfsf] s"n If]qkmn of]hgf:yndf gfkL u/]/
lgsflnG5 . To;kl5 of]hgf:yn leq slt rf}8fOsf]
af6f] sxfFaf6 lgsfNg] < To;sf] af/]df gS;f tof/
ul/G5 . ;Dk"0f{ of]hgf:yndf af6f]sf] k|:tfljt ;+hfn
sf] gSzf tof/ u/]kl5 af6f]sf] nflu cfjZos kg]{
If]qkmn u0fgf ul/G5 . cfof]hgf If]qdf v'Nnf If]q,
;fj{hlgs kfs{sf] nflu slt If]qkmn /fVg] < sxfF
/fVg] < Tof] to ul/G5 . cfof]hgf If]qdf lgdf{0f ul/g]
kjf{wf/ h:t} af6f], 9n lgdf{0f cflb / Joj:yfksLo
vr{ hf]8/ s"n nfutsf] u0fgf ul/G5 . To;kl5
cfof]hgfsf] / jl/kl/sf] If]qdf af6f], 9n cflbsf]
;'ljwf k|fKt 38]/L s] slt d"Nodf ljlqm eO/x]sf] 5 <
To;sf] d"Nosf] cfwf/df cfof]hgfsf] k"jf{wf/ ljsf;sf]
s"n nfut c;'nL ug{ slt If]qkmn hUuf ljlqm ug'{kg]{
x'G5 < To;sf] u0fgf ul/G5 . of] nfut c;'nL ug]{
If]qkmn -ljlqm Kn6_, af6f] / v'Nnf If]qsf] nflu cfjZos
If]qkmn hf]8]/ hUUffwgLn] ug'{ kg]{ of]ubfg lgsflnG5 .
cfof]hgf If]q leq ;/sf/L P]nfgL, klt{ hUufx¿ ePsf]
7fpFdf of] of]ubfg 36\g klg ;S5 . o;/L of]ubfgsf]
If]qkmnnfO{ ;dfg'kflts 9Ën] k|To]s lsQfdf afF8]/
k|ltztsf] cfwf/df of]ubfg u0fgf ul/G5 .
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 7
-v_ ljsl;t 38]/Lsf] gSzf tof/ ug]{ M pkef]Qmfx¿af6
of]ubfgsf] 6' +uf ] nfu]kl5 k|To]s hUufwgLsf]
lsQfx¿nfO{ ;+ej eP;Dd PsLs[t u/L of]ubfg
s§f u/L k'gM gofF gfkL gS;f tof/ ul/G5 . o;/L
gofF If]qkmn ePsf] nut tof/ ul/G5 . of] gofF gS;f
tyf gofF hUufsf] clen]vnfO{ k|fljlwsåf/f lkmN8df
r]s u/L gofF gfkL gS;f tof/ u/L ljsl;t 38]/L
;DalGwt hUuf wgL÷df]xLnfO{ lkmtf{ lbOG5 .
-u_ k"jf{wf/sf] ljsf; ug]{ M– of]ubfgaf6 k|fKt If]qkmnaf6
af6f ] , v ' Nnf If ]q tyf ;fj {hlgs If ]qx¿
hUufwgLx¿;Fu 5nkmn u/L gofF gS;fdf Kn6 ul/G5 .
nfut c;'nLsf] nflu 5'6\ofOPsf Kn6x¿ ljlqm ug'{
cl3 k"jf{wf/sf] ljsf; ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . lsgeg] k"jf{wf/
ljsf; gu/L Kn6 ljlqm ubf{ d"No sd cfpg] eO{
nfut c;'nL d} k|lts"n c;/ kg{ hfG5 . To;sf/0f
k"jf{wf/sf] ljsf; sfo{ ug{sf nflu ljQLo ;+:yfx¿af6
Aofh ltg]{ u/L C0f lnP/ sfo{ ug'{ afx]s csf]{ ljsNk
/xFb}g . k"jf{wf/sf] ljsf; sfo{ z'? e};s]kl5 dfq
nfut c;'nL ug]{ Kn6 ljlqm u/L ;f]wegf{ ug{ ;lsG5 .
hUuf PsLs/0f cfof]hgf ;+rfng ug{ of] cj:yfdf
lgs} 7"nf] ljQLo ;+s6 cfpF5 . ljQLo;|f]tsf] ;do d}
Joj:yf ug{ g;Sbf of]hgfsf] sfo{ l9nf] x'g hfG5 /
of]hgf ;+rfng e} k|lts"n c;/ kg{ hfG5 .
#= k"jf{wf/ ljsf;df lghL If]qsf] ;xeflutf M
#=! ;fd"lxs cfjf;÷;+o'Qm cfjf; lgdf{0f ug]{
sDkgLnfO{ ;xeflu u/fP/M
xfn s]xL aif{b]lv sf7df8f+} pkTosfdf ;fd"lxs÷
;+o'Qm cfjf;sf] nx/ g} rn]sf] 5 . o:tf] cfjf;sf]
Joj:yf u/L ljlqm ljt/0f ug]{ sfo{n] lgs} nf]slk|otf
kfpg yfn]sf] 5 . lsgeg] cfjf;Lo ejg v/Lbstf{n]
hUuf v/Lb ug]{ / ejg lgdf{0f ug]{ b'j} k|sf/sf em+em6af6
d'lQm kfPsf] x'G5 . ljb]zdf sfd ug]{ JolQmx¿sf nflu
sf7df8f+}df 3/ agfpg] rfxgf o:tf sDkgLx¿n] k"/f
ul/lbPsf 5g\ . t/ o:tf ;fd"lxs÷;+o'Qm cfjf; lgdf{0f
ug]{ sDkgLx¿sf nflu Plss[t ¿kdf 7"nf] If]qkmn hUuf
vfnL kfpg lgs} sl7g xF'b} u}/x]sf] 5 . ;]jf ;'ljwf k'u]sf]
:yfgdf t 7"nf] If]qkmnsf] vfnL hUuf kfpg cfkm}df lgs}
g} ufx|f] sfo{ xf] . t/ hUuf PsL/s0f cfof]hgfn] nfut
c;'nLsf] nflu 5'6\ofOPsf hUufx¿ PsLs[t u/L 7"nf]
Kn6 agfO{ o:tf cfjf; sdkgLx¿nfO{ ljqmL ljt/0f ug{
;s]df cfof]hgfnfO{ klg Psd'i6 7"nf] /sd k|fKt x'g] /
cfjf; sDkgLnfO{ klg hUuf k|fKt ug{' ;/n / ;'ud x'g]
b]lvG5 . o:tf ljlqm Kn6x¿ ;fgf ;fgf If]qkmnsf] ePklg
nufgLstf{n] k"jf{wf/ ljsf; geP/ nufgL ug{ cK7\of/f]
dfGg ;S5 . t/ cjf; sDkgLn] o:tf] hUuf Ps} 7fpFdf
kfpg] ;Defjgf ePdf t'?Gt} nufgL ug{ ;S5 . o;
k|sf/ cfof]hgfn] z'?d} /sd k|fKt ug{ ;S5 / k"jf{wf/sf]
ljsf; ug{ cfly{s ;d:of kb}{g . o; k|sf/ cfof]hgf
k"jf{wf/ ljsf;sf] sfo{qmd nfutdf g} ;DkGg ug{ ;Sg]
;Defjgf x'G5 .
t/ o;/L ljlqm of]Uo Kn6x¿ Ps 7fpFdf /fvL 7"nf]
Kn6 agfpFbf clwsf+z lsQfx¿ cfkm\gf] ;fljssf] :yfgaf6
;g'{kg]{ x'G5 . o;sf] nflu hUufwgLx¿sf] ;xdlt cfjZos
kb{5 . t/ cfof]hgfsf] lxtsf] b[li6sf]0fn] cToGt pkof]uL
x'G5 .
o; k|sf/ nfut c;'nLsf] nflu 5'6\ofOPsf]
If]qmkmnnfO{ PsLs[t u/L Ps} 7fpFdf ;fd"lxs cfjf;sf]
nflu kof{Kt x'g] lsl;dn] /fVgsf] nflu hUuf wgLx¿sf]
;xdltsf] cfjZostf x'G5 . o; k|sf/sf] k|lqmofsf] nflu
hUuf Plss/0fsf] ;+rfng k|lqmofdf klg s]xL ;+zf]wg
x'g' kg]{ b]lvG5 .
#=@ :yfgLo lgsfon] ;'?df nufgL u/L kl5 nfut
c;'nL ug]{ M–
o; k|s[ofdf :yfgLo lgsfo -gu/kflnsf÷uf=lj=;=_
n] cfkm\gf] If]qdf ePsf cfof]hgfdf k"jf{wf/sf] ljsf;df
;'?d} s]xL nufgL ug]{ / Tof] nufgL pQm cfof]hgf If]qdf
ejg lgdf{0f x'Fbf gSzf kf;df yk b:t'/ /fvL c;'npk/
ug]{ . of] k|s[ofdf cfof]hgfsf] s]xL k"jf{wf/sf] nflu nufgL
u/L c;'npk/ ug{ ;lsG5 . of] k|s[ofn] hUufwgLx¿sf]
;'?d} of]ubfg sd x'g hfG5 / of]hgf ;kmn x'g] ;Defjgf
a9\5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s'g} !))) j6f 38]/L ePsf]
of]hgf :yndf :yfgLo lgsfon] @),)),))).– nufgL
u/]/ ;8s lgdf{0f u/]5 . of]hgf ;DkGg ePsf] @ jif{leq
%) k|ltzt 38]/Ldf ejg lgdf{0f eP5 eg] k|To]s ejgaf6
$,))).– sf b/n] gSzf kf; ubf{ yk b:t'/ lnO{
@),)),))).– c;'n ug{ ;lsG5 . afFsL %) k|ltztaf6
k|fKt x'g] /sdn] ;f] If]qdf cGo k"jf{wf/sf] ljsf; ug{sf
nflu cfjZos ljQLo ;|f]t tof/ ug{ ;lsG5 . of] k|lqmofsf]
nflu z'?d} Psd'i6 7"nf] nufgL ug{ kof{Kt ah]6 x'g' k5{ .
Tof] ah]6 vr{ ug{ pko'Qm sfg"gL cfwf/ ePdf dfq
;lhnf] u/L nufgL ug{ ;lsG5, cGoyf Jofjxfl/s hl6ntf
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#8
pTkGg x'g ;S5 . t/ o;/L z'?df nufgL ug]{ xf] eg]
;DalGwt :yfgLo lgsfo;+u cfof]hgf If]qdf w]/} ejgx¿sf]
lgdf{0f sfo{ z'? ePkl5 7"nf] ljQLo ;|f]tsf] l;h{gf x'g ;Sg]
k|z:t ;Defjgf x'G5 . o; k|sf/sf] Joj:yfn] cfof]hgf
;DkGg eO{ ;s]kl5 dd{t ;Def/sf] nflu ;d]t cfjZos
;|f]t kl/rfng ug{ ;lsG5 .
#=# v'Nnf If]qsf] Joj:yfkg M–
hUuf PsLs/0f cfof]hgfx¿df v'Nnf If]qsf] plrt
;+/If0f gx'Fbf sltko cfof]hgfx¿ TolQs} c:tJo:t /x]sf]
kfOG5 . o:tf v'Nnf If]qnfO{ g;{/L ljsf; ug{ lnhdf
lbP/ cGo k"jf{wf/sf] ljsf;df of]ubfg k'¥ofpg ;lsG5 .
To:t} v'nf If]qnfO{ t/sf/L ahf/, :jLldª k'n÷v'Nnf
d~rsf] ¿kdf ljsl;t u/]/ /fd|f] cfo cfh{g ug{ ;lsG5 .
o:tf] cfonfO{ cfof]hgfsf] k"jf{wf/ ljsf;df nufgL ug{
;lsG5 . uf]+ua' hUuf PsLs/0f cfof]hgfdf of] k|of]u
ePsf] 5 . v'Nnf If]qsf] j}slNks k|of]usf nflu hUuf
wgLx¿sf] ;xdlt cfjZos x'G5 . ;fy} sfg"gL dfGotf
;d]t kfpg' h?/L x'G5 .
#=$ k"jf{wf/ ljsf; ug{nfO{ ljsl;t 38]/L e'QmfgL ug]{
hUuf PsLs/0f cfof]hgfsf] cfo;|f]t eg]sf] g}
ljsl;t 38]/L xf] . o:tf cfof]hgfsf] ef}lts k"jf{wf/
ljsf; ubf{ nfUg] vr{ jfkt ljsl;t 38]/L kfpg] u/L
lgdf{0f sfo{sf] Joj:yfkg ug{ ;lsG5 . o;/L e'QmfgL
ug]{ ljsl;t 38]/Lsf] d"No clnslt ;x'lnot b/ x'gf;fy
sfd ug]{ lgdf{0f Joj;foLnfO{ cfslif{t ug{ ;lsG5 . o;
cfof]hgfnfO{ ;'?d} 7"nf] wg/flz Aofh ltg]{ u/L C0f lng'
kg]{ x'Fb}g . h;n] ubf{ nfut 36\g hfG5 / hUufwgLx¿sf]
;xdlt h'6fpg ;lhnf] x'G5 . uf]lks[i0f hUuf PsLs/0f
cfof]hgfdf o; k|sf/sf] k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
$= pk;+xf/ M–
hUuf PsLs/0f cfof]hgfx¿ ;+rfng ubf{ pTkGg
;d:ofx¿ dWo] ljQLo ;|f]tsf] pknlAw klg k|d'v xf] .
hUufwgLx¿;+u ;xdlt kZrft\ htL l56f] cfof]hgfsf]
k"jf{wf/ ljsf; ug{ ;lsG5 Tolt g} cfof]hgfsf] nfut
klg sd x'G5 / hUufwgL;Fu ;xdlt h'6fpg Tolt g}
;lhnf] x'G5 . k"jf{wf/sf] lgdf{0f sfddf l9nfO x'Fbf z'?df
;xdlt lbPsf hUufwgLx¿n] ;d]t lj/f]wsf] l:ylt l;h{gf
ub{5g\ . dfly plNnlvt ljleGg tl/sfx¿ ckgfO{ lghL
If]qsf] ;xeflutfåf/f k"jf{wf/ ljsf;sf] nflu cfjZos
;|f]t h'6fpg ;lsg] k|z:t ;Defjgfx¿ 5g\ . cfof]hgf
k|s[lt cg';f/ s'g} Ps jf b'O{ jf ;f] eGbf a9L tl/sfx¿
kfgL Pp6} cfof]hgfdf nfu' u/L ljsf; lgdf{0fsf] sfd
u/fpg ;lsG5 . o:tf sfo{x¿ ug{sf nflu Joj:yfkg
pk;ldlt tyf cfof]hgf k|d'vnfO{ sfg"gL clwsf/x¿
lbOg' h?/L b]lvG5 . zx/L hUuf eg]sf] cfkm} Pp6f 7"nf]
;|f]t xf] . o;sf] plrt Joj:yfkg u/]df ef}lts k"jf{wf/
ljsf; ug{ ;3fp k'Ug uO{ zx/L ljsf;d} dxTjk"0f{
e"ldsf v]Ng ;lsG5 .
sf7df8f}+ pkTosf leq /x]sf hUuf Plss/0f cfof]hgfdf ef}lts k"jf{wf/sf] l:ylt -;DkGg cfof]hgfx¿_
l; =g= cfof]hgfsf] gfd If]qkmn-x]=_ ; 8ssf] nDafO{ ls=dL=
9n lgsf; ls=dL=
v'Nnf If]q -x]=_
cfj f; Lo 38]/L ; Vof nfut c; 'nL s}lkmot
1. u++ua' 14.33 5.941 10.3 0.716 406 6,98,29,599 sf=lh=
2. n'e' 13.50 3.705 6.0 0.580 243 1,81,61,345 n=k'=lh=
3. sdn ljgfos 7.32 3.200 4.90 0.304 205 86,40,000 e=lh=
4. afUdtL kmfF6 9.80 9.410 2.50 - 560 95,89,772 n=k'=lh=
5. lnjfnL 33.45 8.850 9.41 1.17 770 6,23,29,756 e=lh= 6. l;G6L6f/ 27.50 8.732 8.85 0.935 920 8,74,92,325 e=lh= 7. ;}+a'= 24.58 10.250 17.4 3.178 800 29,62,56,776 n=k'=lh=
8. 8Nn' 20.00 7.00 6.95 1.40 750 10,74,89,473 sf=lh= 9. gofF ahf/ 44.25 17.20 23.00 1.60 1312 27,77,78,835 sf=lh= 10. rfjlxn uf]kLs[i0f 10.88 4.137 4.137 0.417 292 7,24,56,989 sf=lh= 11. l;gfd+un-k|yd_ 35.97 11.724 11.724 1.978 1074 10,91,29,818 sf=lh= 12. sLlt{k'/-k|yd_ 5.181 2.200 2.200 0.25 300 3,35,19,238 sf=lh=
hDdf 246.761 92.34 107.37 12.318 7320 1,15,26,73,926
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 9
gofF cfof]hgfx?sf l; =g= cfof]hgfsf] gfd If]qkmn -x]=_ 38]/ L ; +Vof 1. afUdtLgu/ 63.269 2800
2. sd]/f]6f/ 45.720 2520
3. rMdtL 73.152 3170
4. dgf]x/f kmfF6 90.119 -
5. wf]jLvf]nf s/L8/ - -
6. t'd'rf] b'u'/] rf]vf 30.48 1500
7. afudtL kmfF6 -bf];|f]_ 7.112 -
8. l;gfd+un -bf];|f]_ 11.43 -
9. Or+u'gf/fo0f 30.835 -
10. sLlt{k'/ -bf;|f]_ 46.380 -
sf7df8f}+ pkTosf leq /x]sf hUuf PsLs/0f cfof]hgfx¿ M
cfof]hgfx? Mcfof]hgfx? Mcfof]hgfx? Mcfof]hgfx? Mcfof]hgfx? M
Source : Land Pooling Projects as a tool for financing Urban Infrastructure in Kath Valley : By Dr. Jibgar Joshi,Mr. S.B. Sangachhe
hfgsf/Lsf7df8f}+ pkTosfsf] cfwf/ gS;fx¿sf] k|ltlnlk Pj+ l8lh6n
kmfonx¿ zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefu, l8lehg sfof{no
sf7df8f}+ -kmf]g g+=M $@^@$)*, $@^@*#%_ n],
lgDg b/–/]6df ljqmL ljt/0f ub}{ cfPsf]
hfgsf/L u/fOG5M
!_ A-1 cfsf/sf] gS;fsf] k|ltlnk – ?= !)).– k|lt ;]6
@_ l8lh6n kmfonM – ?= &)).– k|lt l;6
– ?= %)).– k|lt l;6 -ljBfyL{nfO{_
– cd]l/sL 8n/ !%.– k|lt l;6 -ljb]zLnfO{_
-cfjZos l;=l8= l8:s eg] vl/bstf{n] g} Nofpg' kg]{5_
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#10
;g\ @))! sf] /fli6«o hgu0fgf cg';f/ g]kfnsf]
s'n hg;+Vofsf] !$ k|ltzt hg;+Vof zx/L If]qdf /
af+sL *^ k|ltzt hg;+Vof u|fdL0f If]qdf a;f]af; u/]sf]
b]lvG5 . g]kfndf %* j6f gu/kflnsfsf] cltl/Qm lgs6
efljiodf g} gu/kflnsfsf] :j?k lng] ;o eGbf a9L
zx/f]Gd'v uflj; cyf{t\ ;fgf zx/x¿ klg /x]sf 5g\ .
oL ;fgf zx/x¿df a:g] hg;+VofnfO{ ;d]t u0fgf ubf{
klg zx/L If]qdf a;f]af; ug]{ hg;+Vof @) k|ltzt eGbf
a9L x'g] b]lvFb}g . o;af6 g]kfn zx/Ls/0fsf] lbzfdf
cGo blIf0f PlzofnL d'n'sx¿sf] t'ngfdf k5fl8 g} k/]sf]
tYo :ki6 x'G5 . o; cltl/Qm g]kfnsf clwsf+z zx/x¿
-sf7df8f}+, lj/f6gu/, jL/u~h, kf]v/f cflbnfO{ 5f]8]/_
ce}m klg u|fdL0f k|s[ltsf g} /x]sf 5g\ . o;f] x'gfsf]
k|d'v sf/0fdf g]kfndf gu/kflnsf 3f]if0ff ug]{ cfwf/ g}
xf] . gu/kflnsf 3f]if0ff ug{ Go"gtd hg;+Vof k'¥ofpg]
x]t'n] k"jf{wf/ Pj+ a:tLsf] ljsf;nfO{ jf:tf gu/L k|foM
k"jf{wf/ljxLg Pj+ 5l/P/ /x]sf j:tLx¿ ePsf l5d]sL
uflj;x¿nfO{ gu/kflnsf If]q leq ufEbf o:tf] l:yltsf]
l;h{gf x'g uPsf] xf] . t;y{, o:tf k|s[ltsf j:tLx¿
ePsf gu/f]Gd'v uflj; Pjd\ ;fgf zx/x¿df z'?b]lv g}
k"jf{wf/sf ;]jf ;'ljwfx¿ ;Lldt x'g] / kl5 gu/kflnsf
3f]if0ff ePkl5 k"jf{wf/sf] ;d:of cem hl6n x'Fb} hfg'
:jfefljs g} 5 . w]/} gu/kflnsfx¿df ;|f]t / ;fwgsf]
cefjsf] sf/0fn] ubf{ k"jf{wf/ ;]jf ;'ljwfdf lj:tf/ u/L
zx/sf] Joj:yfkg ug]{ sfo{ IfdtfeGbf aflx/ /x]sf]
cg'ej oqtq ug{ ;lsG5 .
ef}uf]lns lx;fan] ;Lldt If]qkmn / hg;+Vofsf]
lx;fan] sd} hg;+Vof dfq zx/L If]qdf a;f]af; ug]{
ePtfklg cfly{s, ;fdflhs, k|zf;lgs, /fhgLlts cflb
b[li6sf]0fn] zx/L If]qsf] dxTj g]kfndf Hofb} 7"nf] /x]sf]
5 . jf:tjdf g]kfnsf k|d'v zx/x¿ cjZo klg cfzfsf
s]Gb|s} ¿kdf / w]/}sf] ;kgfsf] zx/sf] ¿kdf g} /x]sf] 5
eGbf cTo'lQm x'g]5}g . cem g]kfnsf cGo 7"nf zx/x¿sf]
t'ngfdf sf7df8f}+ pkTosf leqsf, To;df klg ljz]if
zx/ M cfzfsf] s]Gb|
– lbJo]Zj/ k|;fb >]i7
jl/i7 cy{zf:qL
u/L sf7df8f } + dxfgu/kf lnsf / nlntk '/
pkdxfgu/kflnsf t clw/fHoel/sf dflg;x¿sf]
;kgfsf] zx/ tyf cfzfsf] s]Gb|sf] ¿kdf /xFb} cfPsf]
5 . olb o:tf] gx'Fbf] xf] t, g t oxfF k|To]s jif{ s/Lj !)
xhf/sf] xf/fxf/Ldf gofF 3/ lgdf{0f x'g] lyP g t 38]/Lsf]
d"No o;/L cfsfl;GYof] . To;sf/0f sf7df8f}+ pkTosfsf]
cfkm\g} ;d:ofx¿ h:tf] vfg]kfgL, kmf]xf]/d}nf Joj:yfkg,
ljh'nL, k|b"if0f, ;jf/Lsf] rfk cflb ePtf klg sf7df8f}+
zx/ ce}m w]/}sf] nflu k|d'v cfsif{0f s]Gb| s} ¿kdf /xg
;Ifd /x]sf] 5 . 7"nf zx/x¿df o:tf] l:ylt /xg'sf]
k5fl8 s]an Pp6} dfq} sf/0f geO y'k|} dxTjk"0f{ sf/s
tTjx¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ . sf7df8f+} pkTosf nufot g]kfnsf
cGo 7"nf zx/x¿ lsg cfzfsf s]Gb| /x]sf 5g\ eGg]
;Gbe{df s]xL ljZn]if0f ug]{ k|of; tn ul/Psf] 5 .
cfly{s
s'g} klg zx/ :jtM lgdf{0f x'g] geO dflg;x¿sf]
a;f]af; / cfly{s lqmofsnfkn] l;h{gf x'g] ub{5 . t;y{
zx/x¿ k|foM b]zsf o:tf :yfg jf If]qx¿df ljsl;t
x'g] ub{5 hxfF cfly{s pGglt cyf{t\ pBf]u, Jofkf/ Joj;fo
cflb h:tf cfly{s ultljlwsf] nflu pko'Qm ynf] x'G5 .
g ]k fnsf k | fo M ;Dk " 0 f { zx/x¿ Jofkf l/s jf
cf}Bf]lusLs/0fsf sf/0f ljsl;t x'g k'u]sf] b]lvG5 .
t/fO{{sf ;Dk"0f{ zx/L If]qx¿ h:t} lj/f6gu/, jL/u~h,
e}/xjf cflb cf}Bf]lus ultljlwsf sf/0fn] cufl8 k'u]sf]
b]lvG5 eg] sf7df8f}+ pkTosf, kf]v/f pkTosf nufot
cGo 7"nf zx/x¿sf] ljsf; pBf]ueGbf klg aGb–Jofkf/sf]
sf/0fn] ljsf; ePsf] b]lvG5 . sRrf kbfy{sf] pknAwtf,
ef/tLo ahf/;+usf] lgsttf, ;dtn e"–efu, oftfoftsf]
;'ljwf, cfjZos ;+Vofdf dhb'/sf] pknAwtf cflb ljljw
sf/0fx¿n] t/fO{{{ If]q pBf]u :yfkgfsf] nflu pko'Qm
ynf]sf] ¿kdf ljsf; x'g k'Uof] . o;/L g} sf7df8f}+ pkTosf
nufot kf]v/f, wgs'6f cflb kxf8L If]qdf cjl:yt zx/x¿
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 11
t/fO{{ / lxdfnL If]q aLr cjl:yt /x]sf sf/0fn] lxdfnL
/ t/fO{{ If]q aLrsf] Jofkf/ j[l4 ug{ pko'Qm ynf]sf]
¿kdf ljsf; x'g k'Uof] . o;sf] cy{ of] xf]Og ls lj/f6gu/,
jL/u~h, e}/xjf cflb t/fO{ {sf zx/x¿df Jofkf/
Joj;fosf] ljsf; ePsf] 5}g\ cyjf sf7df8f}+, kf]v/f
cflb zx/x¿df s]xL pBf]u g} 5}gg\ .
pBf]u Pjd\ Jofkf/sf] ljsf;sf] sf/0fn] ubf{ o:tf
7"nf zx/x¿df /f]huf/Lsf y'k|} cj;/x¿ l;h{gf x'g uP .
h;sf sf/0f g]kfnsf u|fdL0f Onfsfaf6 jif]{gL y'k|} ;+Vofdf
dflg;x¿ To;tk{m cf]Ol/g yfn] / o:tf zx/x¿sf]
hg;+Vof jif]{gL a9\g yfNof] . g]kfnsf u|fdL0f If]qdf
Psflt/ ul/aLsf] ;+Vof w]/} x'g' / csf]{lt/ hLjgofkgsf]
nflu Go"gtd cfwf/ klg pknAw gx'gfsf] sf/0fn] ubf{
o:tf ju{sf] nflu g]kfnsf 7"nf zx/x¿ hLjgofkgsf]
nflu k|d'v cfsif{0f s]Gb|sf] ¿kdf /xL cfPsf] 5 . o;sf]
;fy} u|fdL0f If]qs} jf ;fgf zx/sf kF"lhklt ju{sf] nflu
klg cf–cfkm\gf] Jofkf/ jf pBf]unfO{ j[xt:t/df n}hfg]
cj;/ o:tf 7"nf zx/df dfq ;Dej x'g] x'gfn] o:tf
Jofkf/L Pj+ pBf]uklt klg 7"nf zx/ k|lt cfs[i6 ePsf
5g\ . Ps cWoogcg';f/ ;du|df gu/kflnsfsf] s'n
hg;+Vofdf a;fOF–;/fOF u/L cfpg] hg;+Vofsf] c+z @^
k|ltzt /x]sf] 5 h;dWo] u|fdL0f If]qaf6 gu/ If]qdf
a;fOF–;/fOF ug]{ @# k|ltzt /x]sf] 5 eg] zx/L If]qaf6
gu/kflnsf cfpg] hg;+Vof # k|ltzt /x]sf] b]lvG5 .
Pp6f 3tnfUbf] kIf cWoogn] s] b]vfPsf] 5 eg] 7"nf
zx/x¿df hxfF /f]huf/L tyf cGo cfly{s cj;/x¿ a9L
x'G5g\ :jefjt To:tf zx/x¿df u|fdL0f Pj+ zx/L If]qaf6
a;fOF–;/fOF ug]{sf] ;+Vof klg a9L /x]sf] 5 . pbfx/0fsf]
nflu sf7df8f+} e/tk'/, a'6jn gu/kflnsfx¿df s'n
hg;+Vofsf] $) k|ltzt, $! k|ltzt / $% k|ltzt
hg;+Vof aflx/af6 a;fOF–;/fOF u/L cfPsf] b]lvG5 eg]
bz/yrGb, uf}/, eLd]Zj/ gu/kflnsfsf s'n hg;+Vofdf
j;fOF ;/fO{sf] c+z qmdzM @, #÷# k|ltzt dfq /x]sf] 5 .
o;af6 :ki6 ¿kdf s] bzf{pF5 eg] ;fgf zx/eGbf 7"nf
zx/x¿ g}, hxfF ljleGg cj;/x¿ a9L ljBdfg 5g\,
ToxfF g} a9L dflg;x¿ cfs[i6 ePsf 5g\ .
;fdflhs
zx/x¿df dflg;x¿ cfs[i6 x'gfsf] csf]{ sf/0f xf]
u'0f:t/Lo z}lIfs tyf :jf:Yo pkrf/sf] ;]jf ;'ljwf
pknJw x'g' . u|fdL0f If]qsf] t'ngfdf u'0f:t/Lo lzIff
Pjd\ :jf:Yo pkrf/sf] ;]jf zx/L If]qdf dfq xfn pknAw
/x]sf] sf/0fn] ubf{ ljz]if u/L cfly{s x}l;ot ePsf
ju{x¿ u'0f:t/Lo lzIff xfl;n ug{ jf e/kbf]{ pRr:t/Lo
:jf:Yo pkrf/sf] nflu k|foM 7"nf zx/x¿ tk{m g} hfg]
u/]sf] b]lvG5 . clw/fHosf cGo 7"nf zx/x¿sf] t'ngfdf
ce}m klg sf7df8f+} pkTosfn] oL b'j} ;]jf ;'ljwfsf]
If]qdf cu|0fL e"ldsf lgjf{x ub}{ cfPsf] b]lvG5 . :jf:Yo
pkrf/sf] ;]jf k|fKt ug{ cfpg] lj/fdLx¿ s]xL lglZrt
;dokl5 kms{g] x'gfn] logLx¿nfO{ 7"nf zx/n] cfs[i6
u/]tf klg logLx¿ c:yfoL k|s[ltsf 5g\ . t/ pRrlzIffsf]
nflu cfpg] ljBfyL{x¿ eg] k9fO ;DkGg ul/;s]kl5 klg
/f]huf/Lsf cj;/ a9L zx/x¿df s]lGb|t x'g] sf/0fn]
ubf{ zx/d} :yfoL ¿kn] a;f]af; ug]{ u/]sf] b]lvG5 .
o;df klg hlt hlt pRr lzIffsf] :t/ dfly hfG5, ;f]xL
cg'?k zx/df :yfoL ¿kdf a:g] ;Defjgf Pjd\
cfjZostf a9L x'g yfN5 . oL sf/0fx¿n] ubf{ zx/
cyf{t\ gu/kflnsfx¿df axfndf a:g] hg;+Vof ;du|df
em08} #% k|ltzt /x]sf] b]lvG5 . To;df klg sf7df8f+}
dxfgu/klnsf, nlntk'/ / kf]v/f pk–dxfgu/kflnsfdf
axfndf a:g] qmdzM %(, $& / $( k|ltzt /x]sf] 5 .
o; cltl/Qm zx/sf] cfsif{0fn] ubf{ !% jif{ d'lgsf
afnaflnsfx¿ dWo] % k|ltzt afnaflnsfn] cfkm\gf] 3/
5f]8\g] u/]sf] pQm ;e]{If0fn] b]vfPsf] 5 . ;fy} %) k|ltzt
dlxnfx¿ kfl/jfl/s / ;fdflhs sf/0fn] ubf{ a;fOF
;/fOF ug]{ u/]sf] klg b]vfPsf] 5 .
ef}lts
ef}lts ;]jf ;'ljwf h:tf] ;8s, 9n, vfg]kfgL,
lah'nL, ;~rf/ cflbsf] b[li6sf]0fn] g]kfnsf zx/L If]q
u|fdL0f If]qsf] t'ngfdf cufl8 g} /x]sf] 5 . g]kfn hLjg:t/
;e]{If0f–k|yd @)%@÷%# / bf];|f] @)^)÷^! cg';f/
/fli6«o:t/df lah'nLsf] ;'ljwf k'u]sf kl/jf/ o; cjlwdf
!$ af6 a9]/ #& k'u]sf] 5 eg] kfOksf] vfg]kfgL pkef]u
ug]{ kl/jf/sf] k|ltzt ## af6 $$ k'u]sf] 5 . o;}u/L
rkL{sf] ;'ljwf ePsf kl/jf/sf] k|ltzt cf7 jif{ kl5 @@
af6 a9]/ #( k'u]sf] 5 . o;af6 :ki6 ¿kdf s] b]lvG5
eg] clw/fHosf cfwf eGbf a9L hg;+Vof lah'nL, vfg]kfgL
/ rkL{sf] ;'ljwfaf6 al~rt /x]sf] b]lvG5 . u|fdL0f /
zx/L If]q aLr oL ;]jf ;'ljwfx¿sf] l:yltdf ce}m lgs}
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#12
c;dfgtf /x]sf] ;f]xL ;e]{If0fsf] cfFs8fn] k|i6\ofpF5 .
pbfx/0fsf] nflu g]kfn hLjg:t/ ;e]{If0f–k|yd !((%÷(^
cg';f/ zx/L If]qdf kfOkaf6 ljtl/t vfg]kfgL, lah'nL,
rkL{ / 6]lnkmf]gsf] ;'ljwf k'Ug] 3/kl/jf/ qmdzM $#=!,
&*=$, ^!=) / !!=$ k|ltzt /x]sf] 5 . oL ;'ljwfx¿
u|fdL0f If]qsf $=&, *=^, !&=& / )=@ k|ltztsf] kl/jf/df
dfq pknAw ePsf] pQm cWoogn] b]vfpF5 . oL cfFs8fn]
zx/L / u|fdL0f If]q aLr ljBdfg c;dfgtfnfO{ :ki6
¿kdf bzf{pF5 .
dflg;x¿sf] hLjg ;xh Pjd\ ;'ljwfdo agfpgdf
o:tf k"jf{wf/ ;]jf ;'ljwfn] dxTjk"0f{ e"ldsf v]n]sf] x'G5 .
cyf{t\ oL ;]jf ;'ljwfsf] cefjdf hLjg ;'vdo, ;'ljwfo'Qm
agfpg] s'/f ef}lts lx;fan] sfNklgs dfq x'g hfG5 .
t;y{ ;'v ;on hLjg vf]Hg] dflg; jf kl/jf/sf] nflu
zx/n] ;xh} ¿kdf r'Dasn] cfsif{0f u/] h:t} cfsif{0f
ug]{ ub{5 . ef}lts lx;fjn] hlt hlt k|ult x'Fb} hfG5
;f]xL cg';f/ zx/x¿df o:tf ;'ljwfx¿sf] lj:tf/ Pj+
:t/ pGglt x'Fb} hfG5 . sf7df8f+} pkTosfdf hlt ef}lts
;]jf ;'ljwf clw/fHosf cGo zx/x¿df k|foM pknAw
5}g xf]nf . To;sf/0f clw/fHosf ljleGg If]qaf6 dflg;x¿
pkTosfdf cfs[i6 x'g' :jefljs g} 5 . g]kfn hLjg:t/
;e]{If0f–bf];|f] @)^)÷^! n] klg zx/L If]qtk{m a;fOF ;/fOF
ug]{ kl/jf/x¿ dWo] !@ k|ltzt ;xh hLjgofkgsf] nflu
cfpg] u/]sf] b]lvG5 . o;af6 :ki6 ¿kdf s] b]vfpF5 eg]
zx/n] ;xh hLjgofkg ug{sf] nflu klg cfs[i6 ub}{
cfPsf] /x]5 .
/fhgLlts Pj+ k|zf;lgs
/fhgLltdf pRr dxTjsf+Iff /fVg] JolQmx¿sf] nflu
u|fdL0f If]qeGbf 7"nf zx/L If]q, cem To;df klg sf7df8f}+
pkTosf a9L pkof]uL ynf] x'g] ePsf] sf/0fn] ubf{ sf7df8f}+
pkTosf nufot cGo 7"nf zx/x¿n] o:tf JolQmx¿nfO{
;b}j zx/tk{m tflg/fv]s} x'G5g\ . 7"nf zx/L If]qdf hlt
cGt//fli6«o hutaf/] ;"rgfsf] k|jfx, cg'ejsf] cfbfg
k|bfg ug]{ cj;/ k|fKt x'G5 Tof] u|fdL0f If]qdf ;Dej
gx'g ;S5 . x'g t 6]lnlehg / O06/g]6sf] lj:tf/n] oL
s'/fx¿ u|fdL0f If]qdf klg ;Dej agfPsf] ePtf klg
JolQmut tj/n] ;Dks{ ug]{ cj;/ s]jn zx/n] dfq
;Dej u/fpFb5 . o;/L sltko k|zf;lgs sfd
sf/jfxLsf] nflu klg dflg;x¿ 7"nf zx/tk{m cfpg' kg]{
x'G5 . t;y{, afWotfjz xf];\ cyjf cj;/sf] cfsif{0fsf]
sf/0fn] w]/} dflg;x¿ cem;Dd klg 7"nf zx/tk{m cfs[i6
x'g' kg]{ l:ylt oyfjt g} /x]sf] 5 .
ljljw
cfly{s cj;/sf] vf]lhdf, ;fdflhs ;]jf ;'ljwfsf]
sf/0f, ;'vdo hLjgofkg, /fhgLlt ug{ jf k|zf;lgs
sfo{ ;DkGg ug{ dfl;gx¿nfO{ zx/n] ;b}j cfsif{0f
ub}{ cfPsf] 5 . o;/L cfpg] dflg;x¿df sf]xL :yfoL
a;f]af;sf] nflu g} zx/df cfpg] ub{5g\ eg] sf]xL
;Lldt cjlw;Dd a;L To;kl5 cf–cfkm\gf] hGdynf]
nfUg]x¿ klg gePsf xf]Ogg\ . oL k|d'v sf/0fx¿sf]
cltl/Qm zx/x¿ 3'dlkm/ ug{ cyf{t\ zx/L lemnLldnL
x]g{, ljxfjf/L ug{, zx/df a:g] gftfuf]tf, Oi6ldq;Fu
e]63f6 ug{, s]xL ljz]if l:ylt jf kl/l:ylt h:tf] ljjfx,
a|tjGw jf o:t} 7"nf] cj;/sf] a]nf ljz]if ;fdu|L lsGg
klg dflg;x¿nfO{ zx/n] cfsif{0f ug]{ u/]sf] b]lvG5 .
zx/df cfpFbf …Ps kGy bf] sfhÚ cyjf …kz'kltsf]
hfqf l;b|fsf] Jofkf/Ú eg] e}+m sfo{ ug{ klg zx/n]
cj;/ k|bfg u/]sf] x'G5 . o;sf] cnfjf u|fdL0f If]qdf
dd{tsf] ;]jf, s[lif ;fdu|L cflb pknAw ePklg :t/Lo
gx'g' / dx+uf] x'gfsf] sf/0f dd{tsf ;]jf ;'ljwf nufot
v]tLkftLsf] nflu cfjZos ;fdu|Lsf] nflu klg dflg;x¿
zx/tk{m g} cfs[i6 x'g] ub{5g\ .
pk;+xf/
zx/ ljleGg sf/0fx¿n] ubf{ cfzfsf] s]Gb| /x]tf
klg c;+Vo dflg;x¿sf] ;kgf Pjd\ cfzfnfO{ d"t{ ¿kdf
kl/0ft jf ?kfGt/0f ug{ ;Sg] Ifdtf zx/sf] klg ;Lldt
/x]sf] sf/0fn] ubf{ zx/nfO{ ;b}j cfzfsf] s]Gb|sf] ¿kdf
hLjGt / jf:tljs agfO{ /fVg g]kfnsf c;+Vo u|fdL0f
j:tLx¿df klg ;]jf ;'ljwf pknAw u/fP/ /f]huf/Lsf
cj;/ Pjd\ cfly{s pGgltsf cj;/x¿ l;h{gf u/]/
xfn u|fdL0f Onfsfaf6 zx/L If]q tk{m eO/x]sf] Psf]xf]/f]
a;fOF ;/fOFsf] k|s[lt Pj+ k|j[lQnfO{ 36fpFb} n}hfg' lgtfGt
cfjZos 5 . gq s'g} lbg o:tf] klg cfpg] 5 h'ga]nf
zx/x¿ cfzfsf] s]Gb| eGbf lg/fzfsf] s]Gb| gaGnfg\ eGg
;lsGg .
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 13
e"ldsfM
ef}uf]lns agfj6 / ef/tLo pk–dxfåLk / o"/f]lzog
dxfåLksf] ;lGw:yndf (Subduction Zone) k/]sf] sf/0fn]
ubf{ g]kfn e"sDkLo b[li6n] hf]lvd If]qleq kb{5 . oxfF
demf}nf vfnsf e"sDkn] klg 7"nf] Iflt x'g;Sg] af/]
;DalGwt ljz]if1 / e"ue{ ljb\x¿n] cf}+NofPsf 5g\ .
g]kfnsf] e"sDk ;DaGwL Oltxf;nfO{ kN6fpFbf lj=;+= !@%%,
!$)*, !^*!, !*!), !*## / !*^^ df 7"nf–7"nf e"sDkx¿
uPsf] kfO{G5 . o;;DaGwL Ifltsf] jf:tljs tYofª\s
cfsng tyf n]vfhf]vf ePsf] kfOFb}g . lj=;+= !*() ebf}
!@ ut] ;fFem ̂ ah] / /flt !! ah] 7"nf–7"nf wSsfsf ;fy
uPsf] e"sDkn] g]kfnsf w]/} efux¿nfO{ k|efljt kf/L
lgs} wghgsf] Iflt k'¥ofPsf] lyof] . o; e"sDkn] !*
xhf/ 3/x¿ Ifltu|:t x'g'sf ;fy} !@) hgfn] Hofg
u'dfpg' k/]sf] lyof] . o; kl5sf] lj=;+=!(() ;fn df3 @
ut]sf] *=$ /]S6/ :s]nsf] dxfe"sDkn] g]kfn / ef/tsf]
ljxf/ If]qdf cToflws k|efj kf¥of] . o; e"sDkn] g]kfndf
dfq *),))) 3/x¿ gi6 ePsf lyP . ;dli6ut ¿kdf
!,)$,))) 3/x¿nfO{ xfgL gf]S;fgL k'¥ofof] eg] $
xhf/ % ;o hgfn] Hofg u'dfpg' k/]sf] lyof] .
o;}u/L g]kfnsf] pbok'/ lhNnfsf] d's{'Rr] eGg] 7fpdf
s]Gb| ljGb' ePsf] lj=;+=@)$% ;fn efb| % ut] uPsf] ^=&
/]S6/ :s]nsf] e"sDkn] sf7df8f}+ pkTosf, k"lj{ kxf8 /
t/fOsf ̂ ,%)) eGbf a9L 3/x¿ eTsfpg'sf ;fy} & ;o @!
hgfsf] Hofg lnPsf] lyof] . xfn} dfq @)^@ ;fn c;f]h @@
ut]sf lbg kfls:tfgdf uPsf] &=^ /]S6/ :s]nsf] dxfe"sDkaf6
dg]{x¿sf] ;+Vof &%,))) cg'dfg ul/Psf] 5 .
lj=;+=@)$% ;fnsf] e"sDkaf6 Iflt k'u]sf 3/x¿sf]
cWoogsf] cfwf/df ca lgdf{0f x'g] 3/x¿ e"sDk
k|lt/f]wfTds x'g ;s"g\ eGg] p2]Zon] To;a]nfg} æ/fli6«o
ejg lgdf{0f ;+lxtfÆ (Nepal National Building Code)sf] j[xt\ vfFrf] dx;'; ul/of] / tTsfnLg cfjf; tyf
ef}lts of]hgf dGqfnon] ejg ljefusf] ;d]t ;+nUgtfdf
g]kfnsf] æ/fli6«o ejg ;+lxtfÆ Ps lrgf/L
– cd[tdfg t'nfw/
l;len OlGhlgo/
zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefu
cf=j )%).%! ;fndf UNDP/UNCHS (Habitat) sf]
;xof]udf æ/fli6«o ejg ;+lxtfÆ agfpg] lgwf] ul/of] .
o; ;Gbe{df eGg' kbf{ To;a]nf g]kfnsf] nflu æ/fli6«o
ejg lgdf{0f ;+lxtfÆ lgdf{0f ug]{ hdsf]{ t ul/of] t/
To;a]nf g]kfnsf] ejg ;+lxtf ;DaGwL vf;} s'g} Data,Standard jf Research ePsf] lyPg . To;}n] ljsl;t
d'n'ssf] ejg ;+lxtfnfO{ cWoog u/L g]kfnnfO{ ;'xfpFbf]
ejg lgdf{0f ;+lxtf tof/ ug]{ lgisif{ ul/of] / ljleGg
ljsl;t d'n'sx¿sf] ejg ;+lxtfnfO{ cWoog ub]{ g]kfnnfO{
;'xfpFbf] ejg lgdf{0f ;+lxtf tof/ ug]{ qmddf ef/ts}
ejg ;lxtfnfO{ cfwf/ dfGg] lj1x¿åf/f 7x/ ul/of] .
o; sfdsf nflu tTsfnLg æejg ljefuÆ -xfn
zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefu_ sf k|fljlws
lj1x¿ nufot ljb]zL k|fljlws lj1x¿df BECAWORLY INTERNATIONAL CONSULTANTS LTD,NewZealand, Golder Associates Ltd, Canada / UrbanRegional Research, USA lyof] . / g]kfnL Consultantsdf SILT Consult P. Ltd. / TAEC Consult (P) Ltd. lyof] .o; sfo{sf] Review Expert Panel df University ofRoorkee sf Professor Emeritus Dr. Anand S. Arya /xg'ePsf] lyof] . ;fy} g]kfnsf nflu /fli6«o dxTjsf] ejg
;+lxtf lgdf{0f ug]{ qmddf Pp6f Advisory Panel klgu7g ul/of] . h;df ljleGg lgsfosf lj1x¿ /xg' ePsf]
lyof] . To; kZrft\ g]kfnsf nflu $ k|sf/sf ejg
;lxtfx¿ tof/ ug]{ lgwf] ul/of] h'g lgDg k|sf/sf lyPM–
!_ OG6/g]zgn :6]6 ckm cf6{ (International State ofArt) : ljsl;t d'n'sdf ckgfOPsf] ejg ;+lxtf
;d]tsf] cg';/0f u/L æOG6/g]zgn :6]6 ckm cf6{Æ
df cfwfl/t x'g] u/L agfOg] cTofw'lgs ejgx¿ .
@_ k|f]k]m;gnL OlGhlgo8{ lalN8�;\ (ProfessionallyEngineered Buildings):OlGhlgo/ k|fljlwsx¿åf/f
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#14
l8hfOg / /]vb]v u/L agfOg] lKnGy Pl/of !,)))
ju{ kmL6eGbf a9L ePsf, tLg tnf eGbf a9L ePsf
tyf :6«Sr/ :kfg $=% dL= eGbf a9L ePsf dxTjk"0f{
ejgx¿ .
#_ DofG8]6f]/L ?n;\ ckm yDa (Mandatory Rules ofThumb) : Jofj;flos OlGhlgo/ tyf k|fljlwsx¿
pknAw gePsf 7fpFx¿df dWod:t/sf] k|fljlwssf]
/]vb]vaf6 aGg] lKnGy Pl/of !))) ju{ kmL6;Dd,
tLg tnf;Dd tyf :6«Sr/ :kfg $=% dL= ;Dd ePsf
;fwf/0f ejgx¿ .
$_ u|fdL0f If]qsf nflu ejg lgb]{lzsf (Guidelines forRemote Rural Buildings-Low StrengthMasonry / Earthen Buildings): b}lgs ¿kdf
k|fljlw1sf] /]vb]v pknAw u/fpg g;lsg] b'u{d
:yfgsf b'O{ tnf;Ddsf 3/ tyf 5fk|fx¿ .
@) j6f k':tsx¿df k|sflzt pQm ;+lxtfdf ef/tsf]
ejg ;+lxtf;+u cfj¢ ePsf] s'/fnfO{ gsfg{ ;lsFb}g
lsgeg] w]/}h;]f k|f]k]m;gnL OlGhlgo8{ (ProfessionallyEngineered) ejg ;+lxtfx¿ ef/tsf] ejg ;+lxtf;Fu
cfj¢ u/L x]g'{ kb{5 . o;f] lsg u/L agfOof] eGg] s'/f w]/}
k|fljlwsx¿sf] lh1f;f x'g ;S5 . o;sf] sf/0f ef/tsf]
ejg ;lxtfnfO{ cfwf/ dfgL g]kfnsf] ejg lgdf{0f ;+lxtf
tof/ ug]{ s|ddf To;a]nf xfdL;Fu g]kfnsf] cfjZos
Research data, Standard x¿ lyPgg\ . sltko Researchdata, Standard / b:tfj]hx¿ Indian Standard sf] x''ax'
g;f/L gx'g] eof] . t/ Indian Standard df pNn]lvt
Copyright n] ubf{ To;f] ug{ ;lsPg . To;}n] g]kfnsf]
ejg ;+lxtf ef/tsf] ejg ;+lxtf;+u cfj¢ ul/ x]g'{ kg]{
eof] . Copyright ;DaGwL s'/f ubf{ To; a]nf India sf]
Code Committee sf] Chairman ;d]t /xg' ePsf Dr.Anand S. Arya n] s] hfgsf/L u/fPsf lyP eg] g]kfnsf]
u'0f:t/ tyf gfk tf}n ljefu / Indian Standard InstituteaLr ;Demf}tf ePdf Indian Standard nfO{ cËLsf/ u/L
Nepal Standard agfpg ;Sg] s'/f cf}NofOPsf] lyof] .
o;}sf] kmn:j¿k g]kfn u'0f:t/ tyf gfktf}n ljefun]
ljleGg ;/sf/L tyf ;+3 ;:yfsf lj1x¿sf] k|ltlglwx¿
ePsf] æcËLsf/ k|fljlws ;ldltÆ u7g u/L IndianStandard nfO{ cËLsf/ u/L Nepal Standard agfpg]
sfo{ klg x'Fb} cfO/x]sf] 5 . o;af6 g]kfnsf] /fli6«o ejg
;+lxtfdf pNn]lvt aF'bfx¿nfO{ cWoog ug{ ;lhnf] ePsf]
5 .
/fli6«o ejg ;+lxtf nfu" ug]{ ;DaGwdf UNDP/UNCHS (Habitat) / o; ljefuaf6 tof/ ul/Psf]
:6«Sr/n sf]8nfO{ ;dfofg's"n cfjZos ;+zf]wg u/L
ljleGg ljif]z1x¿sf] /fo tyf ;'emfj ;lxt ldlt @)^).!.@
df clGtd ?k lbOPsf] lyof] .
To:t} /fli6«o ejg ;+lxtf nfu" ug]{ ;DaGwdf
cfls{6]Sr/n sf]8 (Architecture Code), ljB'tLs/0f
(Electrical Code), :ofg]6/L sf]8 (Sanitary Code) klg;dfj]z ug{sf] nflu cfjZos sf]8 tof/ ul/of] .
cfls{6]Sr/n sf]8 (Architecture Code) nfO{ Institute ofEngineering (TU), Society of Nepalese Architects(SONA), Society of Consulting Architects andEngineering Firms (SCAEF) cflb ljleGg k]zfut ;:yfsf
ljif]z1x¿sf] /fo tyf ;'emfj ;lxt ldlt @)%(.!!.!$
df clGtd ?k lbOof] . To:t} On]lS6«sn sf]8 (ElectricalCode) nfO{ g]kfn ljB't\ k|flws/0f, Society of ElectricalEngineering Nepal (SEEN) cflb ljleGg k]zfut ;:yfsf
ljif]z1x¿sf] /fo tyf ;'emfj ;lxt ldlt ldlt @)^).!.#
df clGtd ¿k lbOof] . To:t} :ofg]6/L sf]8 (SanitaryCode) nfO{ vfg]kfgL tyf 9n lgsf; ljefu / g]kfn
vfg]kfgL ;+:yfgsf ljif]z1x¿sf] /fo tyf ;'emfj ;lxt
ldlt @)^).!.$ df clGtd ¿k lbOof] .
o;/L klxn] tof/ ul/Psf @) j6f sf]8x¿sf] cnfjf
cfls{6]Sr/n sf]8 (Architecture Code), ljB'tLs/0f
(Electrical Code) / :ofg]6/L sf]8 (Sanitary Code) ;d]t
# j6f sf]8x¿ yk u/L /fli6«o ejg lgdf{0f ;+lxtf, @)^)
nfO{ k"0f{tf lbOPsf] 5 . xfn oL ;+lxtfx¿ Digital Format(CD) df klg pknAw 5g\ .
g]kfnsf] xfjfkfgL, ef }uf ]lns tyf ef}ule{s
kl/l:yltnfO{ ;'xfpFbf /fli6«o ejg ;+lxtf, @)^) / /fli6«o
ejg ;+lxtf, @)^) sfof{Gjog–sfo{ljlw dlGqkl/ifb\sf]
ldlt @)^).$.!@ sf] lg0f{o cg';f/ :jLs[t u/L nfu"
ul/;lsPsf] 5 .
g]kfnsf] ejgx¿nfO{ e"sDk, cfunfuL tyf cGo
b}jL k|sf]kaf6 oyf;Dej ;'/lIft /fVgsf] nflu / ejg
lgdf{0f sfo{nfO{ lgoldt ug{ jfG5gLo ePsf]n] @)%%
;fn cf;f/ !* ut]sf] g]kfn /fhkqdf ejg lgdf{0f ;DaGwL
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 15
æejg P]g @)%%Æ k|sflzt e};s]sf] 5 / ca pk|fGt aGg]
;a} k|sf/sf ejgx¿df k|:t't /fli6«o ejg lgdf{0f
;+lxtf cg';/0f u/L agfpg' kg]]{ egL æejg P]g @)%%Æ
df Joj:yf eP adf]lhd @)^@ kmfu'0f ! Uft]sf] g]kfn
/fhkqdf ;"rgf k|sflzt e};s]sf] 5 . h;cg';f/ ;a}
gu/kflnsf If]qx¿, lhNnf ;b/d'sfd /x]sf uf=lj=;
If]qx¿, gu/kflnsf / ;b/d'sfd /x]sf] tf]lsPsf=uf=lj=;=
If]qx¿df nfu" e};s]sf 5g\ .
ejg lgdf{0f ;+lxtfsf] s'zn Pj+ Jofks k|of]uaf6
eljiodf aGg] k|To]s 3/nfO{ a9L e"sDk k|lt/f]wfTds
agfpg ;lsG5 eGg] tYo tyf ejg ;+lxtfsf a'Fbfx¿nfO{
;Dk"0f{ zx/ tyf u|fdL0f ;d'bfodf Jofks ¿kdf lkmhfO
hgr]tgf hufpg' cfhsf] cfjZostf xf] . s]xL jif{
otfb]lv g]kfndf klg e"sDkLo Iflt Go"gLs/0f ug{] k|of;x¿
z'? ePsf 5g\ . oL dWo] /fli6«o ejg ;+lxtf nfu" x'g'
Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ pknlAw xf] . zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg
lgdf{0f ljefu, ;DalGwt gu/kflnsfx¿ tyf u}/ ;/sf/L
;+:yf, e"sDk k|ljlw /fli6«o ;dfh g]kfnsf] ;+o'Qm
cfof]hgfdf zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0fsf @% j6f
l8lehg sfof{nox¿ /x]sf lhNNffx¿df 8sdL{ tyf
gfOs]x¿nfO{ e"sDk k|lt/f]wfTds ejg lgdf{0f ;DaGwL
tfnLd ;~rfng ub}{ cfOPsf] 5 . ;fy} x/]s jif{ df3 @
ut] æe"sDk ;'/Iff lbj;Æ dgfpg] sfo{ klg eO{ /x]sf]
5 . o; ljefuaf6 OlGhlgo/ tyf cf]e/l;o/x¿sf nflu
/fli6«o ejg ;+lxtf, @)^) tyf e"sDkaf6 ;'/lIft ejg
lgdf{0f ;DaGwL ljleGg tfnLd sfo{qmdx¿ klg ;~rfng
ub}{ cfPsf] 5 .
tkfO{ gofF 3/÷ejg lgdf{0f ub}{ x'g' x'G5 eg] lgDg
s'/fx¿df Wofg lbg';\M—
O{6sf] uf/f] nufP/ 3/ agfpFbf Wofg lbg' kg]{ s'/fx¿M
husf] df6f] tyf hldgsf] cj:yf cg';f/ husf]
ulx/fO tyf rf}8fO kof{Kt 5, 5}g k|fljlwssf] /fo
lng'xf];\ .
l8=lk=l;= n]n nufot x/]s tNnfdf 6fOlad cjZo
xfNg'xf];\ .
b'O{j6f jf ;f]eGbf a9Lsf] uf/f]sf] hf]8\g]df hub]lv
slDtdf klg % nfOgsf] 808L hu}b]lv 7f8f] u/L
/fVg'xf];\ .
‰ofn, 9f]sf, uf/f]sf] hf]8\gLeGbf slDtdf @ km'6 6f9f
/fVg'xf];\ .
7"nf7"nf ‰ofnx¿ ;se/ g/fVg'xf];\ .
ejgsf] nDjfO rf}8fOsf] # u'0ffeGbf sd /fVg'xf];\ .
sf]7fsf] nDjfO rf}8fOsf] # u'0ffeGbf sd /fVg'xf];\ .
uf/f]sf] prfO uf/f]sf] df]6fOsf] !@ u'0ffeGbf sd
/fVg'xf];\ .
w]/} s'gf lgl:sPsf] jf rf}8fOsf] t'ngfdf w]/} nfdf]
cfs[lt ePsf] Hofb} nfdf] lsl;dsf] L jf U cfsf/sf]
ejgx¿ e"sDkLo b[li6sf]0fn] sdhf]/ x'g] ePsf] x'Fbf
;d?k (Symmetrical) cfs[ltsf ] ejg dfq
agfpg'xf];\ .
tLg tNnfeGbf cUnf] ejg agfpg' kg]{ ePdf cjZo
k|fljlwssf] /fo lng'xf];\ .
cGtdfM
g]kfn Earthquake prone Zone df kg]{ ePsf] sf/0f
oxfF ljgfzsf/L e"sDk cfO/xg] k|an ;Defjgf b]lvG5 .
ejg lgdf{0fsf] ;+lxtfsf] kfngf geP;Dd sdhf]/
;+/rgfx¿ lgdf{0f eO g} /xg] 5g\ . To;}n] ejg ;+lxtfsf]
;d"lrt kl/rfngsf] clgjfo{tf af/] hgr]tgf clea[l4
ug]{ af/] ljleGg uf]i7L, >Jo–b[io ;fdfu|Lx¿sf ;fy} lgb]{zg
k"l:tsfx¿ pTkfbg u/L k|rf/ k|;f/ ug'{ kb{5 . ljz]if
u/L ejg ;+lxtfsf k|fjwfgsf] s'zn Pj+ Jofks k|of]uaf6
k|To]s 3/nfO{ a9L e"sDk k|lt/f]wfTds agfpg ;lsg] 5
eGg] tYo tyf ejg ;+lxtfn] u/]sf l;kmfl/zsf a'Fbfx¿nfO{
;Dk"0f{ u|fdL0f ;d'bfodf Jofks ¿kdf lkmFhfpgsf ;fy}
hgr]tgf hufpg'sf nflu cfjZos k|efjsf/L pkfox¿
klxNofpg' kb{5 .
o; ;DaGwdf /fli6«o ejg ;+lxtfsf] k|of]u k|lt
;a}nfO{ k|f]T;flxt ug'{ h?/L x'G5 . e"sDk cfPkl5 x'g;Sg]
;Defljt c;/x¿af/] ;j{;fwf/0f tyf ;/sf/L, u}/
;/sf/L Pj+ cGo ;a} ;+3;+:yfx¿df cfjZos ;r]ttf
a9fO{ o; ;DaGwL k"j{ tof/Ldf ;ls|otfk"j{s nfUg' cfhsf]
Ps k|d'v cfjZostf xf] . e'FOrfnf] Ps k|fs[lts k|lqmof
xf] . o:tf ljgfzsf/L k|fs[lts k|sf]knfO{ /f]Sg ;lsGg
t/ ;dod} a'l4 k'¥ofOPdf o;af6 x'g] wghgsf] IfltnfO{
cjZo sd ug{ ;lsG5 .
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#16
dflg;nfO{ afFRgsf] lgldQ vfgf, gfgf / 5fgf
cfjZostf kb{5 . Ps 6'qmf hldgdfly 5fgf ePsf] cfjf;
geP dflg; ;'s'Daf;L 7xl/g klg ;S5 . To;}n] ljZj
a;f]af; ;DaGwL ;+:yfn] ;a}sf nflu cfjf; eGg] gf/f
klg rngrNtLdf NofPsf] 5 . jf:tjdf dflg;sf]
cfwf/e"t cfjZostf kl/k"lt{sf nflu cfjf; geO{ gx'g]
j:t'sf ¿kdf /x]sf] 5 . o; kl/k|]Iodf g]kfn ;/sf/n]
s'g} klg g]kfnL kl/jf/ 5fgf/lxt g/x'g egL /fli6«o
cfjf; gLlt, @)%# th'{df u/]sf] 5 . o; gLltsf] cWofo
@ sf] bkmf @=# cGtu{t k|s/0f !=# df ;/sf/ / lghL
If]qsf] ;xeflutdf tyf k"0f{ ¿kdf lghL If]qåf/f cfjf;
tyf hUuf ljsf; sDkgLx¿ :yfkgf ug{ k|f]T;fxg k|bfg
ug]{ eGg] s'/f pNn]v ul/Psf 5g\ .
hg;+Vofsf] a9\bf] a[l4b/sf cfwf/df eljiodf
cfjZos kg]{ cfjf; PsfO{x¿sf] klg cfjf; gLltdf
cg'dfg ul/Psf] 5 . ;f] gLltdf pNn]v eP cg';f/ g]kfndf
;Djt\ @)%# ;Dddf s'n #) nfv cfjf;Lo 3/x¿
/x]sf lyP . o;dWo] u|fdL0f If]qdf @& nfv / zx/L
If]qdf # nfv 3/x¿ kg{ cfPsf 5g\ . @)%# b]lv @)%*
;Dddf zx/L If]qdf %=# k|ltztn] / To:t} u/L @)%(
b]lv @)^# ;Dddf k|ltjif{ % k|ltztsf b/n] yk cfjf;Lo
ejgx¿sf] cfjZostf kg]{ cg'dfg ul/Psf] lyof] . o;
cg';f/ zx/L If]qdf dfq} jflif{s sl/a !% xhf/ yk
3/x¿ aGg'kg]{ cfFs8f lg:sG5 .
lxhf] cfhsf] hdfgfdf ;a} s'/f ;/sf/L :t/af6
dfq u/]/ ;fWo / ;fy{s x'Fb}g . ljsfz;Ln hdfgfdf
lghL If]qsf] ;xeflutfa]u/ ljsf; lgdf{0fsf] sfd rfx]
hlt dfqfdf x'g ;Sb}g . pbfx/0fsf lgldQ Ps bzs
cl3;Dd k"jf{wf/sf] d]?b08sf ¿kdf /x]sf] ;8s lgdf{0f
sfo{ g]kfn ;/sf/n] cdfgtdf cfk}+m ub{Yof] . t/ ca
lgdf{0f sfo{ k|fOe]6 sG6«fS6/ sG;N6\ofG6nfO{ ;'Dkg]
ul/Psf] 5 . cfjZos tyf lbOPsf] dfkb08cg';f/ ag]
gag]sf] eGg] ;DaGwdf ;/sf/L :t/af6 r]s, hfFr, lg/LIf0f
ul/G5 .
cfjf; ljsf;sf lglDt lghL If]qsf] e"ldsf
– a'l4gf/fo0f >]i7
cWoIf
g]kfn hUuf tyf cfjf; ljsf; ;+3 tyf ;Ldfljb\
cfjf; tyf a;f]af;sf] lgldQ ;j{;fwf/0f g]kfnL
hgtfnfO{ cfjZos kg]{ 3/ ;fdfGotof ;/sf/L:t/af6
agfO{ laqmL ug]{ kl/kf6L clxn];Dd rn]sf] kfOFb}g . s]jn
;/sf/L ejg zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg lgdf{0f ljefuåf/f
lgdf{0f ;'k/Lj]If0f ug]{ ul/Psf] kfOG5 . To;}n] ;fdfGo
hgtfsf nflu cf>osf lglDt rflxg] 3/ cfk}+mn] tyf
lghL If]qsf cfjf; sDkgL tyf hUuf ljsf; sDkgLn]
lgdf{0f ub}{ cfPsf 5g\ . s]xL jif{b]lv vf; u/L zx/L
If]qdf k|fOe]6 cfjf; sDkgLx¿n] j}1flgs, :jf:Yos/
tyf lskmfotL 3/x¿ agfpg] k|rng a9]/ cfPsf] 5 .
38]/LwgL cfk}+mn] Psn 3/ agfpFbf dxFuf] nfut kg]{
ePsf]n] zx/L afl;Gbf o:tf cfjf; sDkgLdf e/kg]{
u/]sf 5g\ . o; kl/k|]Iodf g]kfnL hgtfsf] cfjf;sf]
dfq kl/k"lt{ ug]{ sfd ;/sf/sf] bfloTj xf] . tfklg
;/sf/nfO{ ;3fpg lghL If]qsf Joj;foLx¿ nfluk/]sf
5g\ . ;/sf/n] o:tf] sfd lghL If]qnfO{ ;'lgof]lht tl/sfn]
;'Dkg' klg k5{ .
sf7df8f}+ dxfgu/kflnsfleq dfq} jif]{gL 36Ldf %
xhf/ 3/x¿ cfjZos kg]{ b]lvG5 . lsgls olQs} dfqfdf
3/x¿ aGb} u/]sf 5g\ . oqf] dfqfdf aGg] 3/x¿sf] lgdf{0f
sfo{ ;/sf/L:t/af6 ;Dej x'Fb}g . o;}n] cfjf; lgdf{0f
tyf 3/ 38]/Lsf] ljsf; ug]{ sfddf ;/sf/n] lghL
If]qnfO{ k|f]T;fxg tyf ;'ljwf k|bfg ug'{ ckl/xfo{ ePsf]
5 .
o; kl/k|]Iodf ;/sf/n] tf]s]sf] dfkb08sf] kl/lwleq
/xL k|fOe]6 sDkgLx¿ cfjf; lgdf{0f sfo{df h'l6/x]sf
5g\ . vf;u/L dxfgu/Lo tyf pkdxfgu/Lo If]qdf o:tf
sDkgL v'n]sf 5g\ . oL cfjf; sDkgLx¿n] cfjf;sf]
a9\bf] dfunfO{ kl/k"lt{ ub}{ ;/sf/nfO{ ;xof]u ug]{ e"ldsf
v]ln/x]sf 5g\ .
lghL If]qsf hUuf tyf cfjf; ljsf; sDkgLx¿nfO{
Ps} 5ftfd'lg uf]na4 ug{ @)%# kmfu'g !# ut] g]kfn
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 17
hUuf tyf cfjf; ljsf; ;+3 :yfkgf ePsf] 5 . /fli6«o
cfjZostf / ablnFbf] kl/l:yltcg';f/ hUuf tyf cfjf;
ljsf;sf] sfddf a9L Jofkstf NofO{ /fi6«sf] hUuf tyf
cfjf; ljsf; ug]{ lgsfonfO{ ;'Jojl:yt Pj+ ;'b[9 kfb}{
j}1flgs lsl;dn] o; If]qsf] ljsf; u/L /fi6«sf] cy{tGqnfO{
bl/nf] ug]{ sfddf 7f]; of]ubfg k'¥ofpg] o; ;+3sf] d'Vo
p2]Zo /x]sf] 5 . o; ;+3 cGtu{t xfn;Dd %$ /lhi68{
sDkgLx¿ ;b:o /x]sf 5g\ .
o; ;+3 cGtu{tsf cfjf; ljsf; sDkgLx¿n]
Independent Housing, Apartment, Colony, GroupHousing, Flat System, Detached, Semi-Detached, RowHousing, Low Cost Housing cflb lgdf{0f u/L ;]jf k|bfg
ul//x]sf 5g\ . s]xL jif{b]lv sf7df8f}+ pkTosf, kf]v/f
pkTosf tyf k "j f { ~rnsf s ]x L lhNnfx¿df
;fd"lxs÷;+o'Qm cfjf;sf] nx/ g} rn]sf] 5 . o:tf]
cfjf;sf] Joj:yf u/L laqmL ljt/0f ug]{ sfo{n] ;dfhdf
lgs} nf]slk|otf kfpg yfn]sf] 5 . lsgeg] cfjf;Lo ejg
vl/bstf{n] hUuf vl/b ug]{ / ejg lgdf{0f ug]{ b'j}
k|sf/sf] emGem6af6 d'lQm kffpF5 . vf; u/L ljb]zdf
sfd u/L /]ld6fG; k7fpg] JolQmx¿sf nflu zx/L If]qdf
Pp6f ;fg} eP klg 3/ agfpg] rfxgf o:tf sDkgLx¿n]
k"/f ul/lbPsf 5g\ . o:t} hUuf ljsf; ug]{ sDkgLx¿n]
afFemf] hUufdf af6f], ;8s vf]nL 9n lgsf;, vfg]kfgL,
ljB't, tyf 6]lnkmf]g nfOg cflbsf] k"jf{wf/ k|aGw u/L
hUufnfO{ kfsf] agfO{ cfjZostf cg';f/sf] If]qkmndf
hUufsf] Knflgª Knl6ª u/L ljsl;t 38]/Lsf] ;]jf
k'¥ofO/x]sf 5g\ .
lghL If]qsf] hUuf tyf cfjf; ljsf; sDkgLx¿nfO{
/fli6«o¿kdf ;d]6\g] g]kfn hUuf tyf cfjf; ljsf; ;+3
;\g !((& b]lv International Real Estate Federation(FIABCI) sf] Principal Member ePsf] 5 . sltko
FIABCI World Congress df ;+3n] g]kfn /fi6«sf]
k|ltlglwTj u/]sf] 5 eg] Habitat ;Dd]ngdf ;+3sf
;b:ox¿n] efu lnPsf 5g\ . o;af6 g]kfndf ePsf]
hUuf tyf cfjf; ljsf;sf] k |of;, ultljlw /
;/sf/L:t/af6 lghL sDkgLx¿nfO{ k|bfg ul/Psf cj;/
tyf sl7gfOx¿sf af/]df ;+;f/sf cGo b]zx¿nfO{
hfgsf/L u/fpg ;lsPsf] 5 . o:t} ljZjsf cGo b]zx¿n]
ljsl;t tyf j}1flgs tl/sfn] u/]sf] cfjf; ljsf;sf]
xfd|f] b]zsf] df6f] kfgLnfO{ ;'xfpFbf] pGgt k|ljlw g]kfn
le�ofpg klg d2t k'u]sf] 5 .
;+3cGtu{tsf sDkgL tyf kmd{x¿ ef}lts of]hgf
tyf lgdf{0f dGqfno cGtu{t zx/L ljsf; tyf ejg
lgdf{0f ljefu Pj+ sf7df8f}+ pkTosf gu/ ljsf; ;ldltsf]
gLlt lgodfg';f/ cfk\mgf] sfd cl3 a9fpg sl6a4 /x]sf
5g\ . ;+3n] ;/sf/L lgsfo / ;]jf k|bfos Jofj;flos
sDkgLx¿sf aLr dfWodsf ¿kdf sfd ul//x]sf] 5 .
;/sf/L gLlt lgod hUuf tyf cfjf; pkof]ustf{ dfem
k'¥ofpg / pkof]ustf{ tyf Joj;foL sDkgLx¿sf] b'Mv
tslnkm / sfd ubf{ cfO k/]sf afwf c8\rgx¿ ;/sf/L
lgsfo ;dIf k|:t't ug]{ sfd ;+3n] ub}{ cfPsf] 5 .
o:t}u/L ;/sf/L:t/af6 ;+/rgf ul/g] 3/ hUuf ;DaGwL
sf/f]af/ P]g tyf lgodfjnLsf ;DaGwdf ;+3n] ;sf/fTds
k|ltlqmof tyf ;'emfjx¿ ;do ;dodf k|:t't u/]sf] 5 .
;fy} hUuf tyf cfjf; ljsf;nfO{ ;'lgof]lht u/L zx/L
ljsf;nfO{ Jojl:yt ug]{, hUuf PsLs/0f ug]{ tyf aflx/L
rqmky h:tf ;/sf/L lgsfon] cfof]hgf u/]sf] sfo{zfnf
uf]i7L Pj+ 5nkmndf ;+3sf ;b:ox¿n] ;lqmo efu lnO{
;'emfj k|:t't ug]{ ul/Psf] 5 . ;do ;dodf ;DalGwt
;/sf/L lgsfox¿df k|:t't ul/Psf o:tf ;'emfjx¿
oxfF pNn]v ug'{ k|f;ª\lus g} xf]nf, h'grflxF o;k|sf/
/x]sf 5g\ M–
lghL kmd{n] k|:t't u/]sf] Planning Permit ;DaGwL
cfj]bg ul/Psf] kl/of]hgfdf :jLs[lt ug{ ldNg]–gldNg]
#% lbgleq lg0f{o x'g'kg]{ . o; ;doleq hfgsf/L
k|fKt gePdf :jLs[t ePsf] dflgg] k|fjwfg
lgodfjnLdf k|aGw x'g'kg]{ .
cfjf; ljsf; Joj;fo klg Ps k|sf/sf] pBf]u
ePsf]n] o;nfO{ rflxg] lgdf{0f ;fdu|L h:tf ;dfgx¿
cfoft ubf{ cGo pBf]un] kfP ;/x ;'ljwf kfpg'
kg]{ . o:tf] k|aGw ePdf cfjf; pkof]ustf{n] ;:tf]df
cfjf; kfpg ;S5g\ .
hUuf tyf cfjf; ;DaGwL gofF gLlt lgdf{0f ubf{
;/f]sf/jfnf Joj;foL / ;/sf/L lgsfo aLr Jofks
5nkmn kZrft lg0f{o x'g'k5{ .
;DalGwt P]gsf sltko bkmfx¿df tf]lsPsf] dfkb08
cJofjxfl/s tyf ;dofg's"n gePsf]n] ;'wf/ Pj+
;+zf]wg x'g'k5{ .
Planning Permit lng] l;nl;nfdf Approach Road& ld6/sf] x'g'k5{ eGg] dfkb08 ePsf]df k'/fgf] j:tL
If]qdf of] s'/f cJofjxfl/s x'g] ePsf]n] pQm
k|fjwfgnfO{ ;do ;fk]If x'g] u/L ;'wf/ Pj+ ;+zf]wg
ul/g' kg]{ .
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#18
Land Planning Scheme lghL If]qsf /lhi68{
sDkgL÷kmd{x¿n] klg ug{ kfpg] sfg"gL Joj:yf x'g'
;do ;fk]If ePsf] 5 .
Guided Land Development of]hgf cGtu{t k/]sf
hUuf /f]Ssf ug'{ k/]df hUuf vl/b ubf{s} cj:yfdf
/f]Ssf x'g'k5{ . hUuf vl/b u/L ljsf; ul/;s]kl5
GLD lgDg cGtu{t /f]Ssf x'g' x'Fb}g .
3/hUuf Joj;foLx¿af6 hUuf vl/b laqmL ubf{ bf]xf]/f]
/lhi6«]zg z'Ns lnOg' plrt gePsf]n] Joj;foLn]
hUuf vl/b ubf{ dfq} z'Ns lnOg' k5{ . bf]xf]/f] /lhi6]«zg
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Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 19
tLj| tyf clgolGqt zx/Ls/0f / ;DalGwt
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k|fjwfgx¿sf] ;DaGwdf :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P]g, @)%%
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@)%$ n] s'g} klg of]hgf sfo{Gjog ug'{ cl3 To;af6
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5 .
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of] P]gnfO{ ;+zf]wg ug{ cfjZos eO;s] tfklg o;nfO{
;Gbe{ ;fdfu|Lsf] ¿kdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
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g]kfndf zx/L jftfj/0f Joj:yfkgsf k|d'v ;d:of
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9n lgsf;, jfo' k|b"if0f / hn k|b"if0f kg]{ ub{5g\ .
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Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#20
59%25%
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t/sf/L, 3fF;kft h:tf h}ljs kmf]x/ x'G5g\ eg] afFsL
Knfli6s, sfuh, 9'+uf, afn'jf h:tf ch}ljs kmf]x/ x'G5g\ .
h}ljs kmf]x/nfO{ sDkf]i6 dn agfP/ k'gM k|of]u ug{
;lsG5 eg] gs'lxg] ch}ljs kmf]x/nfO{ 5'§} ;Íng u/]/
ljj|mL ug{ jf cGo sfddf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . k'gM k|of]u
ug{ g;lsg] kmf]x/nfO{ dfq Nof08lkmlnË ug{' kb{5 .
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kmf]x/x¿nfO{ cnUu} ;+sng u/L Jojl:yt tj/n] hnfpg]
jf uf8\g] ug'{ kb{5 . xfgLsf/s kmf]x/ dWo] zx/L If]qx¿df
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dxTjk"0f{ sfo{ ;fwf/0f / xfgLsf/s kmf]x/nfO{ ;|f]t d}
5'§ofpg' xf] .
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x'g] jfo' k|b"if0f lgoGq0f ug{ u'0f:tl/o OGwgsf] k|of]u,
sd w'jfF kmfNg] ;jf/L ;fwgsf] k|of]u, ;jf/L ;fwgx¿sf]
lgoldt dd{t ;+ef/ / oftfoft Joj:yfkgdf ljz]if
Wofg lbg' kb{5 . o;}u/L sd OGwg vkt ug]{ k|ljlwx¿sf]
k|of]un] pBf]ux¿af6 x'g] jfo' k|b"if0f 36fpg ;lsG5 .
o;sf] ;fy} kmf]x/nfO{ ;8s jf cGo v'Nnf 7fpFx¿df
kmfNg jf afNg glbP/, ;8sx¿sf] lgoldt dd{t ;+ef/
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Joj:yf u/]/ / o:tf ;fdu|Lx¿ hyfefjL y'kf{g glbP/
klg zx/leq jfo' k|b"if0f sd ug{ ;lsG5 .
vfg]kfgLsf] u'0f:t/ M M M M M Snf]l/g]zg / ;f}o{ zlStsf]
k|of]u u/L w/}df ;/n t/Lsfn] vfg]kfgLnfO{ k|zf]wg ug{
;lsG5 .
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k|b"if0fnfO{ lgoGq0f ug{ 3/d} ;]lK6s 6}+s jf dn rkL{
h:tf k|ljlwx¿sf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 jf 9n dfkm{t dnd"q
nufot cGo kmf]x/ kfgL ;+sng u/L s]Gb|Lo :yndf
k|zf]wg ug{ ;lsG5 . kmf]x/ kfgL k|zf]wg ug{ ;/n / sd
vlr{nf] s[lqd l;d;f/ k|ljlw k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
v'Nnf If]q tyf xl/ofnL Joj:yfkg M M M M M :yfgLo ;d'bfo
/ lghL If]qsf] ;xeflutfdf zx/df ePsf v'Nnf
7fFpx¿nfO{ v]n d}bfg, kfs{, au}+rf / xl/ofnL If]qsf]
¿kdf Jojl:yt ug{ ;lsG5 .
zx/L jftfj/0f Joj:yfkg ug ] { sfo {df
gu/jf;Lx¿sf] k|ToIf ;/f]sf/ /xg] ePsf]n] o:tf
sfo{x¿nfO{ k|efjsf/L Pj+ lbuf] agfpg :yfgLo
;d'bfox¿sf] kl/rfng / ;lqmo ;xeflutfsf] ;d]t
cfjZos kb{5 . o;}u/L jftfj/0f Joj:yfkg ;DaGwL
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;|f]tM s]Gb|Lo tYofÍ ljefu, @)%$
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 21
s]xL sfo{x¿ ;/sf/L If]qn] eGbf lghL If]qn] k|efjsf/L
tj/n] ug{ ;Sg] / cfjZos kbf{ ljz]if k|sf/sf k|fljlws
1fg / nufgL;d]t Nofpg ;Sg] ePsf]n] lghL If]qnfO{
klg jftfj/0f Joj:yfkgdf ;xefuL u/fpg ;lsG5 .
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jftfj/0f Joj:yfkgdf gu/kflnsfx¿n] rfx]df ;Lldt ;|f]taf6 klg w]/} ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] pbfx/0f x]6f}+8fn] k]z
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3/x¿nfO{ lbOof] .
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Nofpg'sf] ;fy} kmf]x/ Knfl:6s ;+sng / k'gM k|of]u ug{ ;'O/f] cleofg ;+rfng ul/of] .
3/ 3/df kmf]x/af6 dn agfpg …sDkf]i6 lagÚ ljt/0f ul/g'sf] ;fy} cfjZos tfnLd;d]t lbOof] .
kmf]x/ ;+sng / Joj:yfkgsf] nflu lghL If]qnfO{ kl/rfng ul/Psf] 5 .
a;kfs{sf ;fj{hlgs zf}rfnox¿ / To; jl/kl/sf] au}+rfsf] Joj:yfkgsf] lhDdf :yfgLo cfb{z 6f]n ljsf;
;+:yfx¿nfO{ lbOPsf] 5 .
:yfgLo k'iknfn kfs{sf] Joj:yfkg ug{ uf}td g;{/L;Fu ;fem]bf/L ul/Psf] 5 .
lrlsT;fhGo kmf]x/ 5'§} l/S;f dfkm{t ;+sng u/L Joj:yfkg ul/G5 .
x]6f}+8fsf] xl/ofnL / kmf]x/ Joj:yfkg
zx/L jftfj/0f Joj:yfkgsf ljleGg kIfx¿ / y'k|}
pkfox¿ ePsf]n] o; af/] /fd|f] 1fg xfl;n ug{ / pko'Qm
ljlwx¿sf] ;xL k|of]u ug{ zx/L jftfj/0f Joj:yfkg
lgb]{lzsfn] ;a}nfO{ ;xof]u ug]{5 .
x]6f}+8faf6 zx/L jftfj/0f Joj:yfkg l;sf}+
zx/L ljsf;
Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^#22
Some vilify cities as congested urban centers whichgenerates waste and pollution, others sing their praiseas an engine of economic growth, centre of culture andinnovation and a magnet of hope.
These perceptions have had a major influence onthe configuration and articulation of the urban agenda.
The first UN Conference on Human Settlementwas held in Vancouver in 1976. The urban agenda wasshaped to redistribute resources and redress problemsof inequity particularly between urban and rural areas.Urban issues were strongly linked to the social andeconomic development of countries.
In the late 1980s and beginning of the 1990sgovernment initiatives focused on sectoral interventions.Development aid concentrated on housing related issuessuch as land and infrastructure management, buildingmaterials and technology and the mobilization of financefor the urban poor.
In these years private sector emerged as a newactor and the concept of "Sustainable Development"started to receive worldwide attention. In 1970senvironmentalists blamed uncontrolled urbanization andpromoted an "Ideal" rural life. The "Green" agendadeveloped in these years by environmentalists wasrevisited through a new approach to sustainabledevelopment. It established a connection betweenpeople, human settlements and sustainable development,identifying key technical interventions in areas such asphysical planning, water and sanitation, energy and urbantransport. Human activity was blamed for most of theenvironmental hazards facing the world and the emphasiswas on curbing the activity to safeguard the environmentfor present and future generations.
The interest in sustainable development was furtherstrengthened in the late 1980s by the 1987 BrundtlandCommission Report which stated that sustainabledevelopment could not be achieved without consideringthe needs of the world poor. The report acknowledgedthat "poverty" is a major cause and effect of globalenvironmental problems. The international communitybelieved that the poor, due to their lack of resources andcapital, caused deforestation, water and air pollution and awhole range of environmentally unfriendly practices. TheCommission advocated economic growth in developingcountries to improve the quality of life for the poor.
Sustainable development is dependent on the abilityof national economies to accelerate economic growth
Sustainable Development and Principles ofSustainability in Urban Design*
in order to generate the surplus needed toaccommodate the basic needs of the poor. But theeconomic growth was not having the desired effect ofboth reducing poverty or saving the environment.
In early 1990s a new thought emerged and UNConference on Environment and Development held inRio-de-Janeiro in 1992 clearly showed that mostenvironmental damage was being caused by the richindustrialized nations not by poor people or poor nations.
UN Conference on Human Settlements (HabitatII) in 1996 placed the urban agenda on the top of theworld development agenda by adopting Habitat Agenda- a blue print for policy and actions in the years tocome. The focus of the Habitat Agenda was on therole of local government, civil society and the privatesector, particularly with regards to the provision of basicservices and shelter, decentralization policies andwomen's empowerment and sustainable developmentwas being debated again, but this time within the contextof sustainable human settlements development. Thisencompassed both the economic and social dimensionsof sustainable development.
Habitat Agenda paved the way for the inclusion,in the Millennium Declaration, of a specific urban target,calling for cities without slums. When the developmentgoals contained in the Millennium Declaration were givenclear and time bound target in 2002, the slum target wasincorporated into the international development agenda.This was an important recognition that sustainabledevelopment is not possible in an environment ofincreasing urban inequalities.
Three decades after the first UN Conference onHuman Settlements and 23 years after the UnitedNations used the phrase sustainable development forthe first time (1983), the international community metagain in Vancouver in World Urban Forum (WUF) IIIin June 2006 to discuss the sustainable city.
* Subject material collected from discussion paper &dialogue conducted in WUF III
-Surya B. SangachheDeputy Director General DUDBC
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Shahari Bikas
aif{ ̂ , c+s !!, @)^# 23
Today, sustainability issues are radically differentnot only between developed and developing countries,but also among developing nations. It is not only a matterof approaches but also of cultural awareness, technicalcapacities and financial resources. In this sensesustainability is strongly linked to different levels ofdevelopment. No country or city in the world can claimto have achieved a certain level of sustainabledevelopment if one third or half of its urban populationlives in poverty. How sustainable is a city where thebulk of the population is deprived of an adequate shelterwith basic services and tenure security ?
Any policy pertaining to the achievement ofsustainable development has to start with agreementson all sides-rich and poor (countries and people);socially and politically included and excluded populationsof the necessity for change and a clear recognition ofan unsustainable status quo. The definition sustainabledevelopment has profound political connotations thatshould be considered alongside the technical solutions.
Principles of sustainability in urban design are :-
I Principle - Good and plentiful jobs close to homeIntegrating job sites into the community creates
opportunities to walk or ride to work and reducesreliance on passenger vehicles. Sustainable communitiesfoster local economic opportunities and growth.Residents can find employment close to home.Government policies and local infrastructure supportlocal businesses and individual enterprise.
II Principle-Mixed use corridors accessible to allHigh density corridors are easily accessible to
many residents by foot, bike or car. Multi-modal accessboosts commercial activity, transit use and social vitality.Sustainable communities allow residents to live, work,shop and play in their local areas. Land and publicinfrastructure are designed for multipurpose and mixuse. Transportation corridors and commercial arterialsprovide both commuter mobility and access to multipleservices and daily activities. Corridors enable diversetransportation choices, including access and movementfor pedestrians, bicycles, transit and automobiles.
III Principle - Five minute walking distanceInterconnected street systems link residents with
the services they need. Residents who live within a fiveminute walk of frequent transit service are more likelyto choose transit as a mode of travel than those who livefurther away. In order to be effective, transit must alsobe located within a five minute walk of their destination(i.e. job sites). Sustainable communities have compactneighborhoods with an interconnected street network that
ensures quick access to commercial and public servicesand amenities. Streets and arterials are designed forwalking, cycling and transit access not just for cars.
IV Principle - Access to natural areas and parksThe principle of easy access to linked green spaces
includes local streets, major and minor parks, schools,protected areas, neighborhood parks and buffers. Thislinked system of green spaces within the communitysatisfies social, recreational and educational demandswhile meeting important ecological goals. Sustainablecommunities respect the natural function of thelandscape, particularly agricultural land, stream systemsand aquatic habitats. Well designed communitiesintegrate natural systems with human activities, placinghigh value on community access to natural systems andparks. Sustainable communities maintain and restoreecosystem functions. Effective ecosystem managementand restoration can achieve significant energyefficiencies, cost savings and environmental benefits.
V Principle - Lighter, greener, cheaperSustainable communities optimize the economic,
social and ecological impacts of buildings andinfrastructure. Innovative development standards andpractices will reduce community and environmentalimpacts as well as private, public and taxpayer costs ofdevelopment and infrastructure. Low impact solutionssuch as green infrastructure and natural drainagesystems will save money over the long-term, ensuringthe sustainability of economic growth. Natural drainagesystems in which storm water is held on the surfaceand allowed to seep naturally into the ground protectsagainst downstream degradation such as stream bankerosion and increased water temperature which is abyproduct of conventional storm water managementsystems. Using natural systems to collect and filterstorm water reduces infrastructure costs.
VI Principle - Different housing typesA range of housing types allows residents of
differing economic situations to live in the sameneighborhood and have access to the same services.More compact development requires less infrastructureresulting in few roads per person, less land per house,fewer car trips per person and more accessible transit.Accommodating a broad range of housing types andtenure into the same neighborhood helps to create adiverse and socially cohesive community. The principleof mixed housing types promotes integration andsymbiosis between different family types and ages asa way of strengthening the larger community.
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I. INTRODUCTIONI. INTRODUCTIONI. INTRODUCTIONI. INTRODUCTIONI. INTRODUCTION
This short essay aims at a brief assessment ofwhat have been tried and achieved in Nepal since thefirst World HABITAT Day in order to deepen ourunderstanding on how we may be able to turn ourcities to those of hope instead of slums and despair.
As per the UN resolution of December 17, 1985,World HABITAT Day was first observed in 1986 todraw attention to the deplorable living conditions of alarge number of people. Let me quote what theExecutive Director of UN-HABITAT then conveyedto the world community:
“One-quarter of the world’s population, over onebillion people, do not have adequate housing; onehundred million are actually homeless; eating andsleeping along public streets in the world’s cities….
In order to draw attention to these issues, theUnited Nations General Assembly has designated thefirst Monday of October of each year as WorldHABITAT Day. It has also designated 1987 as theInternational Year of Shelter for the homeless (IYSH).”
Nepal also observed the day with many activities.“Basic Housing Plan, 1987 – 2000”, was brought out ina seminar. It was a lucky coincidence that Nepal wasat that time preparing basic needs program and housingwas recognized as a basic need.
Looking back, the plan, to my mind, has influencedpoverty alleviation strategies. It was a good beginningand a good sign that housing was linked with povertyright from the start. Most of the policies that followedare focused on poverty. Even at that time, it was possibleto choose between what was socially affordable andthe so-called Asian standards.
I mention it as the dilemma is still not over and wehave to respond to MDG - 7. MDG - 7 is environmentalsustainability. We are yet to link it with slums in ourown context. In 1986, when the plan was prepared,standards were set at a level affordable by the societyas a whole. At that time it was looked first withskepticism. However, it got widely publicized and lotsof initiatives, changes and projects emerged. In otherwords, there was a seriousness to implement it. Today,this is not the case. MDG – 7 remained ignored for along time. Although now there is some attempt to
Cities of Hope
Dr.Jibgar Joshi(An eminent regional and urban planner)
understand it, I do not think it ever got a priority in highlevel meetings.
Nepal worked on those days to enable all toprovide themselves with basic housing by 2000. Today,if we were to meet MDG - 7, we have to deal with thepopulation living in slums. Sadly, it is taking a long timeto understand the implication of such a goal. It seemsthe population living in slums will rise if we are notserious about it. The HABITAT day, this year remindsus of this commitment of ours.
Section II tries to briefly evaluate theachievements that we made. This is followed by theproblems that we face today and the hopes we cherish.Based on this, the last section pleads that families andcommunities are the only viable institutions that wouldcreate and emulate cities of hope in the future.
IIIIIIIIII..... EVEVEVEVEVALALALALALUAUAUAUAUATTTTTIIIIION OF ACHIEVEMENTSON OF ACHIEVEMENTSON OF ACHIEVEMENTSON OF ACHIEVEMENTSON OF ACHIEVEMENTS
Over the years, although the absolute poverty hasfallen down, relative poverty has increased. Howeverstrategies for alleviating poverty failed to deal with urbangoods and services. Due to implosion, these becamerelatively scarce; their production more and more costly,beyond the reach of the urban poor. With moreinvestments both from the private and the public sector,costs have increased.
The efforts were at the beginning focused onincreasing the access of all to the elements of housing.Over the years, achievements in some areas have beenenormous. These are briefly described below.a) Urban land supply
There has been an increase in the supply of urbanland. This is due to land pooling projects. However theinvestments made in infrastructure are not fullyrecouped and the cost of maintenance went onincreasing. Nor the access of the poor could be raisedsignificantly. While the supply increased, most of theplots were kept idle for the sake of speculation. Servingthe few and getting more return is the way the privatesector operates.
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b) DecentralizationLocal bodies now enjoy most of the power that
used to be the prerogative of the center. There is agreat deal of transfer of power from the center to thembut people could not be adequately involved in thedevelopment of municipalities. There is a growingcentralization due to their partnership with the center. c) Housing finance
It is now available through many banks and otherfinancial institutions but their policy is also to serve afew and work on high spreads. The cost of finance hasthus increased and become less affordable. Urbandevelopment has created lots of wealth. But the wealthcould not be invested for making cities more livable.
In most of the cases we are definitely nearer tothe goal but the final steps are more demanding in thecontext of the political realities of the country and henceare extremely difficult to achieve. The growing interestof the business and government on the quick short termfinancial returns may pose the greatest hurdle and actas a barrier to change. This will disable the people.
III. PROBLEMS AND HOPESIII. PROBLEMS AND HOPESIII. PROBLEMS AND HOPESIII. PROBLEMS AND HOPESIII. PROBLEMS AND HOPES
The urban poor are not necessarily without worktoday. Poverty is the condition that is said to exist whenpeople lack the means to satisfy their basic needs. It isnot easy to define the basic needs. Basic needs forbare survival are no more the major issue. Those nearingthe borderline of death and starvation are going to befew. The beggars are seen in temples only. Theproblem today of urban places is not so much relatedwith nutrition and clothing. In relative terms these areless scarce. A large portion of the income is spent onfood and clothing. The problem is that the communityas a whole is getting poorer when judged from theperspective of the access to health, education, sanitation,water and so on.
Social goods have become relatively scarce. Thecosts of their production and management haveincreased. This has led to insufficient productivity ofour cities to compete with the outside world. More thanthe intra-city differentials, the poverty of the city as awhole is likely to make our cities the centers of despair.
Urban places are areas where more can beproduced with less resource. Very soon they will housemost of the poor. It is widely held that the poor comingto the cities get lost in a metropolis. But this is not thecase with us. The ability of a city to absorb differenttypes of the people in all income groups depend on its
cosmic nature. Not only that the access of the poorshould be enhanced, they should run it in the way theylike. Just as IYSH empowered the people to managetheir shelter, it is possible to empower families andcommunities to improve their ambience. This will alsohelp to sustain the local autonomy. But unfortunately,people find less or no time today to build the socialcapital for themselves. They pay for or remain deprivedof the environmental services that used to be madeavailable through their own works in the past.
IVIVIVIVIV. CONCL. CONCL. CONCL. CONCL. CONCLUSIONUSIONUSIONUSIONUSION
Although the absolute poverty level might havedecreased in most cases, urban poor are not in a positionto enjoy the minimum amenities. Sadly enough, povertyin relative terms has increased in urban places. Wemay not be able to alleviate poverty if we fail to link itwith the growth of slums. The goal will still be far off.
Nevertheless, cities remained the magnet of hopefor the people flooding from rural areas. Their hope fora better and happier life in the city is more likely to befrustrated.
Nepal had no other alternative in 1986 than to helpto increase the access of all to the elements of housingto enable them to provide with housing. This turned outto be realistic in the political sense and encouraged tomove towards the social optimum in adopting standards.Similarly, today, there is no other alternative than torely on the families and communities to take care oftheir ambience and make cities places of hope.
The link between the social affordability andwishful standards should be understood in this sense.The gap between the two should be narrowed down.People have become impatient and are looking for atransparent and affordable governance.
Through a deliberate policy to get rid of marketfailures, the rights of the poor can be protected. Andit is possible to raise productivity and income anduse a significant part of this to make our cities morelivable.
Living in slums is a sign of poverty. It is alsolinked with environment. Things will change with morepower with the people. They should be allowed toown their environment. They should not be subject toany sort of threat of eviction or exclusion. The powershould be used to generate hope not despair. Thiswould help to improve the living standard of the people.This will make cities the magnets of hope, instead ofdespair.
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Roads are paths established over land for thepassage of vehicles, people, and animals. Roads aid inthe movement of people and goods from one place toanother. There are many types of roads, and they rangefrom dirt paths to concrete-paved multilane highways.
Modern methods of road construction withwaterproof surfaces and better drainage systems werefirst developed in the 18th century. Modern roads areable to handle the high volumes and stresses ofautomobile and truck traffic. Road system is animportant part of our urban structure and is used byvarious modes of transportation. Many modern servicessuch as electricity, water supply, gas supply, drainagesand sewerages are delivered through these roadsystems. Fire departments, medical services, and othergovernment agencies depend on the system of roadsto provide emergency and other services safely andefficiently to the public. In this way, roads carry in themor under them almost all aspects of urban infrastructureand communication systems. Thus, good and efficientroad plans can reduce the cost of investment andmaintenance on these services.
In Nepal, there are a number of line agencies thatare associated with road construction, maintenance andtraffic management. The Department of Roads islooking into matters of road construction andmaintenance. Similarly, the Department ofTransportation Management and the Traffic Police areother agencies looking into traffic and transportationmanagement. The Department of Roads has classifiedthe national level roads into three categories: Highway,Feeder Road and District Road. These roads are foundto be generally differentiated by the level and types ofsettlements they connect. Thus, district roads are roadsthat connect important places within the districts.Feeder Road is a higher hierarchy of road and acts asan intermediate road that connects district roads tohighways. Highways are the highest category of roadsthat connects zones and development regions with eachother; or, in other words, The connect the whole of the
country by carrying traffic from one point of thecountry to another.
Besides these three categories of roads there area totally different set of roads. These are the urbanroads. In Nepal, the Ring Road of Kathmandu is oneof the highest standards of urban road built so far.Roads like the Ring Road of Kathmandu are arterialroads. Arterial roads act like arteries of blood circulationsystem of a human body by carrying the main bulk oftraffic and distributing them to the other road networksystem of the city. Arterial roads are at times alsoclassified as primary roads with lesser hierarchy roadsclassification followed by secondary and tertiary roads.Primary or arterial roads are highways of urban centersin the sense that they connect the whole of the city bydistributing the bulk of urban traffic and are alsodesigned to carry large volumes of traffic at relativelyhigh speeds. The efficiency and the speed at which thevolume of traffic these arterial roads can transport fromone point to another can be taken as an indicator ofgood urban management and planning.
Roads to perform efficiently as designed need tobe governed by “Right-of-way”. Right-of-waycontrols two basic factors of the road system. Oneaspect is the physical characteristics signified by thewidth, length and area of the road. This is translatedinto the number and type of lanes that the road isdesigned for. Lanes can be pedestrian, parking or trafficlanes which are both slow and fast. This in turninfluences the volume, speed and direction of trafficthe road can carry. The other aspect of right-of-way isaccess control. Access control can be full accesscontrol, partial access control or no access control.Access control is the control on the type of vehiclethat is allowed on the road. It is also the control of thetime, direction and the type of vehicles that are allowedto operate on the road. The above types of access
Kathmandu Roads: Pointing in the Right Direction
- Amrit Siddhi BajracharyaArchitect-Urban Planner
Department of Urban Development and Building Construction
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control are being efficiently used in Nepal by the TrafficPolice for proper traffic management. However, a veryimportant aspect of access control in terms of the placeand number of points at which the road is allowed to be
With the nation now planning to construct an OuterRing Road in the capital city of Kathmandu, it isappropriate that we review the ways we are using urbanroads as tools for better urban planning and hence betterdevelopment. Let us start by questioning ourselves,“What is most appropriate for Kathmandu Valley: OuterRing Road or Ring Railroad ?” A debatable topic. Letus phrase this differently. “Can we efficiently manageand use our roads in the way we planned them for ? Isthere any doubt on our ability to enforce the appropriateright-of-way regulations when and where needed ?” Ifwe have any doubts answering these questions, then itmay be wise to opt for Ring Railroad instead of OuterRing Road. The negative impacts caused by the misusesof the Outer Ring Road may be a price too heavy topay.
While we ponder over the appropriateness of OuterRing Road, it may be good to review some of thestatistical data of Kathmandu Valley. Road statistics of
joined by other urban roads has not been practiced asplanned and the way it is implemented has been left tothe whims of the general public by our planners. Thishas become a major cause of haphazard urban growthin our cities (see box).
Arterial roads of urban areas can be viewed andequated with railroads in terms of access control. Aswe all know, railroads by their inherent physical andmechanical system restrict use to bogies and enginesthat it is designed for and allow passengers to ride on itor stop at specified railroad stations only. But arterialroads do not have this inbuilt mechanism to controlmisuse. In this aspect, roads afford wider scope ofparticipatory use by the general public by running theirprivate cars and vehicles on the roads while railroadsafford very little scope in their way for the general publicto participate in this manner. Roads therefore have theflexibility for the individual to travel at will and to managetheir travel time as well. However, it should not be
forgotten that just as roads afford ample scope for publicparticipatory use, they also afford equal scope formisuse.
YEAR Built-up Area (Ha)
Percentage of Built-up Area of GRT. KTM.
1954* 1060.66 16.45 1964* 1187.55 18.38
Urban Sprawl (Ha.)
Percentage of Sprawl to that
of Built–up area (%)
1971* 1486.00 23.00 404.50 27.22 1981* 2999.89 46.44 920.30 30.68 1991# 3388.32 52.45 1650.67 48.72 2001# 4350.39 67.34 2064.26 47.45
Area of Greater Kathmandu
for year 2001 is taken to be 6460
hectares as per the data taken from
Central Bureau of Statistics
# Study of Urban Growth and Site Suitability Analysis of Kathmandu Valley-2003 by Amrit Siddhi Bajracharya * data derived from Kathmandu Valley Land Policy Study-1986 Greater Kathmandu area = Kathmandu metropolitan city and Lalitpur sub-metropolitan city
Insufficient Use of Right-of Way Regulation: the Cause of Haphazard Urban GrowthThe accelerated haphazard urban growth recorded in Greater Kathmandu area after the construction of
Ring Road in 1976 can be presented as being caused by insufficient implementing of appropriate right-of-wayregulations on the Ring Road. The decadal data record of the growth of built-up area, sparse-density land useand low-density land use of Greater Kathmandu starting from 1954 onwards help to portray the haphazardgrowth experienced in Greater Kathmandu in terms of urban sprawl.
Prior to the construction of the Ring Road, built-up area’s rate of increment was about 2 to 4 percent andurban sprawl defined by low and sparse density land use covered 27.22 percent of built-up area. But, after thecompletion of the Ring Road in 1981, built-up area grew by 100 percent thus covering 46 percent area ofGreater Kathmandu and urban sprawl grew by 3.3 percent thus covering 30.68 percent of the built-up area.By 2001, Greater Kathmandu was 67.34 percent built-up with 47.45 percent of this built-up are being coveredby urban sprawl.
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1990 show that roads in Kathmandu are mostly singlelane roads which are 589 kms in length. Double laneroads form 139 kms of Kathmandu’s road length whilefour lane roads are quite insignificant (12 kms long).However, there are possibilities of upgrading someexisting double lanes to four lane roads. It was foundthat Kathmandu roads serve around 50 percent of theValley area on the assumption that each road servesan area of half a kilometer to the left and half akilometer to the right of it. Another recent study of landuse of the Kathmandu Valley shows that 28 percent ofthe Valley is built-up. Tallying these two figures, it canbe assumed that roads in Kathmandu Valley areadequate in terms of total length and area served bythese roads for future urban growth. However, almostall of these roads do not have the capacity for largevolumes of traffic nor do they support fast traffic. Thispresent condition and road standard is one of theprincipal cause for high air pollution. Our sincere effortto manage our city may be what is really required torestore its past beauty and at the same time make itmore clean and efficient.
Roads are a very important aspect of urbanplanning. Well designed and managed roads not onlyserve the city efficiently but also enhance its beauty.The Outer Ring Road is a very good proposition. It willhelp to connect the different settlements of the Valleywith each other with a good motorable road. Otherwisethese settlements were only connected with the centralareas of Kathmandu with radial roads. But, is the OuterRing Road what Kathmandu needs? Even the ‘LongTerm Development Concept of Kathmandu Valley-2000’ prepared by the Kathmandu Valley TownDevelopment Committee advocates against an OuterRing Road on the basis that it will induce urban sprawl.This assumption is very much justified by present trends.If we are really concern about better, greenerKathmandu, should we not be reviewing some of therecommendations made by ‘The Study on KathmanduValley Urban Road Development-1993’ conducted bythe Department of Roads. Whatever the choices thatwe opt for, it will definitely define the future of thiscity. So let us not make hasty decisions now and repentlater by wasting limited resources trying to right ourpast wrongs.
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1. Understanding of e-Governance forDevelopmentInformation and Communication Technologies
(ICTs) can make a significant contribution to theachievement of good governance goals. The ElectronicGovernance 'e-Governance' can make governancemore efficient, more transparent and more effective,and bring other benefits too. E-governance is theapplication of ICTs to transform the efficiency,effectiveness, transparency and accountability ofinformational and transactional exchanges within thegovernment, between governments and governmentagencies at national and local levels, citizens andbusinesses; and to empower citizens through accessand use of information. Moreover, the most importantthing is to allow direct participation of constituentsin government activities.
Three main contributions of e-governance are:Improving government processes (e-administration);Connecting citizens (e-citizens and e-services); andBuilding external interactions (e-society).
2 Why e-Governance for Development?The penetration of ICTs in all parts of human
existence is leading to changes in the way humansinteract within the society and the way societies involveindividuals in the evolution process. The societies areincreasingly getting transformed to knowledge societiesand its inhabitants into knowledge networkers who aremore informed of the events happening locally andglobally. Their actions are based on the strongfoundation of knowledge which is universal, objective,timely and triangulated from various sources. The peopleare becoming more aware of their rights andopportunities that lie ahead of them and are developingcapabilities to make an informed choice in all areasthat influence them, including the sphere of governance.
In this wired-up era, the inhabitants of theknowledge societies will have more freedom, flexibility
Electronic Governance for Strengthening GoodGovernance
- By Suresh Dhoj ShresthaICT Advisor
Rural Urban Partnership Programme
and opportunities to decide how and by whom theywould like to be governed. The underlying truth willbecome self-evident that- it is not the leaders whogovern people but it is the people who let theleaders govern them.
The widening use of ICT is restructuringknowledge and power structures. It is changing thepolitical scene as it is reshaping democracy and theway informed citizens interact with the Government.
With the emergence of pro-active knowledgesocieties, the government will have no choice but toimprovise to bring in greater efficiency, accountabilityand transparency in their functioning.
It is true all over the world that government in thedeveloping nations costs too much, delivers too little,and is not sufficiently responsive or accountable. Goodgovernance reforms aim to address these shortcomings.Yet progress – after many years of effort inimplementing such reforms – has been much morelimited than expected. E-Governance offers a new wayforward, helping to improve government processes,connect citizens, and build interactions with and withincivil society.
E-Governance at root has the power of ICTs,which provide three basic change potentials for goodgovernance for development:Automation: This refers to the replacement of the
current human-executed processes, which involveaccepting, storing, processing, outputting ortransmitting of information. For example, it is theautomation of existing clerical functions.
Informatisation: This focuses on supporting the currenthuman-executed information processes. Forexample, it supports current processes of decisionmaking, communication, and decisionimplementation.
Transformation: This aims to create new ICT-executedinformation processes or support new human-
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executed information processes. For example, itcreates new methods of public service delivery.These change potentials, in turn, can bring five
main benefits to governance for development eitherindividually or in a combined manner.
Efficiency gains:Governance that is cheaper: The government
that produces the same output at lower total cost.Governance that does more: The government
that produces more output at the same total cost.Governance that is quicker: The government that
produces the same output at the same total cost in lesstime.
Effectiveness gains:Governance that works better: The government
that produces the same output at the same cost in thesame time, but to a higher standard.
Governance that is innovative: The governmentthat produces new output.
3. Why do we need to encourage E-governancein Nepal?Bring transparency in Government operations andgovt. public interface.Improve the efficiency and effectiveness of thegovernment’s service delivery systems.Improve financial managementImprove the efficiency of administrationDissemination of information to the private sectorApart from these, ICT has made the path easier
and introduced the concept of borderless society in thisworld. It is the most suitable and important sector forthe development of Nepal considering its topography.
The e-Governance about which we are discussingis the key to realizing the vision of service excellence asit delivers "one-stop, non-stop" electronic governanceservices to all the Nepalese people. With an easy access tothe government online, these benefits would be extendedbeyond the territory of Nepal, bringing the "ConnectedGovernment" to Nepalese all around the world.
4. e-Governance: Winds of ChangeE-governance promises a plethora of benefits to
the citizens by accelerating and automating thegovernment-citizen interface and bringing abouttransparency in the functioning of the government. Thiswill enable a healthy citizen-government interface. Butthis calls for a change in the traditional mindset ofbureaucracy.
There are many initiatives taken by governmentorganizations to publish their information on the web.Apart from this, the introduction of municipal e-Governance in 2003 by Rural Urban PartnershipProgramme (a joint Programme of Ministry of LocalDevelopment and UNDP/Nepal in coordination withMinistry of Physical Planning & Works and NationalPlanning Commission) jointly with its partnermunicipalities paved the way for the preparation ofNational e-Governance Road Map of Nepal. At present,the High Level Commission for Information Technology(HLCIT) and National Information Technology Center(NITC)/Ministry of Environment, Science &Technology are taking lead role in preparing e-Governance Road Map. Thanks to the Government forallocating budget this year for implementing the e-Governance Road Map.
At the most fundamental level, e-governancewould mean facilitating citizen-government interfaceby making it transparent and not just efficient. Now,such a definition is yet to be found out in its way in ourcontext. There is a considerable enthusiasm at theindividual department level driven by forward-lookingindividuals. But a cohesive movement is still lacking.
5. The problem of accessThe political, commercial and other elite groups
largely dominate new technologies. There is a littlechance that meaningful increase in the democraticparticipation or even the structures and processes ofrepresentation will happen, unless the opportunity totake part in the use of new technologies is deepenedand widened. This will require a greatly enhancededucational opportunities and a sharp decrease in thecurrent levels of social exclusion to be found in mostdemocratic societies. The technology alone may tendto emphasize the quantity and frequency of participationas against its quality in terms of prior deliberation andthe extent to which it is representative of the societyas a whole. Thus, merely putting computers in agovernment office won't help. We need to win theconfidence of people (who are going to man them)because, the people will ingrain ways of living, thinkingand working.
6. Pre-conditions of e-GovernanceTo replace the traditional governance by e-
governance, a traditional set of rules and regulationsneed to be replaced by a new set of cyber laws.Additionally, the e-commerce requires a goodconsideration. All the methodologies and modalities of
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the electronic transaction have to be worked out, sothat nothing goes unaccounted. The overall objectiveof cyber laws should be to provide a self-contained,simple and enforceable set of rules, which facilitate e-transactions. Another aspect is the simplification ofprocedures, rationalization of various administrativeprocesses and the restructuring of government. Mindsetof bureaucrats would have to precede the efforts of e-Governance; else it will merely be the computerizationof traditional manual activities. This would also meande-layering or re-layering of decision-making levels,
leading to re-engineering and appropriate sizing of thedecision-making as well as dealing machineries.
Use of Local Languages: Good governance is alwaysdelivered in local human conditions, with languagebeing one of them. Language is very crucial inimplementing ICTs in the process of governance.Local language based systems are crucial forthe impact of e-Governance at the grass rootslevel.
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BackgroundUnited Nations designated every year first
Monday of October as World Habitat Day. It startedfrom 1986 with theme “Shelter is my right”. The newtheme of every year, directly associated with citiescontinuously since 1997, has highlighted the importanceof cities. The World Habitat Day of the year 2005celebrated worldwide with the theme “MillenniumDevelopment Goals and Cities”. In Nepal also,Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, Departmentof Urban Development and Building Construction hascontinued its trend of celebrating it by organizing variousprogrammes including a seminar on the selected theme.This theme points out the roles of cities for achievingthe Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and callsfor an urgent action in the cities to address the issuesof poverty, hunger, unsafe water, disease, illiteracy andenvironmental degradation by adopting a set of goals.In such background, this article tries to present FoodGreen City (FGC) as one of the option for creating asustainable city with achieving MDGs.
Millennium Development Goals in NepalThe time-specified targets, Millennium
Development Goals for addressing poverty, hunger,disease, lack of adequate shelter, and promoting genderequality, education, and environmental sustainability aremore relevant with poor country like Nepal, since ithas been facing a great challenge for reducing thepoverty and hunger.
Food Green City: A Way of Achieving MillenniumDevelopment Goals in Nepal
– Dr. Sunil Babu Shrestha*
Looking at world’s urbanizing scenario, the trendof urbanization is inescapable – more and more peoplein the developing world will be living in the cities.However, seeking for a better urban world by achievingMDGs is not an easy task. In the context of Nepalesesituation also, cities have been suffering severely fromthe problem of slums and squatter settlements.According to Nepal Living Standard Survey 2003/04,"21.6% of households in the country’s cities have 'lessthan adequate housing facility' and 77.8% have 'justadequate'" (NLSS 2003/04). This situation illustratesthat so many aspects of poverty are associated withNepalese cities.
Issues and SolutionThe expansion of cities to accommodate more
people is creating various consequences. Five majorconsequences are: loss of productive lands, trafficcongestion and air pollution, underground hydrologicalmodification, Change in consumption habits andaffordability question in accessing food to low incomeurban resident. Generally, the food necessary for city’sdwellers is imported inside and the generated wastesare disposed outsides. In such situation, the affordabilityof 'adequate food' for all to its urban dwellers,especially for the low-income urban dwellers, becomesa serious issue. However, this issue of making foodavailable at an affordable price does not seem to be inlocal authorities’ responsibilities. “In Nepal, urbanhouseholds spend largest share 40% of its total
* Dr. Shrestha, concept developer of “Food Green City”, isan eminent Environmental Development Engineer & UrbanPlanner. He is also an executive member of Regional andUrban Planner’s Society of Nepal (RUPSON). This article isbased on the paper presented by him in the seminar organizedby DUDBC on the theme of World Habitat Day 2005.E-mail:[email protected] Glimpse of Urbanization Pattern of Kathmandu
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expenditure and 17.3% of households report that theirfood consumption is ‘less than adequate’, while 81.1%say it is ‘just adequate’ (NLSS, 2003/04). The cost offood in cities is high. To cope with it, in many cities, theurban poor living in squatter settlements maintainkitchen gardens and raise livestock to supplement theirfood requirements, even in small spaces available aroundtheir settlement. This type of urban agriculture,developed in an organized manner, could be a verysuitable means to generate household incomes andimprove the quality of urban diets for the targeted urbanpoor (who are generally less educated and unskilled).
Appreciating the importance of urban agriculturein urban livelihood and access to sufficient food as animportant means for poverty reduction, a city is thusconceptualized where the benefits of urban and ruralcharacteristics are coupled together to create asustainable and healthy society. This new type ofharmoniously blended city is conceptualized as FoodGreen City (FGC) – which could be an appropriatesolution in reducing hunger and is directly linked withpoverty, diseases and environment and also plays apositive role in achieving the MDGs.
What is Food Green City?In the context of limited resources, a concept was
formulated that looks green for functional as well asaesthetic purposes shifting green to productive green(green with food: having latent meaning environmentwith employment) and is designated as Food GreenConcept (Green 21). Based on this concept, Food GreenCity (FGC) is envisaged. A Food Green City is a humansettlement that enables its residents to live a goodquality of life with minimum consumption of resources,in harmony with nature, culture and future. It is also aprocess of “restructuring the cities” and its ultimategoal is to establish spatial equity and perfection in urbanecosystem for the sustainable development withcoexistence of man in natural system.
In FGC, urban agriculture is integrated with landuse planning and urban management system (includingsolid waste management) for providing food, healthyand pleasant living environments, economicalopportunities, gainful employment, social intercourseand cultural vibrancy in the city. This helps in convertingCarbon dioxide city to Carbohydrate city and assistsin creating pollution free and hunger free city.
Even though, cities do not have plenty of vacantlands, notable amount in urban areas are lying vacantand going useless unknowingly. There are many
examples of public lands, with plenty of vacant spaces,but having no meaningful use. Utilization of such landsas productive green spaces, as advocated in FGC couldhave ecological and economical benefits. ProductiveGreen Spaces provide a wide range of tangible benefitssuch as food, fuel and fodder. In addition to this, theyalso provide intangible, yet valuable amenities, such asaesthetics, oxygen and reduce carbon dioxide & noise.The estimation of value of such multiple and diversebenefits obtained from productive green spaces iscomplex. Thus, the total benefits of it, have not generallyunderstood by many of us. Against this backdrop, apreliminary benefit analysis was undertaken for 10institutional areas of Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan city’svacant spaces to calculate tangible and intangiblebenefits. The benefits estimated are really high in value.If those institutions are willing to use their potential foodgreen spaces as productive green areas, the totaltentative benefit per anum exceeds NRs.10 millions.In the similar manner, if the government proceeds toimplement FGC in its vacant areas, then substantialbenefit can be attained. This clearly illustrates theeconomic value of FGC and consequently, this exhibitsthe high prospect of Pro-Poor Public- PrivatePartnership Projects (6P) in promoting the urbanagriculture in the city using waste lands and compostthat produced from composting of solid wastes.
ConclusionThe major challenge thus for all urban planners
and policy makers is to attain suitable balance betweenurban population explosion and the issues of foodnecessity. One suitable and viable approach would bethe implementation of Urban Agriculture, conceptualizedin the Food Green City. This concept of FGC blendsharmoniously the urban and rural characteristics in anurban setting. Consequently, helps in decreasing humanimpacts on urban environments by managing the threemajor problems namely: 1) Urban Food (Safety andSelf-sufficiency), 2) Urban Povert,y 3) Urban Wasteand Pollution. Looking at the situation of Nepalese cities,low population density and still available of sufficientagriculture lands, Nepal has high potentiality for applyingConcept of Food Green City. If a mechanism torestructure the cities into FGCs is forthcoming, there isno doubt of attaining the physical, social andenvironmental benefits for achieving MDGs in Nepal.Then, the theme of this year’s World Habitat Day-“Cities: Magnets of Hope” will be more realistic.
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More than half of the world’s population (3.3billion people) live in urban areas and ninety percentof future population growth will be concentrated incities of the developing countries clearlydemonstrates that the world is becoming more urbanboth in territorial and demographic terms. Cities beingcomplex, dynamic and centre for growth, are not onlymajor locations for numerous socio-economic,environmental and political activities but they are alsopart of the network establishing tangible andintangible linkages both upstream to the national andinternational levels and downstream to their localsubjects. A combination of push and pull factors hasresulted in massive flow of population in the citiesthereby increasing socio-economic inequalities,decreasing quality of life, marginalizing urban poor,degrading urban environment and ecology andintensifying natural disaster vulnerability. These aremore threatening to human beings and integrity ofstates. Acknowledging the potentials of cities, theUnited Nations has decided the theme of this year’sWorld Habitat Day to be celebrated on 2nd October2006 as ‘Cities – Magnets of Hope’ to reflect on thestate of human settlements and the basic right toadequate shelter for all including to remind the worldof its collective responsibility for the future of thehuman habitat.
Nepal has been participating andimplementing numerous UN programs on humansettlement with varying degree of success. From theEight Development Plan (1992-1997) theGovernment of Nepal has been prioritising on fourdifferent issues: establishing new ministries such asMinistry of Women, Children and Social Welfare andMinistry of Environment and Population together withformation of Environmental Protection Council,preparation of the National Environmental Policy andAction Plan and development of Sectoral plans;constituting National Committee for International
UN Habitat Day: Cities: Magnet of HopeRegulating growth of cities to achieve human security
- Bijaya K. Shrestha, Ph. D.Nepal Engineering College (nec)
Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction, formingNational Commission on Sustainable Developmentwith members from civil society and local bodiestogether with preparation of a country report on itsMillennium Development Goals; Preparing NationalBuilding Code and its inclusion in Building PermitSystem in Kathmandu and Lalitpur, enacting JointApartment Act 2054 BS with development of privatesector housing, preparing Urban Area DevelopmentPlans for 22 municipalities and Integrated ActionPlan for 20 municipalities, and finally rectifying theConvention on Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination Against Women in 1991 and BeijingDeclaration in 1995 and other similar treaties. As aresult, Nepal has made encouraging progress inhuman development: the number of householdsserved by electricity has increased from less than 1percent in 1956 to 15 percent today; road networkshave increased from 124 kilometres to nearly 20,000kilometres; irrigation coverage has reached 38percent of cultivated land; nearly all boys and 90percent of girls now enrol in primary school; and theinfant mortality rate has been cut in half. Moreover,significant progress in the fields of health, educationand telecommunication has been realised.
Despite such achievements the cities in Nepalhave been facing numerous problems due to poorgovernance, rising insecurity and political instabilityespecially from the last many years thereby hinderingits development process. About 14% of the totalpopulation of Nepal resides in the 58 municipalitieswhereas the Kathmandu Valley with five urban
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centres alone accommodates 30.9% of total urbanpopulation with annual growth of 6% against thenational average of 2.1%. Failure to regulate suchrapid urbanisation through master planning anddevelopment control has numerous negativeconsequences. First, quality of life in the city hasdecreased due to high environmental pollution, trafficcongestion and inadequate and inefficient urbanservices. Old vehicles with poor quality of fuelrunning in dilapidated streets, unregulated growth ofbricks, cement and carpet factories in residentialprecincts, unmanaged solid waste disposal haveintensified noise and air pollution (200 microgramsper cubic meter of dust or suspended particles, 484microgram per cubic meter of NO2 in one hour periodin Kathmandu) beyond World Health Organisation’sguidelines causing losses in workers productivity,health care and tourism of about NRs. 680 millionper annum. Only 58% of urban household has accessto piped water and the supply is highly inadequateand irregular. About 76 percent of urban populationhave access to toilets whereas 34% of householdsuse covered drainage facilities. Vehicular speed hasdecreased to 20 km/hr in the inner area and 40km/hrin the Ring Road of the Valley with increase of roadaccident.
Second, housing deficit in the Valley till 2001 was48,545 units with gross land of 809 hac. for populationof 2,42,724 whereas the squatter settlements inKathmandu alone increased from 17 locations withpopulation of 2,134 in 1985 to 61 places with populationof 11,862 in 2000. Disparity on income level is veryhigh in Kathmandu as the bottom 60% earned only5.8% compared to 85.4% by the top 20%.
Third, the rapid transformation of traditionalbuilding stocks at the historic core by vertical divisionand then haphazard renovation and reconstruction ofthem as well as the haphazard new construction in theperipheral areas irrespective of seismic risk areintensifying earthquake vulnerable. Illegal constructionin urban areas is as high as 27% whereas more than90% of construction is informal. Households in urbanarea need to spend higher percentage of their incomeon housing (28 %) and clothing (10%) with little moneyleft for medicine and personal care (4%) and education
(4%) with very little or no money left for preparationof natural disaster. Last, demise of ‘guthi’ system, poorpublic awareness on cultural heritage and haphazardconstruction of buildings has degraded the past heritagecreated and preserved by our ancestors over manycenturies.
These weaknesses are the cumulative effectsof numerous weaknesses. Though the programs andtheir aims are comprehensive, the mechanism totranslate those broad objectives into more specificprojects at local level is weak. Lack of analysis basedmethodology, concept of urban design, absence ofmaster plans and development control at city (urban)level and inadequate and ineffective building bylaws,poor managerial, technical and financial capabilitiesof both national and local governments includingweak coordination among the concerned agencieshave not only constrained the best result in publicprojects but have also reduced the effectiveness ofpublic private partnership programs as well as ofprivate sector initiated housing and infrastructureworks. To reverse this trend, the three actors ofdevelopment namely research and academicinstitutes (think tank), government sector (rules andregulation preparation and enforcement) and privatesector (expertise, efficient and strong in finance)should work in a team in managing rapid urbanisationand regulating the growth of cities addressing thecultural heritage, natural disaster vulnerability andpresent day needs of city dwellers. Fulfilling basicright of decent housing, social security in health andchildren’s education and guarantee of job helpmotivate the workers thereby increasing productivityand competitiveness, which is essential in the era ofglobalisation and when Nepal is preparing for themember of World Trade Organisation. Building citiesfor economic and ecological sustainability, socialjustice, cultural continuation, democratic, productive,health – human security – not only provides enormousopportunities for citizens but it also opens door forinternational community for tourism, foreign directinvestment and establishment of foreign firmsincluding UN offices. Thus, cities as magnet of hopecan be truly realised. This is the message of World’sHabitat Day to Nepal.
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Newsweek research bureau carried an interestingbut alarming finding in its recent issue on urban drift ofpopulation in developing countries. Especially in Indiasome states are showing a tendency of a drift of ashigh as 76% of the states’ population towards urbancenters and a general speculation of 50% of thepopulation residing in urban centers is believed to cometrue within the next decade. Kathmandu being majorresource center in the country the constant ever-increasing migration from the rest of the country to thevalley is an observed phenomenon. According to a WorldBank report of 1990 Kathmandu alone constituted 20%urban population of the country with a growth rate ofphenomenal 5.3% very year. A recent survey indicatesthis figure increasing exponentially. This increasingurbanization with haphazard growth of traditionalhousing pattern is putting tremendous pressure on theexisting infrastructure facilities afforded by the city.Traditional housing also consumes a lot of land as theseare designed without taking into account of land useefficiency in relevance to the city. Government, lookinginto this predicament and also the slow pace of highlycapital-intensive infrastructure development, adopteda policy of encouraging private developers in the areaof urban housing development.
Traditional method of housing development iscausing haphazard development, which create poorliving environment, lack of infrastructural facilities,traffic congestion. Thus the housing development actsas an alternate solution to a needed change in life style.
Housing is the most valuable asset for majority ofpeople in the world and is assumed that people investabout 15 to 20 percent of their total incomes for shelter.Housing is an important indicator of nation’s economiclevel of developmental stage .A national housing surveyconducted in 1992 revealed that the yearly demand forhousing was growing by over 5.3 percent in theKathmandu valley and 24 percent of the populationresiding in the valley didn’t have their own house(IUCN, 1998).
Discipline in Urban Growth
- V RajgopalanPresident, Sunrise Towers
Executive Member, Nepal Land & Housing Developers' Association
The housing demand is increasing day by dayexponentially due to excessive inflow of the populationeither in search for better future or facilities and it hasbeen further add up by the current political situation ofthe country. Housing demand of the country is so highthat our country will require another 2.5 million housingunits by the end of 2006 in addition to present 3 millionunits in which urban areas alone requires 430,000 (17%)of new units ( NNHS, 1991) . Government alone cannotfulfill the housing demand so the private sector, seeingthe opportunities and after encouragement by thegovernment through apartment ownership act andcollective housing policy 1998, introduced itself in thefield. This will certainly lessen the housing pressure inthe valley. Traditionally housing has been regarded asunproductive sector for investment, so involvement ofprivate sector was not very encouraging. But now withNepal government’s policy of housing department theprivate sector has emerged strongly as housingdevelopers. Due to scarcity of land horizontal expansionis not possible so vertical expansion has also beeninitiated in a big way. Recently the government hasaccorded approval to the first high rise apartmentcomplex Sunrise Tower to Sunrise Developer (P) Ltdas a pilot project to contain horizontal expansion. Onlyconcepts like high-density housing and apartmentcomplexes can provide answer to mushroomingurbanization of valley.
Housing and home are two different terms butthey sound same. Home is a physical entity and it canbe constructed by erecting walls and columns. Buthousing can be defined as the art of creating a livingarea through the acquisition of the land in which buildingsare constructed with the provision of basic, social andcultural infrastructure. The concept of private grouphousing has emerged from the industrial countries wherelarge number of industrial workers had to accommodatein residential quarters very near to working places.
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Common facilities like open space, parking area,playground, road were shared among occupants of thedwelling units. In our case this concept is introduceddue to rising demand for housing and scarcity of land.This will also compensate for the city’s slow pace ininfrastructure development.
private housing is a positive sign, the uncontrolledgrowth may lead to dissatisfy buyers, which will certainlyderail the process of private housing sector in the nearfuture. The government at the earliest should make planof land use of the whole area and the private developersallowed to develop laying stringent requirement like
percentage green areas, percentage of high incomegroup (HIG), middle income group (MIG) and lowincome group (LIG), allocation of shopping arearecreational area, services etc. This way thegovernment can also predict in advance the requirementin terms of service and provide accordingly and in time.This if implemented properly can result to properhousing for people of all income and strata. Since atthe present pace we cannot make up with the yearlyincreasing demand of the housing need, it is nowimperative that we also start looking for other types ofmaterials. Many developed and developing countrieshas been using materials other then RCC and brick fordecades which are durable, earthquake proof and whichcan be constructed at a very fast pace.
A need for a well appointed central buildingresearch institute as a wing of science and technologydepartment of government of Nepal will be a welcometool to private developers for reducing costs in makinghousing within easy reach of majority of populace.
Currently private housing has reached areasonable level of acceptability by the needy, howeverit will take time for this to severe as a viable alternateto conventional housing. The government needs tomonitor the private developments and devise policiesto make them well organized affordable and sustainablealternate to the haphazard growth in conventionalhousing pattern.
Increased income and improved living standard areas
Rapid population growth in urban areas
High demand for housing lots with pleasant urban
environment
Factors influencing housing necessity diagram
The necessity of group housing arisen due to:High cost of land.Owners are unable to spend time and energy inthe constructionPoor mobilization of housing finances for individualhouseholds.Private housing in the valley has been launched
with the prime objective of providing houses to needypeople with adequate provision of basic infrastructureservices such as roads, drainage, water supply, openspaces etc. Government initiatives in housing supplyhave been very slow and have not had any significantimpact on the housing market due to their limited numberand size. On the other hand the group housing projectsbeing developed by private sector are completing inrapid pace. The current trend of organized grouphousing is increasing housing supply and will greatlycontribute to the housing stock.
Major problem faced by developer is consolidationof land. Developers are facing difficulties in landacquisition and development, which is considered to bemajor constraint in the development of group housing.The land acquisition act empowers only government toacquire private properties for public purposes and hencegovernment should show an initiative in acquiring landand distribute to the private developers. The governmenthas done admirable job of encouraging the privateinvestor in the housing area. Although the growth of
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Cities in Asia and the Pacific are centres of bothhope and despair: while being engines of economic andsocial development they are also congested centres ofpoverty and environmental deterioration. Despite therelative abundance of health facilities in urban areasas compare to rural areas, the quality of life is poorespecially of those living below the subsistence levelmainly due to the lack of 'basic level of urbaninfrastructures’1. This is quite contrast with manytraditional towns where urban centres were planned tocreate a socio-cultural living with efficient managementof interdependencies between man and nature.Traditionally urban development efforts in KathmanduValley, especially in medieval period, had beenenvisaged with management of such interdependenciesand problematic of socio-cultural integration, as it wasto be expected given the nature of the demand to whichit was a response, a demand determined by the necessityof defence and continuity for survival throughsubsistence economy. Such effort testifies to urbanplanning that aimed at creating a city, which iseconomically viable, socially acceptable, culturallyadaptable and environmentally sustainable. Thecontinuity2 of existence of medieval towns ofKathmandu Valley till date accounts for the success ofthese cities as self-sustainable “social units3” in timeand space. Living in medieval towns of KathmanduValley was “social experience” experienced throughthe efficient functioning in terms of meeting humanneeds. However the departure from traditional urbanpattern of Kathmandu Valley during the Rana Rule andthe modern development that followed after the
downfall of Rana oligarchy has been rather haphazardin terms of spatial expansion at the cost of limitedresources due to rapid urbanization4.
The increasing population size and consumptionvis-à-vis limited resources have demanded urbanmanagement of Kathmandu Valley to be more efficientin terms of achieving goals of sustainable urbandevelopment. This paradigm of sustainable developmentaims, to quote the words of the World Commission onEnvironment and Development, to meet ‘the needs ofthe present without compromising the ability of thefuture generation to meet their own needs’. At the sametime it tries to define “present needs” as distributivejustice of the wealth; that is to say, providing empoweredaccess to resources for all section of society both socio-economically and spatially. The urban developmentpractice in Kathmandu Valley has not been able tocreate a balanced development between the valley andits hinterland in terms of creating effective demand forgoods and services through planned economicinvestment in urban infrastructure and the housingsectors. As a result economic uncertainties marred byinflation, unemployment and poor living condition havemade living in the valley very expensive and difficult.This has given rise to multitude of social problems whichare evident in growing social crimes and evils in recenttimes. Similarly, the mismatch between the developmentgoal of Kathmandu Valley and the subsequent strategies
Kathmandu Valley : City of Hope and Despair
1. 30% of the developing world's population does not have access to proper sanitation-over 50% in the case of Asia.In the main cities of developing world, 40-50% population live in slums and informal settlements
2. Continuity is not in the sense of the continuation of the traditional urban pattern but as an entity of medieval town3. Social unit may be defined as social system and system of action which when coincides with spatial units, the terms
community and urban institutions are usually used.4. The population of Kathmandu Valley grew at an average annual rate of 4.6% in 1970 and reached above 6% in
1980. In 2001, the growth rate of the valley is estimated at 3.36 with over 50% of the total urban population of Nepalliving here
- Ar. Sanjaya UpretyExecutive Member
SONA
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adopted has not contributed much to retain the culturalsignificance of the valley. In such a situation the inputsrequired for sustainable urban development in terms ofsocio-economic and spatial plane needs to be redefinedrationally. In socio-economic plane, sustainabilityrequires building a sense of community within thepresent society and the future generation who haveequitable access to the wealth or development benefitsfor the continuation of new urban social order that isadaptable to change. This is not impossible if spatialcharacter of the city is well conceived and dealt in termsof its linkages to the surrounding areas, preserving thecultural identity through planned economic investmentand creating goods and services, especially the housing,for effective demand of the people. It is within thisbackground; this paper attempts highlighting theprobable factors that can contribute negatively to thesustainability of the valley. Degrading socio-culturalcondition evident in the loss of cultural identity, socialdistancing of the populace through residentialdifferentiation caused by poor infrastructure condition,unplanned investment of property capital and lack ofaccess to housing has been taken as major factors forthe discussion.
In Kathmandu Valley, contrast to traditionalurban sustainability, resources is being depleted andliving, especially for low income and poor, has becomedifficult if not impossible. The reasons for depletioncan be attributed to inefficient and inappropriate useof resources that have contributed to environmentaldegradation and inequitable development. One of themajor problems with environmental degradation andinequitable development in Kathmandu Valley can berelated to the poor level of existing infrastructure andsubsequent planning effort to provide access toinfrastructure for all sections of the society. Anexample of skewed access to the infrastructureservice can be noticed in the decreasing proportion ofpedestrian walkways to vehicular roads. Such situationhas contributed to inequitable distribution of servicesthat have negative consequences manifested inincreasing air pollution, accidents and trafficcongestions.
Another important deterrent in making KathmanduValley a city of hope is material and non-material culturaldegradation due to unplanned economic development,especially the commercial development. Since most ofthe urban areas of Nepal including Kathmandu valleyare not industrial towns but more of consumer towns,where services are produced and consumed, theapproach to economic planning needs a differentoutlook. The realisation of this reality can be assertedin the form of past initiative to develop tourism relatedservice industry in the valley for its obvious advantageof being heritage city. However, the experienceindicates that this realisation could not be realisticallymaterialised due to the unplanned and incompatibleeconomic investment.
Today Kathmandu as an urban area has a numberof reference: it may refer to a spatial form, to a culturalpattern or to a structural from. But, essentially urbanismin Kathmandu Valley is the cultural expression of spatialform. However in contemporary context the culturalexpression of spatial form of the city could not becontinued due to unplanned economic, social and spatialplanning. A clear account of this fact can be traced inthe commercial development in and around the culturaltowns5 and its corresponding effects. The effect at itsbest could be noticed in the decay of traditional urbanareas (today popularly referred as cultural heritagesites). In microeconomic sense, the huge investmentof property capital in and around such heritage siteswas initially encouraged by the tourism activity,proximity to infrastructure and dense settlement of thecore and, later by the agglomeration of commercial andadministrative units. Characteristically, property capital6
favours buildings for administrative, commercial andfinancial activities that is to say office blocks, shoppingcentres, recreational and many other commercialspaces. The prime investment motive here would beguided by the maximization of the profit. With thelocational and situational advantages developer enjoys,people are willing to pay high rent thereby resultinginto astronomical rise in the cost of the land in coreareas. This means the traditional core area remainsimpoverished due to the owners unwillingness to invest
5. Malla towns namely Bhaktapur, Kathmandu, Patan and other rural towns of the valley6. In Kathmandu Valley, other than property and labor capital, only service producing industrial capital investment
(e.g. tourism industry) is as appropriate for its ecological vulnerability
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in maintenance and development causing the decay ofurban fabric. Unplanned investment of property capitalin incompatible commercial development in and aroundcity core has largely contributed to the decay of suchheritage sites in terms of urban spaces and built form.In the absence of timely planned economic investmentin medium scale commercial development and failureto respond to the new urban dynamics throughappropriate urban renewal plan has left Kathmandu citycore to transform at random creating multitude ofenvironmental problems (viz. problematic of congestion,open space encroachment, light and ventilation,architectural image, safety and security etc).
Another aspect that needs mention here is the shiftfrom traditional concept of sustainable land developmentto the new paradigm largely guided by economicdeterminism, which at its best is for creating economicbenefits at any cost. This is conspicuously prominent,as mentioned in the preceding paragraph, in the natureof investment of property capital, which with profitmaximization at the centre of development concept, isunwilling to invest in social infrastructure like housing.The end result is development of larger commercialspaces and luxury residential lots in central areasalienating and pushing the middle income, low incomeand economically weaker sections of society to the edgeof the city in insalubrious housing conditions at the costof fringe areas. Public sector’s financial limitation toextend the trunk infrastructure to these areas anddistancing of populace from work place due to poortransportation system has had negative socio-economicand environmental consequences. The issue of housing,in Kathmandu Valley, has been debated on two grounds;one providing all urban dwellers access to serviced landand other is providing dwelling unit through improvedland and housing market mechanism. However theexperience to date reveals that this has not happeneddue to ineffective urban management caused by variouslimitations in local and central government levels. Publicsector’s investment in urban land market has not beenable to meet the growing demand7 leaving thedevelopment practice to informal developers at large.Similarly the emergence of organised housing
developers, largely acting in unregulated marketcondition, has limited their investment of property capitalinto luxury residential development which is beyond theaffordability of the needy section of society. Suchdevelopment has contributed to overcrowding in areas,which are considered to be ecologically sensitive andeconomically unviable. Such problem has its root to thepoor and inefficient urban management that hascontributed to differential social living. The growingdifferential social living in Kathmandu as evident in theresidential development (in fringe, sub-urban areas) hasbeen a key issue in the depletion of inelastic naturalresources (over exploitation/pollution of water, soil, airetc) of the Valley.
It is thus seen that failure to address theproblematic of infrastructure, socio-culturallycompatible economic investment in urban areas andaffordable housing development for creatingmulticultural homogeneity have been root causes thathave hindered Kathmndu Valley’s quest for sustainabledevelopment. In spatial sense, urban planning aimingat spatial containment of populace for community living,preservation of utility value of cultural heritage,developing mutually dependable linkages to the resourcebase and planned investment for income increasethrough market economy to create effective demandfor social infrastructure will be keys of sustainabledevelopment in Kathmandu Valley. It can be achieved,as done in the past, by creating balanced dependenciesbetween Kathmandu Valley and its hinterland throughgraded linkage development. So, one of the desirabledepartures in bringing about sustainability in currentpattern of urban development is re-densification of thecity core and development of urban-rural linkage andnurturing the urban rural continuum. This demands anappropriate urban planning intervention, which shouldaim at developing Kathmandu Valley for its culturalidentity8 and socio-economic development through therealistic addressing of key development issues relatedto sustainable urban development. Then only KathmanduValley as a city can be argued as magnet of hope intrue sense rather than resorting to argumentum atpopulum
7. The attempts by public sector towards meeting the demand could produce only 6% (280 ha) in two decades8. The cultural identity in question is not the continuity of traditional culture but the transformation according to
modern time, space and the existing conditions.
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ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences
Herbert DT & etl Social Areas in Cities; Process, Patterns and Problems, John Wiley & sons Ltd, UK, 1978Lamarche, Francois, Property Development and the Economy Foundations of the Urban Question,
Appeared in “Urban Sociology; Critical Essays”, edited by C. G. Pickvance, Tavistock Publication, UK,1977
Midgley James Fields of Practice and Professional Roles for Social Planners, appeared in the “Fieldsand Methods of Social Planning”, Edited by James Midgley & David Piachaud, St. Martin Press, NY,1984
Tiwari S. R. Sustainable Urban Development; Lessons from Historical Asian Cities-TheoreticalElaborations and Past Parallels, based upon the papers presented in “International Conference onCulture in Sustainability of Cities II, Kanazawa, Japan. Oct. 2000, International Conference on Culturein Sustainability of Cities III, Chongju, Korea, May 2001(UNU/IAS & IICRC)
Uprety Sanjaya, Private Sector and Urban Land Development in Kathmandu Valley; Review of PolicyParadoxes, Research Paper, SONA Journal, Kathmandu, 2006.
9. The urbanization process in Nepal is relatively new phenomenon but its importance and significance can be measuredfrom its contribution to the national GDP which is over 60%.
In conclusion, the rise in power and the dominationof the city has numerous positive effects9 in theeconomic, social and cultural domains. On the impetusof the rising bourgeoisie and middle class, havingadopted the value of prosperity, a new urban cultureprogressively is taking its root, with the emergence ofnew consumer class. The revolutionary transformationbrought about by globalisation of communication andinformation in recent decades has also seen erosion ofcommunity behaviour (e.g. collective consumption)affecting community living. The growing loss of primaryrelation and increased social distance has lessened thecommunity consciousness for sustainable living givingrise to consumer oriented development strategies. Suchdevelopment has affected the overall urban systemdepriving the basic inputs needed for sustainabledevelopment. However such inputs can be imbedded
in urban system by looking at the contextual socio-cultural and economic needs and available resources.“As it demands application of deontological logic inplanning and seeks actions in economic, social andcultural planes of the environment, the extent to whichwe may aim and attain urban sustainability depends asmuch and even more on social agreement, will andforesight of the present than on the possibilities oftechnical know-how” This is achievable if radicalchange in basic attitude towards ways means and endsof living in urban areas. It will require the urban societyto gradually move from its current base of ‘economyof surplus’ to that of ‘economy of sufficiency/need’,move from the ‘present period’ centred approach toaccommodate the rights of the future and define,institute and regulate commensurate long-term rules ofbehaviour.
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- B.L. ShresthaShelter and Local Technology
Development Centre
1.Background.1.Background.1.Background.1.Background.1.Background.
This project is proposed for the extremely poorpeople, living in the Terai region of Nepal. There aremany sects like Musahars, Pasang, Domes, Tusars,Chamars, Routes etc who are normally homeless andlive in a temporary huts, erected on public land. Majorityof them are illiterate, economically backward and sufferfrom malnutrition. These are the people who suffer mostdue to natural hazards like fire, floods, storm, etc.because of the poor shelter condition Every year ten,of thousands of these families are affected by naturalhazards It is true that they cannot hope to have a hygienicand safe shelter in their entire life time and becomefree from these hazards. Thus, this pilot project will bean example of the fact that the poorest people also canbuild the safe and hygienic shelter at affordable cost.
This project proposal attempts to provide a verycheap but hygienic and safe shelter, to these poorestpeople of Nepal. In addition to the shelter it also aimsto provide development infrastructures necessary foraccess to education, health, employment etc. Likewise,this project in addition to the provision of shelter willalso improve the living condition of the poor people andenable them to live as human beings.
2. Present housing condition of the poor2. Present housing condition of the poor2. Present housing condition of the poor2. Present housing condition of the poor2. Present housing condition of the poor
The problems in the housing conditions of the poorcan be divided into three parts :-A. Durability.B. Hygiene.C. Vulnerable to natural disasters.Durability
Mud -thatch bamboo are the main constructionmaterials of the rural people. Mud walls are not durabledue to the splash of rain water or due to the risingdampness. Thatch and bamboo decay in a couple ofyears. So these houses need continuous repair andrequire complete rebuild after couple of years.
HygieneThe unhealthy condition of the house and the living
habit is the major cause of the poor health of the ruralpeople of Nepal. Though the environment of the area
Shelter for the Rural Poor : An Introduction
is normally good and healthy, the condition of the houseand its surrounding is generally poor and unhealthy.
a). Dampness in the houseAlmost all the houses in the rural areas have no
damp proofing. The dampness in the wall gives negativeeffects as follows :
i. Weakens the wall structure.ii. Helps to decay other structures like
bamboo, timber, iron materials etc.iii. Destroy the materials stored in the
damped room.iv. Produces foul odour , creates
unhealthy environment and causesdiseases.
b) Smoke and ventilationThe use of sleeping room or the main hall as
kitchen causes spread of smoke from the burning offirewood, leaves of trees or dried cow dung cakes etc.causing the family members to inhale the smokecontinuously day and night. The effect is the spread oflung disease, heart disease, or other smoke bornediseases to the family members.
c) Thatch roofThough fire hazard, burning more than 10,000
houses every year and making 10,000 families notonly homeless but also bankrupt, is the biggestproblem for the rural people, it also affects the healthof the rural people in many ways. It absorbsmoisture, rots fast and produces foul odour. The foulodour may contains many types of bacteria, pollensetc, which may cause many types of diseases likeeczema, allergies, asthma etc.
d) Animal breedingAlso the use of sleeping room for animal breeding
etc. causes spread of animal disease to the familymembers
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e) Absence of latrine and waste disposalAbsence of latrine due to the lack of appropriate
know how of the night soil disposal system and usingopen field around the building as latrine causes diseasesof diarrhoea, dysentery, and other bacterial diseases.Also stagnant wastewater from the bathing and cookingareas helps the breeding of mosquitoes and are thecauses of many diseases like malaria, kalazore etc.
Vulnerable to Natural DisasterIn addition to these health hazard, the poor families
are the main victims of natural disaster like earthquake,storm, flood etc. The fire hazard alone makes almost10,000 families not only homeless but also bankrupt asfire burn down all their properties which are their lifelong savings. This makes poor people still poorer. Similaris the case with storm and flood. All these problemsarise due to the poor shelter condition of the poorpeople.
3. Solution of the problem3. Solution of the problem3. Solution of the problem3. Solution of the problem3. Solution of the problem
All the problems stated above exists in our projectarea also. To eliminate these problems, the Center hasused many appropriate technologies like a. use ofCement stabilised soil block for wall, b. use of emptyfertilezer or cement bag coated with bitumen for D.P.C.,c. bamboo reinforced soil roof, d. bamboo doors andwindows.
Some of these technologies have been innovatedby the Center itself.
4. The Project Area4. The Project Area4. The Project Area4. The Project Area4. The Project Area
The project area selected is Silarawa PachawaniV.D.C. of Siraha district. It lies approximately 10 km.north of district head quarter. The main criteria to selectthis area is because of the availability of 1.5 hectareof land free of cost to launch the project. This V.D.C.has many clusters of settlements as common in otherV.D.C.s. The project selects only three clusters aroundthe donated land with about 500 families. The centerhas done one sample socio-economic survey of onecluster having 83 houses. There are two groups ofpeople in this cluster residing around a public pond. Onegroup is in the east and south of the pond whose numberof families is 39. All of them have their own home andare financially in a better condition. The properties of
most of them exceed hundreds of thousands of rupees.On the other hand, the other group known as Musaharand Pasawan live in the north of the pond. None ofthem have their own home. They just have erectedtemporary huts in the public land or in the land belongingto some other land lord. The total number of families inthis group also is 39. They are financially very poorand living in a very congested way. The remaining 5families are Muslims living in the south west-corner ofthe area. Their economic condition also is similar tothe Musahar and Pasawan group.
5. The T5. The T5. The T5. The T5. The Target Grouparget Grouparget Grouparget Grouparget Group
The target group of this project will be theMusahar and Pasawan group who are at present livingin the shelter of very wretched condition. Most of theseshelters have only one or two rooms for a family of 6to 10 members. Some families have more than twomarried sons and have only one room shelter. So thereis no question about the need of additional rooms forthese families. The families have no saving for housing.They spent whatever they earn. If there is any additionalincome, they do not save it. They either do not go tothe work to earn or spent the reserve money in alcohol,gambling etc. So it is very essential to make these peopleto establish a saving habit. Providing a subsidized loanto these people for constructing the shelter which eachfamily feel essential, the project will be providing notonly the basic need of life but also establishing the habitof saving which normally they misuse.
During the socio-economic survey it was foundthat every family not only demanded the need of newshelter but express their readiness to take loan and agreeto pay it back on installment basis. There is the 100%response from both the groups i.e. Musahar, Pasawanas well as the other economically well off group. Thoughthe target group will be the Musahar, Pasawan, howeverthe project will be providing appropriate constructiontechnologies to other groups also. By constructing theshelter to these economically backward and needyfamilies, the project will be making all the villagerscapable to build their shelters by themselves. For this,the project will be giving not only the technical guidancebut also such other assistance like giving block makingmachine, steel form work for pre-cast work etc on loan,without rent.
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6. Planning Strategy6. Planning Strategy6. Planning Strategy6. Planning Strategy6. Planning Strategy
After extensive study of the living conditions ofthe target group, it was found that their requirement isvery high. The number of children of most of them arevery high. So the number of rooms required are veryhigh but their capacity to pay is very low. So, only theminimum number of rooms to make the shelteraffordable to them will be provided. Cluster of rowhouses are chosen, as this makes the infrastructure costminimum which ultimately makes the per unit costminimum. In addition to the shelter, space for school,health, recreation, employment generation works etc.are also provided as described below in the MasterPlan.
7. The Building Plan7. The Building Plan7. The Building Plan7. The Building Plan7. The Building Plan
The building will have two rooms one for theparent and the other for the children. In addition to thesetwo rooms, there will be covered verandah which willhave multipurpose use including living, kitchen diningand sleeping at night. These verandahs will have roof,supported on the bamboo posts. To reduce the cost ofconstruction the partition or curtain walls are eliminatedin the initial construction. The owner however can easilyconstruct the partition or the curtain wall in due courseof time. These walls can be constructed as per thelocal practice i.e. fixing bamboo net in the alreadyexisting bamboo posts and plaster with mud.
8. The Master Plan8. The Master Plan8. The Master Plan8. The Master Plan8. The Master Plan
The master plan is designed in an area of 1.5hectare. The total number of shelter will be 100 . Thecentral area will have common Services like CommunityCenter, Village Wells, Grocery shops, CottageIndustries etc. The various components of the masterplan are as follows :1. Number of Shelters 1002. Number of Low Cost Toilets 1003. Village Wells. 24. Number of Shops 55. Community Center 16. Health Center 17. Project Office 18. Primary Preparatory School 19. Fish Ponds. 310. Shades for Cottage Industries 4
9. The Cost Estimate9. The Cost Estimate9. The Cost Estimate9. The Cost Estimate9. The Cost Estimate
The shelter has been designed by SLTD Center,a research oriented NGO of Nepal after extensiveresearch on local building materials and localconstruction technology. The design is labour intensivewith 51.5 % as labour component ( compare with 27 to30 % labour component in conventional design ) .a. The cost of each shelter is estimated at Rs.
49,807.94b. The above estimate includes Rs 16,732.00 as cost
for labour. If we adopt 50 % Self Help labour ofthe settlers the estimated cost can easily bereduced by Rs 8,366.00. So the cost of each shelterwill be reduced to Rs. 41,441.00
c. Project Cost Estimate.i. The total cost for constructing 100 shelters - 4,144,000.00ii.Cost of Low Cost Latrine 100 Nos.@ Rs. 4000.00 400, 000.00iii. Land Development 400,000.00iv. Site supervision 400,000.00Total for the Construction Rs. 5,344,000.00
This is approximately U.S. $ 76,000.00 ( US.$Seventy Six Thousand)
10. The Project Proposal10. The Project Proposal10. The Project Proposal10. The Project Proposal10. The Project Proposal
To improve the living condition of the poorestfamilies is a great humanitarian work The request wasmade for financial help to many possible donors. Thereis a good response from many circle. Fuller Center ofU.S.A. is the first to offer the assistance for the first100 houses to be implemented in one of the Terai villageof Nepal. It was tried to get land for the implementationof the project in donation. The land area required isapproximately 1.5 hectare. Though many persons havecommitted to donate the necessary land. But Mr.Krishna Charan Shrestha the M.P. of Siraha district isthe first to come with a confirmed commitment ofdonating the required land. This is the main reason forexecuting this pilot project in Siraha district.
11. Fuller Center of U.S.A. & the Project11. Fuller Center of U.S.A. & the Project11. Fuller Center of U.S.A. & the Project11. Fuller Center of U.S.A. & the Project11. Fuller Center of U.S.A. & the Project
Fuller Center is a humanitarian organization,established by Mr. Edward Fuller, the Founder ofHabitat for Humanity International. Mr. DouglasRoscoe is the man who has initiated this project inNepal. Mr. Douglas Roscoe along with Mr. DavidSnell, the Vice President of Fuller Center visited Nepal
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on 31st. Aug 2005 to finalize the offer and talk aboutproject implementation They went back after the finaltalk with SLTD Center. After they reached their homethey send the confirmation letter and the draft ofMOU. The MOU has been agreed by the Executivecommittee of SLTD Center and agreement wassigned on 8 Dec. 2005.
12. Implementation12. Implementation12. Implementation12. Implementation12. Implementation
First of all a community from among thebeneficiaries will be established and then an executivecommittee will be formed from the community. Thecommittee will have some members from outside likean expert from SLTD Center, member from donor,prominent social worker of the area and the like. Aproject office headed by a technical personnel will beestablished. This project office will work under thecontrol of the executive committee.
The main function of the committee will be tomobilize the settlers, execute the project, provideemployment to the settlers and provide land for theproject. The land required per location is 1.5 hectare(minimum ). The bigger the land area the better it is.For new rehabilitation project, campaign will belaunched for land donation. SLTD Center has alreadystarted such campaign and five donors - two in Sirahadistricts, one in Saptari district and two in Morangdistrict have promised to provide land for suchprojects.
13. Method of Implementation.13. Method of Implementation.13. Method of Implementation.13. Method of Implementation.13. Method of Implementation.
There are principally two methods forimplementing this type of project viz.i. Giving land and cash for shelter construction in
charity or.ii. Giving subsidized loan for the same.
The project adopted method ii, i.e. giving interestfree loan. The procedure will be as follows :-
a. The project will be implemented onthe pay-back system.
b. The pay back period will bemaximum of 10 years.
c. Interest on pay back amount will befree.
d. The pay back amount will be reusedfor similar development works.
The local executive committee will be responsibleto select the beneficiaries , collect the payback moneyand recommend procedure to spend the pay backmoney.
14. Economic Activities in the14. Economic Activities in the14. Economic Activities in the14. Economic Activities in the14. Economic Activities in theProject AreasProject AreasProject AreasProject AreasProject Areas
In addition to the construction of houses for thecommunity, many economic activities are proposed tocreate jobs to the families to be settled. This is veryessential to make the settlement project sustainable.The proposed job opportunities are as follows :
Firstly, the type of houses proposed in this projectproposal are constructed primarily by using localbuildings materials like soil, sand, bamboo, cowdung etcwhich are available either free of cost or at a throwaway price. In other words, the major cost ofconstruction is labour and all the adult persons whowill be settled can be engaged as labourer. Hence duringconstruction period which will last for 5 to 6 months,the families will get job in the construction of their ownhouse and will get practical training in the improvedlocal construction technology. After completion of theproject at least 10 % of the community will come up asmasons and they will get job in the similar extendedproject or in the construction of houses in theneighboring rural areas.
During construction period, planning work for thecreation of jobs for the families to be settled can becarried out. This work can be carried out throughvarious NGOs, INGOs, Rural Development Bank, etc.Though the actual nature and proportion of jobs to becreated will depend upon the demand of the surroundingareas, the tentative creation of jobs can be assumed asfollows:i) Almost all the adult members of the 100 families
to be settled in the area will get job as labourer inthe construction of their own shelter and aftercompletion of the project about 10 to 15 % willget job in the similar extended shelter project or inthe construction of houses in the neighbouring ruralareas.
ii) Some shops for selling day to day consumer goodswill be necessary in the project area. Hence, 5 to10 % of the families will engaged as shopkeeperin the area.
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iii) About 5 to 10 % of the families will be engagedas assistants in the project area as the peon,watchman etc.
iv) 10 to 15 % of the families will be engaged incottage industries.
v) Another 10 to 15 % of the families will be engagedin the agro-based industries like dairy, poultry,fishery etc.
vi) The remaining families will be engaged inagriculture.The project office will coordinate for arranging
loan and other from the concerned bodies.
15. Why Pilot Project15. Why Pilot Project15. Why Pilot Project15. Why Pilot Project15. Why Pilot Project
There are several hundreds of thousand of familieswho are living in temporary types of shelter in Nepal.To provide hygienic, safe and functional shelter to allthese families by any organization is not possible. Soour aim should be to make these poor families capableto build their shelter by themselves at affordable cost.For this, first we have to demonstrate how , safe,hygienic and functional shelter can be made from localmaterials and local labour which are the only things therural poor can afford. In this project we have plannedto construct 100 demonstration houses from these poorman’s materials. Though mud, bamboo, soft wood etcare the main building materials used in thisdemonstration project, small quantities of non-localmaterials like cement, bitumen. G.I. wire etc. have beenused just to make the local materials function betterand by this way we eliminate the drawbacks that existin the local building materials. By constructing 100houses we cannot solve the housing problem of thepoor families of Nepal but if we can make them capableto construct their shelter by themselves, the housingproblem will be solved automatically. The aim of this
project is to give safe, hygienic and functional shelterto 100 poor families of the project area and alsodisseminate the appropriate technology to the localareas so that other people also copy the constructionmethod and construct their shelter by themselves. Sothis project can be called as the pilot project of shelterdevelopment. In fact, we should execute one suchdemonstration project in each district of Nepal, so thatthe technology is disseminated in all the rural areas ofNepal.
16. Conclusion16. Conclusion16. Conclusion16. Conclusion16. Conclusion
The houses proposed in this project is designedafter extensive research on cost effective constructiontechnology. Local building materials as well as localconstruction technology have been used to the maximumextent. Strength and durability have been achieved bythe introduction of improved construction technologylike stabilized soil blocks instead of sun dried mud bricks,bamboo reinforced stabilized soil roof instead of thatchand so on. Fire hazard, health hazard etc. that exist inthe conventional rural housing will be eliminated fromsuch construction.
This housing project will be an example inNepal that poor people also can live in a hygienic andsafe shelter within a healthy community if properplanning is made. To make the project sustainablea number of job opportunities have been suggestedas explained in the economic activities in the projectarea. The coordination with other NGOs will be verynecessary. This will not be very difficult as so manyNGOs are working in Nepal for poverty alleviationprogrammes. This project office will assist in theconstruction of infrastructure to carry on such economicactivities.
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The growing trend of rapid urbanization has beencreating great impacts on the lives of people all overthe World. It is a fact that urbanization is an irreversiblephenomenon and the process of change from rural tourban life could be taken as a result occurred due tothe basic reason of developing nature in humancivilization and the limitations of the natural resourceswhich compels to search for alternate methods ofsustainability. This necessity has encouraged the humancivilization to flourish in the development trends thatare visible all over the world today. The initiative takenby the industrial revolution has brought a definitestrength in the process of urbanization. The majorimpacts of this revolution were felt to have both positiveas well as negative aspects since it has provided astrong alternative approach towards economicdevelopment along with the irresistible problems ofpollutions and congestions. The developed countries oftoday’s world have already experienced the period oftransition between the rapid urban-growth brought bythis revolution, that created a wholesome degradationin the living environment to the remedial steps taken toreturn the healthy environment with the interventionsof nature. But in the context of developing and underdeveloped countries of today, the various impacts ofurban growth call for planned actions to rectify theproblems those are being generated now. The solutionsto these problems need to incorporate strategies forsustainable economic development, considerations forhealth and hygiene and decentralization to avoidcongestions in the urbanization process.
The nature of rapid urban growth and therequirement to encounter the peoples needs due toincreasing rate in population growth and migration hasresulted in hasty provision of the urgently requiredamenities. Since the cities population grow in a multiple
Satellite Towns-Solutions to Subsidize theOverwhelming Cities
Rama Maiya ManandharArchitect Engineer
Department of Urban Development and Building Construction
number, the requirement of basic amenities are alwaysin higher and higher demand. At times, difficult situationsare more likely to arise while providing theseinfrastructure facilities, because the cities might not havesuch designs which can accommodate the desired needsor it might not have the capacity to facilitate the needsto the desired extent. As a simple example, the DurbarSquares of the Kathmandu valley can be taken. All thethree squares are the most concentrated zones in thethree cities since they house the important activitieshere. As a result, concentrations of residences alsooccur in close proximity to the core areas. This hasdemanded more and more infrastructure facilities whoseprovisions are at most of the times discouraged by thenarrower roads and compact building layout of thetraditional city plan. Since the traditional architectureof the valley possess such glory that it is recognizedworldwide today and is one of the prominent sourcesof income to our country, So to safeguard all thesevalues of the traditions, various norms concerning withheight constraints, light plane angle, ground coverageare made to be obeyed with compulsion in the case ofnew constructions. This is the reason that the cities ofthe valley especially the Kathmandu city does notaccommodate with ease the people’s population residingin it. In order to build up the capacity to absorb thedensity that a city needs to accommodate, and also toprovide the facilities to activate it in a healthy manner,the peripheral areas of these overcrowded cities needto be developed. The urban design and development inthese peripheral zones can thus be provided in formsof satellite towns which not only share the urban growthand help in decentralizing the city core but also can
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contribute in development of areas further away again.In the case of the Kathmandu Valley’s cities it is mostconvenient to practice the planning approaches in theperipheral zones, since they still possess larger area ofvacant land.
Satellite towns are also termed as supporting townswhich support the main city at the center. Since it isthe human tendency to locate important activities atthe center and their supporting activities around themin concentric circles, like in the designs of the traditionaltowns of the Kathmandu Valley, which locates thepalaces at their centermost and the placement of thecivilians zones to its surroundings in concentric circle.With similar theory that relates to the garden citydesigns, the central city core would be supported bythese satellite towns which would be laid out in radialrays and these supporting towns would be developedto house the residence areas and institutions of basisneeds. Though commercial areas and industrial areasare also desired to be laid out in them, they would alsobe facilitated with higher percentage of open and greenareas as compared to the city centers. These satellitetowns besides being the support to the main city centerare the ones on which the urban planners can playvarious designs to supplement the most recent andpossible future requirements. The potential of thesetowns also lies in their feasibility to be planned in variousaspects such as in laying the land use plan, providingplanned housing plots, installing the infrastructurefacilities before the constructions of buildings, placementof basic amenities such as health and educationalinstitutions in appropriate areas and numbers etc.
The increasing growth in migrations to the citycore can be absorbed by these satellite towns to a
greater extent. These towns would accommodate notonly the people from the less developed areas whomigrate for various purposes such as to build theireconomic status, for educational purposes or for healthand other institutional services, but can also attract thenative inhabitants from the city core, who desire to havepeaceful and pollution free environment, to reside here.The inter-connections of these towns to the main cityand their subordinate cities provided with quick andefficient road network services, would play an importantrole in the development of these cities as well as therural areas to their proximity. Since the satellite townswould be the ones planned totally on the urban basis, itis obvious that the way of functioning of these citieswould yield a better urban environment in terms of botheconomy and health than the ones which areexperiencing haphazard growths. Besides, theeconomic benefits that lie solely within the core areascan also be distributed to these towns and areas furtheraway as these towns would serve as bridge betweenthe core area and the peripheral zones. Thedecentralization can be achieved in the city core whichwould in turn facilitate the planning actions to be laidout with ease in the core areas. In the KathmanduValley’s cities context, the satellite towns can contributea lot in improving the city’s environmental by sharingthe overwhelming populations and their growth activities,which in turn would provide healthy living environmentfor both the people and the architectural wonders whichare crying for proper attentions and preservations. So,to achieve planned urban development, maintain healthyliving environment and to retain the absorbing capacityof the city, these satellite towns would play a role ofgreat support.
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