SALAU, ODUNAYO PAUL - Covenant Universityeprints.covenantuniversity.edu.ng/9516/1/SALAU, ODUNAYO...

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WORK ENVIRONMENTS AND RETENTION OUTCOMES OF ACADEMIC

STAFF OF STATE UNIVERSITIES IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA

SALAU, ODUNAYO PAUL

Matric Number: 13PAC00560

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WORK ENVIRONMENTS AND RETENTION OUTCOMES OF ACADEMIC

STAFF OF STATE UNIVERSITIES IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA

By

SALAU, ODUNAYO PAUL

Matric Number: 13PAC00560

B.Sc; M.Sc Industrial Relations and Human Resource Management

(Olabisi Onabanjo University)

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES OF

COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D.) DEGREE IN INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, IN THE DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS

MANAGEMENT, COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES,

COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OTA

MAY, 2017

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ACCEPTANCE

This is to attest that this Thesis is accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

the award of the degree of the Doctor of Philosophy in Industrial Relations and Human

Resource Management in the Department of Business Management, College of

Business and Social Sciences, Covenant University, Ota.

Mr. Philip John Ainwokhai …………………………………..

Secretary, School of Postgraduate Studies Signature & Date

Professor Samuel Wara ………………………………….

Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies Signature & Date

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DECLARATION

I, SALAU Odunayo Paul, (13PAC00560), declare that this research work was carried

out by me under the supervision of Dr. Rowland E. Worlu and Dr. Adewale O. Osibanjo

of the Department of Business Management, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State. I

attest that the thesis has not been presented either wholly or partly for the award of any

degree elsewhere. All sources of data and scholarly information used in this thesis are

duly acknowledged.

SALAU Odunayo Paul ………………………………

Signature & Date

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CERTIFICATION

We certify that the thesis titled “Work Environments and Retention Outcomes of

Academic Staff of State Universities in Southern Nigeria” is an original work carried

out by SALAU Odunayo Paul, (13PAC00560), of Industrial Relations and Human

Resource Management Programme in the Department of Business Management,

College of Business and Social Sciences, Covenant University, Canaan land, Ota, Ogun

State, Nigeria. We have examined the work and found it acceptable for the award of a

degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Industrial Relations and Human Resource

Management.

Dr. Rowland E. Worlu …………………………….....

Supervisor Signature & Date

Dr. Adewale O. Osibanjo ………………………………..

Co-Supervisor Signature & Date

Dr. Oluwole O. Iyiola ………………………………..

Head, Department Business Management, Signature & Date

Professor Kehinde O. Osotimehin ………………………………..

External Examiner Signature & Date

Professor Samuel Wara …………………………..........

Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies, Signature & Date

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DEDICATION

Glory be to God in the highest. This thesis is dedicated to the King of Kings, the Alpha

and Omega, the One that knows the end from the beginning, the Sustainer of my life,

the One that has given me the grace to come this far and to conclude this thesis. And

also to my wife, Mrs. Jumoke Mary Salau; my Children, Master Opeyemi Peter Salau

and Oreoluwa Theresa Salau for their supports and understanding throughout the period

of the work.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

On a starting note, I want to acknowledge God Almighty for His sufficient love upon

me and for mercies, innumerable blessings, and protection that have kept me in good

health till date, and for giving me the strength and ability to go through with this

research project successfully. To Him is all the glory.

I will forever be grateful to the visionary of this great institution (Covenant University,

Ota), Dr David Olaniyi Oyedepo for his foresight and for constantly giving out time

both to challenge our potentials in God and to provoke us in the school of exploits. I

sincerely thank the management of the school under the able leadership of Professor

Aaron Aderemi Atayero (The Vice Chancellor), Professor Shalom Chinedu (Deputy

Vice Chancellor) and the Registrar – Mrs. Mary Aboyade. I deeply appreciate the

support of Professor Francis Iyoha (Dean, College of Business and Social Sciences)

and Professor Oluranti Olurinola (Former Dean, College of Business and Social

Sciences) for the support and encouragement. Worthy of mention is the support of the

Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies, Professor Samuel Wara and Dr. Abiodun

Adebayo (Sub- Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies). I humbly appreciate the efforts

of the Head, Business Management Department, Dr. Oluwole Iyiola. Thank you Sirs

and May the good Lord continue to bless you with good things of life. Amen.

Special thanks go to my supervisor and co-supervisor, Associate Professor Rowland

Worlu and Dr. Adewale Osibanjo for their valuable contributions to the success of this

work. Sirs, your positive critiques and insistence on high standards have been highly

illuminating. Despite all odds, you were able to go through my work and made

necessary corrections. My fervent prayer is that God continues to bless you and yours

beyond boundaries (Amen). I cannot forget my Daddy and former Head of Department,

Professor Ibidunni Samson for “the Push” and the great intellectual input he made to

this work. May God Almighty reward and bless him abundantly.

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Equally, I wish to appreciate my erudite and amiable Head of Unit, our MAMA – Dr.

Adeniji Anthonia Adenike for her motherly affection and guidance. I pray that her years

be long on earth with good things of life. There are many other academics whose inputs

and contributions made this work a success. Senior colleagues and fathers they are

really. These include Distinguished Professor Charles Ayo, Professor Maloma

Akinnusi, Professor Olufemi Adeyeye, Professor Daniel Gberevbie, Professor Dayo

Akintayo, Professor Dayo-Ade Turton, Professor Patrick Edewor, Professor Adetola

Obatunde (formerly known as Alliyu Nurudeen), Professor Alaba Adenuga, Professor

Olawole Obembe, Professor Philip Alege, etc. And also to Associate Professor Moses

Love Chinonye and Dr. (Mrs.) Tayo George (Department of Sociology), Associate

Professor David Imnophi, Associate Professor Grace Olasehinde; I thank you all for

creating time to nurture and help me read through this work times without number.

Special mention must be made of friends and colleagues at work on whose wings of

love I am flying. I am eternally grateful to Dr. Osibanjo Adewale Omotayo for always

being there for me. Sir, I say a big thank you for your continuous inspiration, influence

and motivation through various platforms. Special thanks to my boss of life and mother

Dr. (Mrs.) Omoniyi-Oyafunke Comfort (Olabisi Onabanjo University) for giving me

the hope and opportunity to learn and grow. My gratitude to you and your family is

immeasurable. Your contributions towards my eventual success cannot be quantified.

May God in his infinite mercies continue to bless and guide you and your family in all

you do (Amen).

I sincerely appreciate scholars like Dr. Oludayo Olumuyiwa, Dr. Edwin Agwu, Dr.

Joachim Abiodun, Dr. Olaleke Ogunnaike, Dr. S. T. Akinyele, Dr. O. J. Kehinde, Dr.

Omotayo Adegbuyi, Dr. Olabode Oyewunmi, Dr. Oke Adunnola, Dr. Toyinayo

Mathew, Dr. A. Oke, Dr. Mercy Ogbari, Dr. Jegede (Department of Sociology), Dr.

Igbinoba Ebeguki, Dr. Eniola Sokefun, Otunba (Dr.) Fayemi, Dr. David Imnophi and

many others that are not mentioned here. My honour list is also extended to my

colleagues (lecturers): Dr. Agboola Mayowa, Dr. Akinbode Mosunmola, Mrs.

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Oyewunmi Esther Adebukonla, Mr. Maxwell Olokundun, Mr. Stephen Ibidunni, Mr.

Fred Peters, Mrs. Dirisu Joy, Pastor Philips (PG Secretary), Mr. Adekola Paul

(Demography), Miss Augusta Amaihan, Mrs. Tolu Atobagbe, Miss. Marvelous

Gberevie, Mr. Sogo Adediran (Department of Economics), Mr. Alejo (Department of

Economics), Mr. Abasilm Ugochukwu (my good friend), Mrs Adeniji Chichi, Mrs. Aka

Deborah, Mrs. Damilola Oluwaniyi (Departmental Officer), Mrs. Faith-Osasumwen

Shodipo and Mr. Adekunle Shodipo (My Neighbours/CU) and Queen Esther for their

contribution towards the success of this work.

I acknowledge the efforts of my brother and friend Mr. Falola Hezekiah Olubusayo for

his contributions. I also thank my friends and brothers: Mr. Isaiah Adisa, Sheriff and

Segun Onifade (FOTO) for their supports. I sincerely appreciate the supports given to

me by the lecturers in Department of Sociology/Psychology, Olabisi Onabanjo

University, Ago- Iwoye, Ogun state. People like Professor Nurudeen Alliyu, Dr. James

Adekoya, Dr. Aluko Arowolo, Dr. Ajadi Oyekunle (Baba You Know), Dr. Omoniyi

(My Mother and Mentor), Dr. Chiedu Abrifor, Mr. Adeleke, Mr. Solaja Mayowa, Mr.

Peter Kalejaiye, Mr. Abiodun (Psychology), Elijah Olusegun Akinola (G.O), Mr.

Atiku, Ekechukwu Faith. Your names have been written in gold and this will never be

forgotten in the annals of history. A very big kudos goes to my big brothers, friends and

colleagues who include: Saheed Banjo (Seedorf), Alh. Mojeed Ekelojumati, Dr.

Kayode Olusanya (Baba Three), Hon. Bayo Adekoya, Dr. Ojo, Mr. Kayode

Ogunsanya, Mr. Bode Durojaiye, Idowu Maroofdeen Adebanjo (Alpha), etc.

I sincerely express my profound gratitude to Alaporu of Ilaporu: HRH. Oba Jimoh

Adebamiro Quadri for his prayers and supports. Kabiesi, Igba odun, Odun kan ni o. To

all the members of Citizen Brothers’ Club (Ilaporu) and Royal club of Ijebuland, I say

a very BIG thank you for your unflinching encouragement. To all my well-wishers and

friends, Dare Apena, Seyi Quadri, Abiodun Quadri, Mr. Akeem Sodiq, Anthonia and

Ifeoluwa Tiriba, Mama Adeyemi, Ademola Adewusi, Peter Akinyelu, Adisa Olaide,

http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=BQBKPJUAAAAJ&hl=en

https://web.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100001720328534


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Seun Momoh, Soji Olu-Idowu, Imam Kunle (Imota), Aderibigbe Adekitan, Alhaja

Mariam Tutu Adeiye and all the family members of Salau and Adekitan, I say thank

you and God bless you all.

My heartfelt appreciation goes to my ever loving and supportive parents – Mr. Pius

Tajudeen Salau and Mrs. Deborah Iyabo Salau who birthed me into this world and

offered me early tutelage. I will forever remember the good deeds and values both of

you deposited in my life. May God in his infinite mercies continue to guide, bless and

protect you from the evils of life (Amen). Blessed be the day I met my wife – Salau

Jumoke Adejonwo Mary and thank God for the fruits of the union (Opeyemi and

Oreoluwa Salau). I appreciate you all for the sacrifice, love, care, prayers and

perseverance. I also recognize all my brothers and sisters both from within and outside.

May God continue to uphold and bless all your endowments.

Also, I appreciate all the staff and management of the sampled Universities in Southern

Nigeria for their support and cooperation in giving necessary information required for

the success of the study. Finally, I sincerely express my profound appreciation to the

Management of Covenant University for the innumerable supports and encouragement.

This list of Contributors are endless, please forgive me if by omission your name do

not appear, I have not treated you with levity but for lack of space. I salute you all!

SALAU Odunayo Paul


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page .................................................................................................................................. i

Acceptance Page ...................................................................................................................... iii

Declaration Page ...................................................................................................................... iv

Certification Page.......................................................................................................................v

Dedication ................................................................................................................................ vi

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. vii

Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... xi

List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... xvi

List of Figures ..........................................................................................................................xx

List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................ xxii

List of Appendices ............................................................................................................... xxiii

Abstract ................................................................................................................................ xxiv

CHAPTER ONE ……………………………………………………………………….. 1

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background to the Study ..................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem ............................................................................................ 3

1.3 Objectives of the study........................................................................................................ 6

1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 7

1.5 Research hypotheses ........................................................................................................... 7

1.6 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................. 9

1.7 Scope of the Study ............................................................................................................ 10

1.8 Operationalization of Research Variables................................................................................ 11

1.9 Structure of the work ........................................................................................................ 12

1.10 Schematic Model of the Study ................................................................................................ 13

1.11 Operational Definition of Terms ..................................................................................... 14

1.12 Historical Development of Sampled Universities ................................................................ 16

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CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................... 20

LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 20

2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 20

2.2 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 20

2.2.1 An Overview of Work Environments ............................................................................ 20

2.2.2 Nature of Work Environments ....................................................................................... 21

2.2.3 Factors Influencing Work environment ......................................................................... 22

2.2.4 Determinants of Work Environments ............................................................................ 26

2.2.5 Staff Loyalty .................................................................................................................. 50

2.5.6 Staff involvement ........................................................................................................... 51

2.2.6 Staff commitment........................................................................................................... 52

2.2.7 Job Satisfaction .............................................................................................................. 53

2.2.8 University Education and Its status in Nigeria .............................................................. 55

2.2.9 Problems and Prospectus of Management Education in Nigeria ................................... 57

2.2.10 Public Universities and their Staff Unions in Nigeria ................................................. 59

2.2.11 Work Environments in Nigerian Public Universities .................................................. 63

2.2.12 Staff Turnover in Nigerian Higher Institutions ............................................................ 64

2.2.13 Consequences of Staff Turnover and Brain Drain in Nigerian Public Universities .... 72

2.3 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 74

2.3.1 Equity Theory ................................................................................................... 74

2.3.2 Fredrick Herzberg Two Factor’s Theory ................................................................ 76

2.3.3 Victor Vroom and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation ............................ 77

2.4 Empirical studies ............................................................................................................... 79

2.5 Conclusion and Gaps in the Literature.............................................................................. 82

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CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................ 83

METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................. 83

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 83

3.2 Research Methods ............................................................................................................. 83

3.3 Research Design................................................................................................................ 83

3.4 Study Population ............................................................................................................... 84

3.5 Sample Frame and Sample Size Determination ................................................................ 86

3.6 Sampling Techniques ........................................................................................................ 87

3.7 Sources of Data ................................................................................................................. 88

3.8 Research Instruments ........................................................................................................ 88

3.8.1 Quantitative Data .................................................................................................... 88

3.8.2 Qualitative data ....................................................................................................... 89

3.8.2.1 In-depth Interview ............................................................................................... 89

3.8.2.2 Observations .................................................................................................... 90

3.8.3 Matrix of Research Instruments and Objectives ..................................................... 90

3.9 Pre-distribution of research instruments ........................................................................... 90

3.10 Data Collection Process .................................................................................................. 91

3.11 Validity and Reliability of the instruments ..................................................................... 92

3.12 Method of Data Analysis ................................................................................................ 93

Quantitative data: ........................................................................................................ 93

Qualitative data:…………………………………………………………………... 93

3.13 Ethical considerations ..................................................................................................... 95

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CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................... 96

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ....................................................................... 96

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 96

4.2 Data Presentation .............................................................................................................. 96

4.2.1 Response Rate of Questionnaire Administered ...................................................... 96

4.3.2 Distribution of Biographical Characteristics of the Respondents .......................... 98

4.3 Cross-tabulation of Biographical Data by Gender .......................................................... 103

4.4 Descriptive Statistics and Test of Hypotheses ................................................................ 107

4.5 Summary of Multiple Regression for the Variables ....................................................... 141

4.6 Summary of Tested Hypotheses ..................................................................................... 156

4.7 Qualitative Findings Based on Thematic Analysis ......................................................... 166

4.7.1 Thematic Analysis of Physical Work Environment and Retention Outcomes ..... 166

4.7.2 Thematic Analysis of Psychological Work Milieu and Retention Outcomes ...... 167

4.7.3 Thematic Analysis of Job Contents and Retention Outcomes ............................. 167

4.7.4 Thematic Analysis of Reward System and Retention Outcomes ......................... 167

CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................. 170

DISCUSSIONS ..................................................................................................................... 170

5.1 Physical Work Environment and Commitment of Academic Staff ................................ 170

5.2 Psychological Work Milieu and Loyalty of Academic Staff .......................................... 172

5.3 Job Contents and Performance of Academic Staff ......................................................... 173

5.4 Reward System and Satisfaction of Academic Staff ...................................................... 175

5.5 Organisational Climate and Productivity of Academic Staff ......................................... 176

5.6 Work Environments and Retention Outcomes ............................................................... 177

5.7 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 178

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CHAPTER SIX ..................................................................................................................... 180

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................180

6.1. Summary of the Thesis .................................................................................................. 180

6.2 Summary of Research Findings ...................................................................................... 182

6.2.1 Summary of Theoretical Findings ........................................................................ 182

6.2.2 Summary of Empirical Findings ........................................................................... 184

6.2.2.1 Summary of Quantitative Findings.................................................................... 184

6.2.2.2 Summary of Qualitative Findings...................................................................... 186

6.3 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 187

6.4 Recommendations of the Study ...................................................................................... 188

6.5 Contributions to Knowledge ........................................................................................... 189

6.6 Policy and Managerial Implications ............................................................................... 190

6.7 Suggestions for Further Studies ...................................................................................... 191

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 192

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................................................................ 218

APPENDIX II ....................................................................................................................... 224

APPENDIX III ...................................................................................................................... 225

APPENDIX IV...................................................................................................................... 226

APPENDIX V ....................................................................................................................... 228

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Names and number of state universities in Southern Nigeria. ................................... 11

Table 2.2: Total Reward System ............................................................................................. 38

Table 2.3: Components and meaning. ..................................................................................... 43

Table 2.4: ASUU Strikes (Between 1980 and 2015) ................................................................. 61

Table 2.5: Allocation to Education in Nigeria by Federal Government: 2000-2015. ................. 63

Table 2.6: Allocation to Education as % of GNP in Selected 20 Countries in the World. .......... 68

Table 3.1 Population of the Study........................................................................................... 84

Table 3.2 Study Population ..................................................................................................... 85

Table 3.3 Population Distribution of Sampled Universities ................................................... 87

Table 3.4 Matrix of Research Instruments and Objectives ..................................................... 90

Table 3.5 Reliability Coefficients for the Variables in the Study ........................................... 92

Table 4.1: Respondents by Type of Institutions (Comparative) ............................................. 97

Table 4.2: Distribution of Biographical Data of the Respondents .......................................... 98

Table 4.2a: Gender * University Cross-tabulation ................................................................. 99

Table 4.2b: Current status of respondents *Code of University sampled Cross tabulation . 100

Table 4.2c: Work Experience * University Cross tabulation ............................................... 101

Table 4.2d: Highest Educational Background * University Cross-Tabulation ..................... 102

Table 4.3.1:Cross-tabulation of Biographical Data by Gender ............................................. 103

Table 4.3.2: Cross-tabulation of “Years of Service” by Gender........................................... 105

Table 4.3.3: Cross-tabulation of Highest Educational Qualification by Gender .................. 106

Table 4.4: Statistics showing the Classification Of Research Variables .............................. 107

Table 4.4.1a: Physical Work Settings by Gender ................................................................. 107

Table 4.4.1b: Psychological Work Milieu and Job Contents by Gender .............................. 108

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Table 4.4.1c: Extent of Reward System by Gender .............................................................. 109

Table 4.4.2a: Physical Work Settings by Status ................................................................... 110

Table 4.4.2b: Psychological Work Milieu and Job Contents by Status ................................ 111

Table 4.4.2c: Extent of Reward System by Status ................................................................ 112

Table 4.4.3a: Mean Statistics of physical work milieu and staff commitment ..................... 114

Table 4.4.3b: Names and University’s Representation ......................................................... 115

Table 4.4.3 (c): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Variables for each University ... 115

Table 4.4.3(d): Determinants of Physical setting and commitment using Regression ........ 117

Table 4.4.3(e) Coefficients of the effects of Physical Settings on Staff Commitment ......... 118

Table 4.4.4(a): Mean Statistics of Psychological factors and staff loyalty ........................... 120

Table 4.4.4(b) Descriptive Statistics of Psychological Work milieu .................................... 121

Table 4.4.4(c) Correlations of Variables for each University ............................................... 122

Table 4.4.4(d): Contributions of Psychological work milieu: ............................................. 124

Table 4.4.4(e): ANOVA and the Determinants of Psychological work milieu: .................. 124

Table 4.4.5(a): Descriptive Statistics for Variables in Objective 3 ...................................... 126

Table 4.4.5(b): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for the sampled Universities .......... 127

Table 4.4.5(c): Correlations of Variables for each University .............................................. 128

Table 4.4.5(d): Mean Statistics of Job Contents and Staff Involvement .............................. 130

Table 4.4.5(e): Correlation between Job Contents and Staff Involvement. .......................... 131

Table 4.4.6(a): Mean Statistics for Reward Systems and Staff Satisfaction ........................ 132

Table 4.4.6(b): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Variables for University ............ 133

Table 4.4.6(c): Correlation co-efficient between Reward System & Satisfaction ................ 135

Table 4.4.6(d): Contributions of work environments & satisfaction using Regression ........ 135

Table 4.4.6(e): Analysis showing the effects of Reward System on Staff Satisfaction ....... 136

Table 4.4.6(f): Coefficients of the effects of Reward system on Staff satisfaction .............. 136

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Table 4.4.7(a): Descriptive Statistics on Organisational Climate ......................................... 138

Table 4.4.7(b): Descriptive Statistics on Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity .... 139

Table 4.4.7(c): Contributions of Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity ................. 140

Table 4.4.7(d): Correlation Co-efficient of Organisational Climate and Productivity ......... 141

Table 4.5: Summary Of Multiple Regression For The Variables ......................................... 141

Table 4.5.1(a): Contributions of Work Environments and Staff Commitment .................... 141

Table 4.5.1(b): Model Summary for Predicting Staff Commitment ..................................... 142

Table 4.5.1(c): Test of Model Fitness for Predicting Staff Commitment ............................. 142

Table 4.5.2(a): Contributions of Work Environments on Staff Loyalty. .............................. 144

Table 4.5.2(b): Model Summary for Predicting Staff Loyalty ............................................. 144

Table 4.5.2(c): Model results & Regression Weights for Staff Loyalty ............................... 145

Table 4.5.3(a): Contributions of Work Environments on Staff Involvement. ...................... 146

Table 4.5.3(b) Model Summary for Predicting Staff Involvement ....................................... 146

Table 4.5.4(a): Contributions of Work Environments Determinants on Staff Satisfaction .. 148

Table 4.5.4(b) Model Summary for Predicting Staff Satisfaction ........................................ 148

Table 4.5.4(c): Regression Weights for Predicting Staff satisfaction ................................... 149

Table 4.5.5(a): Contributions of Work Environments Determinants on Staff Productivity . 150

Table 4.5.5(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Productivity ...................................... 151

Table 4.5.5(c) Model and Regression Weights for predicting Staff Loyalty ........................ 152

Table 4.5.5(d): Hierarchical Factor Loadings Model of Work Environments Scale ............ 154

Table 4.6: Summary Of The Tested Hypotheses .................................................................. 156

Table 4.6.1(a): Model Summary between Work Environments and Retention Outcomes .. 156

Table 4.6.1(b): Correlation Co-efficient of Work Environments & Retention Outcomes ... 156

Table 4.6.1(c): Model Fit Index of Work Environments and Retention Outcomes ............. 157

xix

Table 4.6.2: variation in perception of staff on the relationship between work environment

and retention outcomes across Demographic characteristics .................................... 159

Table 4.6.3: Responses to the open ended questions ............................................................ 161

Table 4.6.4: Summary of Findingd from Hypotheses Tested .............................................. 164

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1.1: Proposed Schematic Model for the Study ........................................................................ 13

Fig 2.1: Factors Influencing Work environment ........................................................................... 24

Fig. 2.2: Predictors of Work Environment .............................................................................. 26

Fig. 2.3: Predictors of Work Environment .............................................................................. 27

Fig. 2.4. Predictors of Psychological Factors ......................................................................... 29

Fig. 2.5: Factors that influence Perception ............................................................................. 31

Fig. 2.6: Motivation Framework ............................................................................................. 32

Figure 2.7: A Framework for Job Design ............................................................................... 35

Figure 2.8: Motivation through the Design of Work .............................................................. 36

Figure 2.9: Components of Total Reward Strategy ............................................................... 37

Figure 2.10: Components of Organisational Culture .............................................................. 43

Figure 2.11: Determinants of Organisational Culture............................................................. 45

Figure 2.12: Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction .................................................................. 55

Figure 2.13: Equity Equations ................................................................................................ 75

Figure 4.1: Respondents by Type of Institutions (Comparative) ............................................ 97

Figure 4.2a: Gender * University Cross-tabulation ............................................................... 99

Figure 4.2b Current status of respondents *Code of University sampled Cross tabulation 101

Figure 4.2c: Work Experience * University Cross tabulation .............................................. 102

Figure 4.2d: Highest Educational Background * University Cross-Tabulation ................... 103

Figure 4.3.1: Cross-tabulation of Staff Status by Gender ..................................................... 104

Figure 4.3.2: Cross-tabulation of “Years of Service” by Gender ......................................... 105

Figure 4.3.3: Cross-tabulation of “Educational Status” by Gender ...................................... 106

Figure 4.4: Structural equation model for predicting Staff commitment……………………..143

Figure 4.5: Structural equation model for predicting Staff Loyalty …………………………..145

xxi

Figure 4.6: Structural Equation Model for Predicting Staff Involvement ........................... 147

Figure 4.7: Structural Equation Model for Predicting Staff Satisfaction ............................. 149

Figure 4.8: Structural Equation Model for Predicting Staff Productivity ............................. 151

Figure 4.9: Hierarchical Factor Model of the Work Environments (WEs) Scale ................. 153

Figure 4.10: Modification of the Schematic Model Proposed Earlier .................................. 155

Figure 4.11: Structural Equation Model for Work Environments and Retention Outcomes 158

Figure 4.12: Standardised Estimates of Structural Model for Work Environments and

Retention Outcomes .................................................................................................. 158

Figure 4.13: Degree of Work Environment Factors in the sampled universities.................. 162

xxii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

HRM Human Resource Management

HR Practices Human Resource Practices

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science

ASUU Academic Staff Union of Universities

ANTUF All Nigerian Trade Unions Federation

COLA Cost Of Living Allowance

ILO International Labour Organisation

IOE International Organisation of Employers

MBO Management By Objectives

NIC National Industrial Court

NLC Nigerian Labour Congress

NUC National Universities Commission

SAP Structural Adjustment Programme

TUCN Trade Union Congress of Nigeria

FG Federal Government

THE Times Higher Education

WUR World University Rankings

WEs Work Environment Scale

QWE Quality Work Environment

SEM Structural Equation Modelling

CIPD Chartered Institute of Personnel

Development

xxiii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

APPENDIX 1 (QUESTIONNAIRE) .................................................................................... 218

APPENDIX II ....................................................................................................................... 224

APPENDIX III ...................................................................................................................... 225

APPENDIX IV...................................................................................................................... 226

APPENDIX V ....................................................................................................................... 228

xxiv

Abstract

The evolving competition in higher education environment has called for implementation of

retention strategies to enhance staff performance. Strategies have been put in place by

institutions to understand what induces staff performance and retention. Despite the

continued efforts for quality work environment, qualified staff still leave and this becomes

worrisome especially in the state owned universities. However, the need to retain employees

is no longer hidden. What remains controversial is the best method and outcome of staff

retention. Therefore, this study established the contributions of work environment

determinants on retention outcomes of academic staff of State Universities in Southern

Nigeria. The study which was anchored on equity, expectancy and Fredrick Herzberg two-

factor theory was cross sectional and descriptive. The study adopted a mixed method

(sequential explanatory approach) to elicit information from 384 academic staff that were

randomly and purposively selected. The use of questionnaire (quantitative) and structured

interview (qualitative) were adopted. The quantitative data were analysed using correlation,

regression and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) to obtain results, while the qualitative

data were subjected to thematic analysis and narrative technique. The results of Kruskal

Wallis Test revealed that the difference in the perception of academic staff on the relationship

between work environments and retention outcomes by staff status, educational status and

years of experience were statistically significant while retention outcomes by gender and

marital status were insignificant. The findings indicated that the issue of inadequate and

decay of infrastructural facilities have been a concern to the sampled Universities. Many

lecturers, including professors, shared offices that are dilapidated, poorly ventilated and

furnished. Lecture theatres were observed to be overcrowded and classrooms, laboratories

and workshops were shared by many programmes across different faculties. The findings

indicate that adequate laboratory equipment and other facilities in the sampled universities

especially those in the area of science and technology are not readily available in many

campuses and where they are available, they are in state of disrepair. Such situation serves as

discouragement, which often encourage them to leave their place of work for another

institution with better equipment/facilities. The results indicated an increasing pauperization,

varying promotion criteria, erratic power supply, over-congested classrooms and a growing

disparity in the ratio between teaching staff and students. Also, teaching effectiveness is not

given a great deal of attention in appointment and promotion decisions while the issue of

research funding leaves much to be desired. Due to its consequences, strategies for curbing

this menace in state Universities, such as creation of enabling environment, adequate funding

of tertiary education, non-interference of government in institution’s affairs, effective

administration and motivation of staff of the sampled institutions, among others were

proffered

Keywords: Work environment, Retention, Organisational climate, Reward, Loyalty, Satisfaction,

Productivity, Commitment, Involvement

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The evolving competition in higher education has called for proper implementation of

retention strategies to enhance employees’ performance. Today’s higher education

environment is diverse, complex, and persistently changing as academic staff live in a

growing economy and have boundless job opportunities. This complexity necessitates a

degree of proficiency, scholarship and proven erudition from University academic staff.

The achievement of this becomes imperative because Universities, by their distinctive

nature, are required to be a fountain of competency, governance and partnership. Central

to achievement of the objectives are the teaching staff (lecturers) whose responsibilities are

fundamental to ensuring continued existence, sustenance and success of University system.

The quantity and quality of the required academic staff make the difference in any

University education system. In Nigeria, the National Universities Commission (NUC)

(2008) noted that Universities are increasing rapidly while the number of seasoned and

competent faculty members is not increasing proportionally. The increasing number of

these Universities and insufficient qualified academic staff, become worrisome especially

in the Nigerian state owned Universities.

The Nigerian State (Public) University education has been faced with high degree of

apprehension and recurrent crises of different kinds which has ultimately resulted to

incessant strike embarked by the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU). There are

crises of internal governance and vulnerability (Akinyele, 2010), favouritism,

unsatisfactory work situations such as poor condition of services (Gberevbie, 2008; Aluko,

2007), severe administrative and organisational structure (Osibanjo, Abiodun, and Adeniji,

2014); under-funding and inadequate learning and teaching facilities (Abdulsalam and

Mawoli, 2012; NUC, 2010), poor relationship with supervisors and colleagues (Bloom and

Reenen, 2011); crises of employment relationship and continuity (Oredein and Alao, 2010);

brain-drain, rising absenteeism and attrition (Gberevbie, 2008). Of all the crises,

unsatisfactory working conditions, under-funding, rising absenteeism and brain-drain have

been recognised as most critical and worrisome (NUC, 2015; Nwagwu, 2015; Geofrey,

2010).

2

The University system and all the stakeholders required for managing the state Universities

have been unable to create an enabling environment with provision of modern teaching

facilities for the Nigerian academic staff. The rewards and general working conditions are

unexciting and de-motivating. Academic staff of the Universities are given rewards which

cannot satisfy their physical or physiological needs (Alele-Williams 2012) and the

fulfilment of their basic needs has become a delusion to the enthusiastic academic staff

(Alele-Williams 2012; ASUU, 2014). The high rate at which University academic staff in

Nigeria embark on industrial action and eventually resign from their jobs has become a

source of concern for University management and government in general. Within the

sphere of academics, available evidences indicate that academic staff resign from their jobs

typically as a result of inadequate reward system and poor working conditions such as

infrastructural neglect and deterring conditions of service (Ologunde, Asaolu & Elumilade,

2013).

This sentiment is validated by the poor performance of our Universities on the ranking

tables. It has become a common knowledge that Nigerian state Universities have not

featured in the first 7,000 Universities in the world (Webometrics, July 2016). The

Universities are ranked based on the quality of education (10%), quality of academic staff

(40%), research output (40%), and per capital performance (10%). Report from the Times

Higher Education (THE) World University Rankings for 2015/2016 indicated that none of

the Nigerian state Universities was listed in the first 5000 Universities in the world. The

parameters used for the ranking include: teaching (30%), research output (30%), citations

which determines the research impact (30%), global outlook (7.5%) and industry income

(2.5%). Apparently, most, if not all, of Nigerian Universities especially the state owned

would not be able to feature and compete with the rest of the world on the ranking tables if

measured on these parameters above, especially on those parameters that focuses on

research outlook in world journals, student to faculty ratio, academic reputation, Alumni

winning a Nobel laureate, knowledge transfer, patents, industry income, citations,

International outlook, etc. Central to National University Commission (NUC) annual

University rankings, no state University appeared in the first 10 Universities in Nigeria

(NUC, 2015). Okebukola (2008) noted that the primary reason why Nigerian Universities

are poorly ranked is attributed to the level of research impact, openness, publications,

citations and alumni employment.

3

Universities are expected to strive for and develop creative knowledge (Abdulla, Djebarni

and Mellahi, 2010); educate students; develop human capacity (Fletcher and Nusbaum,

2010) as well as coordinate the demands for economic development (Bozeman & Gaughan,

2011). The University academic staff require an enabling and favourable environment to

achieve a dynamic learning culture and participative governance. Regrettably, these could

not be identified in Nigerian University system. Work environment was found to be related

to a number of factors including the quality of teaching, academic performance, research,

innovation quality, congeniality, citations and scholarship in the Universities. This

combination of factors has created an environment where institutions especially the

Nigerian state Universities need its staff more than the staff need the Universities (Abiodun-

Oyebanji, 2011).

Given that work environment in today’s dynamic environment has achieved the status of

an institutionalised norm, the relevant question is not so much whether or why institutions

should provide work environment, but rather how best to implement the process and

strategy in a way which will enable institutions to amass benefits and successfully create

an environment that ultimately promotes employee satisfaction and retention efficacy. The

study becomes necessary because the employee intellectual capacity and talent are crucial

to University’s strategic success. Universities cannot be successful without an enabling

environment that gives room for better performance and achievement of predetermined

corporate objectives. It is against this background that this study examined the effects of

work environments variables on retention outcomes of academic staff of state Universities

in Southern Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

One of the core functions of the University is the production, dissemination and utilisation

of knowledge. This enhances other core functions of teaching and outreach activities and it

also determines national and international standing. University education is perhaps the

most important and indispensable component in human capital development in the building

of a strong and sustainable economy. The achievement of goals by a University

fundamentally can be determined by the quality of academic staff, academic reputation in

terms of student-faculty ratio and workplace environments. Quality work environment has

been found to be a strategic way of promoting and retaining the productive efforts of

4

academic staff (Abdulsalam and Mawoli, 2012), yet there is dearth of evidence for the

implementation of such strategic plans in Nigerian tertiary institutions. This may probably

be the reason for the increase in brain drain, staff turnover and low commitment. To solve

the problem of brain drain for instance, the realities of both the internal relativities and

external imperatives need to be reviewed jointly. This has always been the position of

ASUU in its negotiations with the federal government. As stated by The Guardian

Newspaper Editorial Comment of December, 2013:

‘In the last 20 years, a sizable number of Nigerian academics have migrated

abroad in search of greener pastures’. Many of them have been absorbed into

Universities & centres of Research in Europe, America and Middle East’.

The provision of good working environments by owners of the Universities could motivate

academic staff to work beyond a predetermined level if given attention. Although, the

concern for, and problems of how to attract and retain staff for more effective job

performance through favourable work environment have continued to engage the attention

of many tertiary institutions, especially the state owned Universities. Studies have shown

that work environment in many of these public Universities is abysmal and intolerable. The

learning environment in Nigerian Public Universities, according to Akinnaso (2012) and

Anyim (2012), is extremely compromised by over-congested classrooms, infrastructural

neglect, poor academic standards and quality assurance, inadequate inspection and

monitoring by the regulatory agencies, over-congested laboratories with no power and

water to put the equipment to work, and unsatisfactory ergonomic resources such as desks,

chairs, shelf, office arrangement, lighting, etc., which seem to cost too much for the school

budget. Few of the reviewed studies done in the country attempted to show that physical

work milieu influences workers’ performance (Ozongwu, 2013; Tafida, 2008; Ayeni,

Jaiyeoba and Atanda, 2008) but rarely indicated the significant predictors and extent to

which the predictors can influence commitment of academic staff.

Work and working conditions are indispensable aspects of retention across sectors, though

they have received less attention from scholars and researchers in the educational sector.

The University dilemma among academic staff in Nigeria, according to Ogunbameru

(2001) can be attributed to anxiety over quality of teaching and research, employability and

internalisation. Additionally, the certainty that attributes such as student faculty

engagement, modern teaching facilities, practical laboratories, social responsibility,

innovation, arts and culture, gender balance, updated books and journals in libraries,

5

scholarship, sponsorship and research grants which keep Universities academic staff have

become erratic commodities (Abdulsalam and Mawoli, 2012; Chandrasekar, 2011).

However, inability to recognise and control these trends give room for psychological

implications. Therefore, it is against this fact that the study addresses the gap in literature

with regards to how this psychological work milieu can influence staff loyalty in Nigerian

state Universities.

Studies have shown that adequate reward system is one of the strategies institutions adopt

to retain staff in their employment (Ibrahim, Usman, Bagudu, 2013; Anyim, 2012).

However, one major problem facing the Nigerian state Universities is the ability to pay and

how to retain competent workforce through an equitable reward system such as salary,

bonuses, allowances, recognition, promotion, benefits, etc. This problem has deprived these

institutions from matching the organisational demand for quantity and quality of employees

with the available supply (Iyoha, Gberevie, Egharevba and Iruonagbe, 2015; Ige, 2014).

Where skilled staff are obtainable as a result of proper resourcing strategies, recurrent

turnover arising from inadequate and non-equitable reward system have made it almost

impossible for institutions to retain competent staff (Fapohunda, 2012; Adeniji, 2011). As

long as proficient staff are essential for staff satisfaction, there is urgent need therefore to

recognise and explore strategic means of staff retention for the attainment of the stated

objectives in Nigerian state Universities.

Another thought-provoking fact that appeared from preceding research is that providing a

favourable work environment may not at all times increase retention. Quality work

environment may increase retention if positive characteristics of the job are highly

recognised and managed (Hackman & Oldham, 2005). The job itself which comprises task

identity and significance, skill variety, autonomy and feedback is linked with motivation

and job satisfaction. The job dimensions also are often associated with performance through

the meaningfulness of the work and its outcomes, and knowledge of the consequences of

work accomplishments. This recognizes the fact that staff differ in their levels of ‘growth

need’. For example, academic staff with a high need for personal growth are more likely to

react favourably in a psychological sense when the five core factors are improved. Prior

studies have largely observed the association between core job dimensions and satisfaction

in health and manufacturing sectors (Abdulsalam and Mawoli, 2012; Ahmed, Usman and

Rana, 2011; Hashim and Mahmood, 2011) but there is a dearth of research on how it affects

academic staff involvement in Nigerian state Universities.

6

Universities as organisations, provide institutional, financial and infrastructural

frameworks in which research activities are conducted. How well these frameworks are

organised affect the performance of teaching and research activities. Thus, institutions need

to develop high performing research environment characterized by what Holmgren,

Hensing and Delive (2010) described as the development and maintenance of a distinctive

culture, favourable climate, decentralized organisation, participative governance, and

effective communication that would enhance research and teaching among faculty

members. Studies on these factors have been carried out in other countries like Asia and

Europe (Shin and Jung, 2013; Schulz, 2013; Saba, 2011) but little studies have been

identified in Africa (Anyim, 2013; Adeniji, 2011) especially in West African countries. The

findings of these studies have been contradictory and none of these studies have assessed

how organisational climate enhances staff productivity in state owned Universities.

Substantial review of relevant literature indicated that little research has been conducted

with regards to the contributions of work environments to retention outcomes. However,

the little research done in the area of work environment and satisfaction has explored

domains like telecommunication, financial institutions, banking, oil and government

parastatals, to name a few, yet not much wide-ranging work has been done in the domain

of the educational sector especially in Nigeria state owned Universities. Review of work

environments literature has also shown that large proportion of studies were conducted in

developed countries where their findings due to cultural differences and peculiarity in the

employment patterns, may not be directly applicable to the Nigerian context.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The general objective of this study focused on the contributions of work environments and

retention outcomes among academic staff of state Universities in Southern Nigeria.

However, the specific objectives were to:

1. determine the role of physical work environment in facilitating commitment of

academic staff in state owned Universities;

2. investigate the effects of psychological work milieu on the loyalty of academic staff in

state Universities;

3. examine the relationship between job contents and staff involvement in academic

excellence of state owned Universities;

7

4. examine the effect of reward system on the satisfaction of academic staff in state owned

Universities; and

5. assess how organisational climate facilitates staff productivity in state owned

Universities.

1.4 Research Questions

Drawing from the statement of the research problem, the study provided answers to the

following research questions:

1. What role do physical factors play in enhancing the commitment of academic staff in

state owned Universities?

2. To what extent have psychological factors influenced loyalty of academic staff in state

owned Universities?

3. What is the relationship between job contents and staff involvement in promoting

academic excellence of state owned Universities?

4. In what ways have the reward systems influenced satisfaction of academic staff?

5. How does workplace climate facilitate staff productivity in state owned Universities?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The study of work environment till date appears to have embraced four major issues: Why

do Universities provide a conducive work environment? What are the consequences of

work environment on the individual staff and the institution as a whole? What are the

strategies that can be adopted for providing successful work environment? How can the

provision of a successful work environment be used to satisfy and retain qualified staff in

the institutions?

The provision of good (physical) working environments by owners of the Universities

could motivate academic staff to work beyond a predetermined level if given attention. In

any case, there is limited documentation showing how physical work environments

influence employees’ performance, competence and responsiveness. This, therefore, gives

rise to the first null hypothesis:

H01: Physical work setting does not play any significant role in enhancing the commitment of

Academic staff

8

Researchers are motivated to do research by both intrinsic and extrinsic reasons, depending

on what they value as successful researchers (Knudsen, Bucks & Lindt, 2011). Central to

individual psychological characteristics, there are also the impact of demographic

characteristics and individual life cycles. Hence, the research problem addressed here

therefore is to identify the psychological factors influencing the loyalty of academic staff

in State owned Universities. Thus, this offers the second null hypothesis for this study:

H02: Psychological work milieu does not have significant effects on the loyalty of

academic staff

The nature of job content has attempted to make tasks more intrinsically interesting,

involving and rewarding with an environment that provides autonomy, flexibility, skill

variety, task identity, feedback, personal growth and satisfaction (Lunenberg, 2011; Khan,

Farooq & Ullah, 2010). Therefore, an inclusive understanding of ‘why and how’ job content

can contribute significantly to staff involvement and engagement becomes a fundamental

concern for the management of Nigerian state Universities. Arising from this, the study

also hypothesized that:

H03: There is no significant relationship between job contents and academic staff

involvement in the performance of state Universities

Numerous studies have observed that staff intention to quit results from comparable

remuneration packages, benefits, career path, etc. Several factors have been acknowledged

in literature responsible for job dissatisfaction and these factors are principally associated

with reward system and administration. The effect of these factors is diverse and relatively

associated with staff beliefs, management prerogative and government interference (Ige,

2014; Anyim, 2013). The research problem addressed here is to identify the reward

packages and explore how these packages have influenced staff satisfaction.

H04: Reward system does not significantly encourage the satisfaction of academic staff in

state Universities

Climatic conditions of state Universities have both positive and negative work outcomes

on the performance and productivity of staff (Manjunath &Rajesh, 2012). The climate of

the University system is often concerned with the current atmosphere within the institution

as manifested in communication culture, leadership style, etc. However, when

organisational climate becomes less attractive or otherwise unmanageable, it may lead to

high staff turnover. In order to prevent this, the following proposition is hypothesized:

H05: Organisational climate does not contribute significantly to staff productivity in state

Universities

9

1.6 Significance of the Study

This research is relevant in Nigeria where most institutions are hunting, attracting,

acquiring, deploying and retaining talents for sustenance and survival. There is therefore

the need to study and compare the retention strategies of these state Universities with their

contemporaries in Nigeria with a view to finding explanation for incessant industrial action

and disparity in their performance levels. In other words, this research serves as an

academic contribution towards solving problems of absenteeism, job dissatisfaction,

incessant strike action, and labour turnover facing academic staff. Research have shown

that the state Universities in Nigeria seem to have degenerated to the level where

infrastructure abandonment, unfriendly research environment, rigid bureaucratic structure,

pay disparity, varying personnel policies and poor implementation of collective agreement

(Ige, 2014; Ologunde, Asaolu and Elumilade, 2014) are the order of the day.

In the light of the above, the relevance of this research can be appreciated from the

following three dimensions:

Firstly, there is a need to establish a parallel strategic method and a ground-breaking

developmental pattern that can be exploited to control the ever-increasing turnover among

academic staff in public Universities.

Secondly, the need to properly adapt scientific and human relations theories developed in

Western world to an emerging and embryonic country like Nigeria for more effective and

efficient performance in the workplace.

Thirdly, the need to design and restructure the competitiveness of enabling work

environments to ensuring academic staff attraction and motivation, optimizing efficiency

and higher commitment. Conclusively, this study is significant in the sense that:

i. It brings an improvement of retention strategies for the academic staff of the state

owned Universities.

ii. Human capital and intellectual property can be enhanced when the relevant

retention strategies are identified for emphasis by managers, labour unions,

practitioners,

iii. The government and its specialized agencies can use the findings to create a

platform to formulate and implement policies to facilitate attractive work

environment which ultimately results in staff retention

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iv. It contributes to knowledge and as a valuable reference material to various scholars

in the field of management, psychology, sociology as well as students undertaking

courses in the area of motivation, compensation, organisational behaviour,

industrial psychology and business management.

v. The study creates a platform by which stakeholders, particularly the state

government and management can create an enabling work environment strategies

in preventing contingencies as regards attrition, job dissatisfaction and labour

turnover.

vi. It helps the Nigerian government at all levels to formulate and implement policies

that ensure friendly workplace environment as it is obtained in private institutions.

Above all, the findings serve as a great benefit to government and academic staff; not just

in the educational sector but also in other sectors. The recommendations will assist

management of institutions in strategic planning for the development and implementation

of a supportive work environments. The academics and researchers are provided a platform

upon which further investigation of the subject matter can be carried out.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This study provides a background to the state of University system in Nigeria and

particularly in the southern region, hinging on the attendant challenges of poor work

environment, high attrition rates, under-funding, low quantity and poor quality of research.

In a general context, the widespread feeling is that Nigerian academic staff of state

Universities often perceive that their reward in terms of pay and other benefits are not

equitable to their contributions (skills) especially when matched with their counterpart in

the federal and private institutions including their contemporaries outside the country. This

calls for the need to model the contributions of work environments in determining retention

outcomes with special reference to state Universities in the Southern zones of Nigeria.

Nigeria has 38 state Universities established and recognised by NUC while the government

fund major activities of the Universities and offer proper education for sustainable

development. Prior to the oil boom ages of 1970s, University education was extended to

reach every sub-region of Nigeria. For the purpose of this study, attention was given to

state Universities in the southern part, consisting of south-west, south-south and south-east

region of Nigeria. There are Nineteen (19) state Universities in Southern Nigeria and this

11

study intend to cover the first two (2) oldest institutions in each region. This is reflected in

Table 1.1 below.

Table 1.1: Names, Years and Addresses of State Universities in Southern Nigeria

South-West South-South South-East

Name(s) of University & Year Name of Uni. Year of Estab. Name of Uni. Year of Estab.

Ekiti State University, Ekiti.

Year of Establishment: 1982*

River State University of Science &

Technology, Rivers.


Enugu State University of

Science & Technology, Enugu


Olabisi Onabanjo University,

Ago-Iwoye, Ogun.


Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma,

Edo

Year of Establishment: 1981 *

Ebonyi State University,

Abakaliki, Ebonyi.


Lagos State University, Ojo,

Lagos.

Year of Establishment: 1983

Delta State University, Abraka,

Delta.


Abia State University, Uturu,

Abia


Ladoke Akintola University of

Technology, Ogbomoso, Osun


Niger Delta University, Yenagoa,

Bayelsa State.


Imo State University, Owerri


Adekunle Ajasin University,

Akungba, Ondo.state.


Cross-Rivers State University of

Science &Technology, Cross-Rivers


Anambra State University of

Science & Technology,

Anambra.

Year of Establishment: 2000 Tai Solarin University of

Education, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun.


Osun State University,

Oshogbo, Osun State.


Ondo State University of

Science and Technology,

Okitipupa, Ondo.


Source: NUC, 2015

1.8 Operationalization of Research Variables

Operationalization of the research is the division of the topic into different parts, constructs

and variable so as to have adequate direction of the research topic. Operationalization of

the topic helps to determine the spilt of variables in equation for further evaluation. Thus,

this research work focused on the variables, namely, work environments and retention

outcomes, that is,

Y= f (x)

Where y = retention outcomes (dependent variable)

x = work environments (independent variable)

12

This implies that retention outcomes is a function of quality work environments. However,

it is on this platform coupled with the work of other scholars that the researcher selected

the dependent (y) and independent (x) constructs for the study. Consequently, work

environment is represented by ‘x’ construct while retention outcomes is represented by ‘y’

construct as displayed below.

However, retention outcomes were operationalized as follows:

Y = y1, y2, y3,….………….…., yn

Where y1 = Staff Commitment

y2 = Staff Loyalty

y3 = Staff Involvement

y4 = Staff Satisfaction

y5 = Staff Productivity

Furthermore, the work environments were measured with the indicators below:

X = x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, ……….…..xn.

Where x1 = Physical work setting

x2 = Psychological work milieu

x3 = Job contents

x4 = Reward system

x5 = Organisational climate

The various indicators of work environments and retention outcomes were subsumed from

the works of scholars such as: Manjunath and Rajesh, 2012; Gberevbie, 2011;

Chandrasekar, 2011; Knudsen, Bucks and Lindt, 2011; Chen, 2011; Chandrasekar, 2011;

Hackman and Oldham 1976; 2005)

1.9 Structure of the Work

The thesis was divided into five (5) major chapters. Chapter one addressed the background

to the study, problem statement, objectives, hypotheses formulation and justification,

scope, operationalization and concepts definition. Chapter two reviewed relevant and

recent literatures and the theoretical framework of the constructs. Chapter three described

the methodology process which include description of the population, sample and sampling

techniques, research design, instruments and analyses. Chapter four focused on the

analysis, interpretation and presentation of the data collected with a detailed discussion of

research findings. Finally, chapter five emphasized on the summary, conclusion, and

recommendations. Contributions to knowledge and suggestions for further study were also

proffered.

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1.10 Schematic Model of the Study

The schematic model of the study was adapted from the works of Chandrasekar (2011);

Knudsen, Bucks and Lindt, (2011); Knudsen, Bucks and Lindt, 2011; Chen, 2011; Kanai-

Pak, Sloane and Poghosyan (2008); Stansfeld and Candy (2006).

Source: Adapted from Chandrasekar (2011); Knudsen, Bucks and Lindt, (2011); Kanai-Pak and

Poghosyan (2008); Westerman and Simmons, (2007); Stansfeld and Candy (2006)

Key: Work_Envnts = Work Environment

Physical_fac = Physical Factor

Erg = Ergonomics Lig = Lighting

Nois = Noise Ven = Ventilation

SpAr = Spatial Arrangement

Psycho_fac = Psychological factors

Mot = Motivation Att = Attitude

Lrn = Learning Belf = Belief

Rel = Relationship

Reward_Systems

Sal = Salary Ben = Benefits

Rec = Recognition Grnt = Grant

Prom = promotion

Job contents Skv = Skill Variety

TaSg = Task Significance Tald = Task Identity

Aut = Autonomy Feed = Feedback

Org_climate = Organisational climate

Men = Mentoring Part = Participation

Lead = Leadership style

PPy = Personnel policy

Comm = communication style

Retention Outcomes

Staff_Commt = Staff commitment

Staff_Involvmt = Staff involvement

Staff_Satisfctn = Staff satisfaction

Staff_Prod = Staff productivity

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1.11 Operational Definition of Terms

Compensation: These are monetary benefits provided to hearten, inspire and motivate

workers to enthusiastically perform beyond normal expectation, e.g bonuses,

commission, profit sharing plans, etc. (Mbah and Ikemefuna, 2012).

Employee-Related Factor: This relate to changing employees’ attitude and behaviour so

that they will strategically fit and conform to the emerging culture.

Environmental Factor: This deals with technological (emerging technology, R&D

initiatives), economic, ecological (energy availability, climate change, workforce

health), political (tax policy and regulations, services, infrastructure), and socio-

cultural (demography, education, cultural norms, income distribution) forces upon

which an organisation operates its level of productivity.

External Work Environment: These are factors such as political awareness, socio-

economic issues, technology, and legal context which have direct and indirect

influence on the organisation and environment at large.

Flexibility Management: This is the process of giving the employees opportunities to

manage their private schedules and frees them from the rigid bureaucratic fixed time

work arrangements; through its flex-time work system.

Internal Work Environment: This largely focused on the operation of the organisation;

determination of specific goals and objectives aimed at fulfilling the mission.

Job satisfaction: This is a pleasurable response and effective orientation of individual

towards their job (Adeniji, 2011).

Loyalty: This involves employee’s net reaction to all of the situations relating directly or

indirectly to the line of job (Leblebici, 2012; Kyle & Malfa, 2007).

Managerial Factor: Management is the process of accomplishing tasks through people,

therefore, it is important for managers to display a strong interest in the continuing

performance of the organisation, with an appropriate vision for the future.

Motivation: This is the strategic process of creating organisational conditions which

propels and facilitates employee’s performance towards the achievement to

corporate objectives (Senturk, 2014; Bashir & Ramay, 2010).

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Organisational Climate: This is concerned with the current atmosphere within the

organisation as manifested in communication, culture, leadership style influencing

work place behaviours (Markos & Sridevi, 2010).

Organisational Factor: this defines the organisation culture, structure, technology, system

and climate influences its competence, output and decision.

Physical Workplace Environment: This focuses on the protection of employees from

hazardous environment by providing them with improved safety equipment. The

physical factors involve the interactions of employees with office space

arrangement, computers, chairs, tables, lighting, office temperature etc. that

enhance employee’s comfortability (Knudsen, Bucks & Lindt, 2011)

Psychological Factors: This is a pattern of reactions to a situation where job demands are

not compatible with employees’ competence, abilities or aptitudes, and which

challenge their coping mechanism (Irene, 2010).

Staff Involvement: This is the “consistent and formalized efforts to increasing workers’

participation and heartening the yearnings and aspirations of employees’ and the

organisation’s needs (Mohsan, 2012). It is also a platform that supports staff to look

beyond their present jobs and prepare for optimistic future positions within

organisations and sometimes outside the organisations.

Strategy: This involves the deployment of resources to the achievement of a set of

objectives (Makosa, 2007).

Retention: This is the strategic efforts put in place to reward employees with physical,

financial and psychological benefits that help to sustain a degree of morale,

satisfaction and productivity (Khan, Farooq, & Ullah, 2010).

Reward: It is a managerial function that incorporates financial and non-financial values to

reward employees who add value to achieve distinctive advantage (Danish &

Usman, 2010).

Work Environments: These are the forces that are currently and continually influencing

performance, motivation and employment relationship. Work environment

comprises a total network of inter-relationship existing among the stakeholders and

the environment in which they operate (Kohun, 2012).

16

Workplace features: This involves the interactions of employees with office space

arrangement, computers, chairs tables, lighting, office temperature etc. that

enhances employee comfortability, safety, health, satisfaction and performance.

1.12 Historical Development of Sampled Universities

1.12.1 Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo

Ambrose Alli University (AAU) was first known as Bendel State University, then Edo

State University, it was later changed to its present name in commemoration of Professor

Ambrose Folorunso Alli. The University is also known for its social lifestyle as it is

known for their academic prowess. A social hub of sorts that draw people from all over

Edo and even other parts of the country, there is always something new and buzzing on

campus. The university was established on the need to foster the growth of knowledge

for the advancement of society, AAU is one of the top ranked higher education

institutions in Nigeria. Since its inception, it has gone on to nurture and graduate many

distinguished national dignitaries, conduct researches, and played key roles in

advancement of quality education in Nigeria. Featuring 11 faculties, with a revered

College of Medicine and a Post Graduate program, it is an all-round institution that

provides the best of education possible here in Nigeria.

1.12.2 Enugu State University of Science & Technology (ESUT)

The Enugu State University of Science & Technology (ESUT) as it is known today was

founded as Anambra State University of Technology (ASUTECH) by the then government

of His Excellency Chief Dr. Jim Ifeanyichukwu Nwobodo the Executive Governor of old

Anambra State through edict number 7 of 30th July, 1980. ASUTECH was established as

non-residential University, having a multi-campus arrangement. At inception, it had a

peculiar administrative structure with a President as the Chief Executive Officer. The

Governor of the old Anambra State then being aware of the admission problem confronting

the people of old Anambra State, quickly decided to set up the Anambra State University

of Technology (ASUTECH) in line with the technological bent of the people. Within few

years of its founding, ASUTECH blazed the trail in the design and fabrication of the first

ever made in Nigeria computer system, the ASUTECH 801 series. A renowned scholar,

Professor Kenneth Onwuka Dike (of blessed memory) was appointed its first President.

17

The main campus was at the compound of the Institute of Management and Technology

(IMT) Independence Layout, Enugu while the other campuses were located at Awka,

Nnewi and Abakaliki.

The Enugu campus commenced lectures on 30th October, 1980. Formal lectures began at

Awka campus on 3rd February, 1981. The Nnewi and Abakaliki campuses could not

commence operation until 1987 due to logistic difficulties. In June 1985, the University

authorities saw the compelling need to expand the programmes to include the faculties of

Education, Environmental Sciences, Law, Social Sciences and Management Sciences. This

University edict of 1980 changed the administrative structure to the conventional system

of University administration in Nigeria with the Vice Chancellor as the Chief Executive.

Following the creation of Enugu State out of the old Anambra State in 1991 by the then

Military President, General Ibrahim Gbadamosi Babangida, ASUTECH metamorphosed

into Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT) while the campuses at

Awka and Nnewi became the nucleus of the new Anambra State University, which would

later become Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. ESUT, however, adopted and retained

the identities of ASUTECH, including its motto, colour, logo, philosophy, aims and

objectives.

Four years after the creation of Enugu State, the young Enugu State had to forfeit the

Abakaliki campus to the newly created Ebonyi State. The College of Medicine had to be

moved to Nsukka and the College of Agriculture to Enugu as Faculty of Agriculture. In

August 2005, the College of Medicine at Nsukka relocated to Parklane Hospital premises

in Enugu. It is now housing a world class College of Medicine operating under ultra-

modern structures and facilities built by the then Governor of Enugu State, His Excellency

Dr. Chimaroke Nnamani.

The college has graduated four (4) sets of Medical Doctors. The first being in 2010.

Currently, all the arms of the preclinical and clinical departments are equipped for training

of medical doctors. Meanwhile both BSc Anatomy and BSc Medical Laboratory Science

programmes have taken off in the college. Also Post Graduate Programme in Anatomy has

gone a long way. A new Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences has been created in the college

and a new Dean has been appointed for the Faculty. A new programme for the award of

BSc Nursing will soon take off in the college. With this development, it is expected that

the college of Medicine will be renamed "College of Medicine and Health Sciences".

18

1.12.3 Ebonyi State University (EBSU), Abakaliki, Ebonyi

Ebonyi State University (EBSU) offers world class academic programmes targeted at

different levels of education starting from Pre-Degree to Doctorate programmes. At EBSU,

we will get provide opportunities for our students to get the best level of education

Academic Programmes...The Current administration of Ebonyi State University (EBSU) is

determined to improve the learning experience of every single student of this great citadel

of learning, as well as provide a very encouraging environment for the members of staff.

1.12.4 Olabisi Onabanjo University (OOU), Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State

Olabisi Onabanjo University (OOU) , Ago-Iwoye is a state owned situated in Ago-

Iwoye, Ogun State Nigeria. The university was founded July 7, 1982 as Ogun State

University and was renamed Olabisi Onabanjo University on May 29, 2001 in honour of

Chief (Dr.) Olabisi Onabanjo, whose efforts as the then civilian governor of Ogun State

gave birth to the university. The university at its inception started as a multi campus system

with the main campus at Ago iwoye while other campuses were located at Ikenne (College

of Health Sciences), Ayetoro (College of Agricultural Sciences) and Ibogun ( College of

Engineering and Technology).

With the coming of a military administration in December, 1983 the state military

government reviewed the multi campus system and decided, after the review, that the

university should run a unicampus system. The campuses already existing at Ayetoro and

Ikenne were therefore moved to Ago-iwoye. Ogun state government is wholly responsible

for the funding of the university. But with the establishment of the Ogun state university

development foundation and its expected influence and contributions, individuals,

industrial, commercial, and cultural bodies and associations both within and outside the

state have been making substantial contributions to the funding of the university. Another

noteworthy phenomenon in the development of the university is the establishment of

college/faculty advisory councils whose membership consist of eminent Nigerians who

have distinguished themselves in their chosen careers, senior government functionaries and

faculty members. Their primary objectives is to foster a strong and beneficial college or

faculty and public relationship and linkage and offer both moral and financial support to

the various colleges and faculties were remarkably demonstrated during the accreditation

exercise for medical and law programmes.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogun_State

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogun_State

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olabisi_Onabanjo

19

1.12.5 Rivers State University of Science and Technology

Rivers State University of Science and Technology (RUST) is a university located in

the Diobu area of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. The university has staff strength of

3,000 and a student population of 22,400 as of 2017. It is one of the first technological

universities in Nigeria and also the first university to be situated within the Niger Delta. In

2014, it was rated as Nigeria’s best E-learning institution and was ranked as the 15th best

university in the country. The Rivers State University of Science and Technology was

established in 1972 as the College of Science and Technology. It was granted independent

university status in 1980 and was renamed from College of Science and Technology to

Rivers State University of Science and Technology. Rivers State University of Science and

Technology has seven faculties: Faculty of Agriculture, Engineering, Law, Management

Sciences, Environmental Sciences, Technical & Science Education, Sciences. The

university plans to begin a College of Medicine from 2018. It is the only university in

Nigeria that is accredited to offer degree programs in Marine Engineering.

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Diobu,_Port_Harcourt

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Port_Harcourt

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Rivers_State

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Nigeria

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Niger_Delta

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/E-learning

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Agriculture

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Engineering

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Law

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Management_Sciences

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Management_Sciences

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Environmental_Sciences

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Sciences

https://pediaview.com/openpedia/Marine_propulsion

20

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Preamble

The brain behind any scientific inquiry are the works of past scholars and authors on the

identified problem which is to be discussed. In other words, it is imperative to have a review

of what past scholars and authors have done as regards the subject matter. Having identified

the problem, objectives, and questions about the study, this section reviewed the works of

past authors on the variables and also provide theoretical underpinnings and empirical

clarifications for the study.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 An Overview of Work Environments

The concept of work environment is very important in the practice of human resource

management and in making the most of diverse human resources. The need to provide

enabling environments for staff is as old as the concept of personnel management. Thus,

the degree of organisational competence depends largely on the ability of management to

create environments where employees can work with vitality and provide opportunities that

foster the growth of self-motivated employees. Work environment consciously involves the

process of ensuring quality of life, improving the degree of satisfaction derived from the

work itself, providing opportunities for growth, creating safe and healthy workplaces,

increasing creative and critical use of initiatives, facilitating work life balance and

managing workplace stress. Even when all functions of management are judiciously put to

use, good plans put in place, good organisational structure with good people put on the right

job and good control plans established; all may fail to produce the expected results without

favourable work environments. According to Akinyele (2010), about 80% of low

performance is caused by the nature of work environments.

In this context, work environment comprises all factors that are related to a job and

organisation. These factors directly influence the relationship between employees, their

jobs and the organisation. Kohun (2012) defined work environments as the forces that are

21

currently and continually influencing performance, motivation and employment

relationship. Work environment comprises a total network of inter-relationship existing

among the stakeholders and the environment in which they operate. Knudsen, Bucks and

Lindt (2011) posited that work environments impact not only the commitment, satisfaction,

aptitude, and performance but also have long-term effect on employees’ health and

employment continuity. Interestingly, work environment focuses on the compensation

packages, training, job security, job enrichment, organisational culture and change, staffing

functions, promotion, etc., (Nolan, 2012). All of these serve as basis for attaining maximum

productivity.

2.2.2 Nature of Work Environments

Factors of workplace environment significantly contribute to increased staff performance

(Hafiza, Shah, Jamsheed & Zaman, 2011). Over the last decades, workspace and physical

work environment have become complex due to the changes in several factors such as the

social environment, information technology and work processes (Hashim & Mahmood,

2011). According to Govaerts, Kyndt, Dochy and Baert (2011), where workers are mentally

and ardently fit, their passion to work will be enhanced and their performance outcomes

will ultimately be amplified. Holmgren, Hensing and Dellve (2010) also stated that a proper

workplace environment reduces absenteeism and as a result strengthens employees’

satisfaction. Research indicated positive reactions to an enabling work environment

strategies such as the work processes, job designs, environment and facilities design (Joo

& Park, 2010).

Work environment are grouped into two; Internal environment and External environment.

These are explained below:

i. The External Work Environment

Nakpodia (2009) viewed external work environment as a result of factors such

as custom and laws of the community within which the business operates. It

includes the weather condition and policies outside the work environment. Mbah

and Ikemefuna (2012) also argued that external work environment are factors such

as political awareness, socio-economic issues, technology, and legal context which

have direct and indirect influence on the organisation and environment at large.

However, organisation makes clear its reasons for existence, what it will provide or

22

produce and whom it will serve, and its orientation in terms of its values. Hence,

organisations systematically investigate the technological, economic,

environmental, political and social forces that impact upon it. This environmental

scanning gives detailed information on the nature of the market the organisation is

competing in and will help with the identification of opportunities for developing

business.

ii. The Internal Work Environment:

Internal work environment is seen as the environment that focuses largely on the

operation of the organisation. Mohsan (2012) asserted that the internal work

environment consists of the buildings, furniture, layout, as well as the physical

conditions under which employees operate. The internal work environment largely

focused on the determination of specific goals and objectives aimed at fulfilling the

mission. Objectives are normally focused on performance and could specify desired

achievements. Importantly, organisations continually evaluate the changes that are

needed to achieve the objectives and goals. Some strategies relate to areas such as

finance and technology and are focused, for example, on the nature of investment.

Other strategies relate directly to HR policies such as what skills and training are

needed to bring the strategy into effect.

2.2.3 Factors Influencing Work environment

The dynamism of change is the most constant pattern of development ever found in human

history. The formal workplace itself that gave rise to the bureaucratic tool came to be as a

result of the evolutions that emerged in the period of the industrial revolutions. The

activities of the key players (government, other firms) in the industrial environment attracts

changes in the operation of the organisation (Nyakundi, Karanja, Charles & Bisobori,

2012). Change comprises of a transformation from one state or form to another.

Organisational change involves a process of restructuring which includes change in

technology, programmes of mergers or acquisitions and even change in the pattern of doing

job. Very often such change usually requires radical orientation in the way the organisation

operates (Nawab & Shafi, 2011; Osisioma, 2011 in Ogunbameru, 2011). Organisational

changes are effected by two major causes which are internal and external causes. Internal

causes are deliberate actions of the organisation such as adoption of technology; change in

23

mission; change in the way work is done and even change in leadership, leadership styles

and even leadership patterns. External causes is a combination of the environmental

influences and the totality of the structures that exists in the environment; with the Political

structure standing out among them.

The purpose of understanding the work environments is to explain, anticipate and plan for

the future through the analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.

Research has encapsulated the essence of understanding factors that can influence work

environment. These factors are presented below with a framework in figure 2.1:

i. Environmental Factors: These deal with technological (emerging technology,

R&D initiatives), economic, ecological (energy availability, climate change,

workforce health), political (tax policy and regulations, services, infrastructure),

and socio-cultural (demography, education, cultural norms, income distribution)

forces upon which an organisation operates its level of productivity. The economic

forces represent changes in the general health and well-being of the economy which

are reflected in the inflation rates, disposable and discretionary income, gross

domestic product, the value of the Naira, unemployment rates, interest rates and the

current monetary and fiscal policies. Changes in the economy pose both

opportunities and problems for government and managers because such changes

affect organisational activities and services (Nolan, 2012; Obateru2013). When the

economy is growing, many organisations will enjoy an increase in demand for their

products, and funds will be more easily and readily available for expansion and

other investments. However, when the economy shifts downward, for example

when there is a recession, demand will fall, unemployment will rise and profits will

shrink. Organisations continually monitor changes in their economic environment

to be able to decide what to do in retaining the best talent. It is very difficult for any

organisation to wholly control the environmental factors; therefore, the organisation

must always be flexible in adapting to these environmental factors. The

environmental factors influencing work environment is presented in Figure 2.1

24

Figure 2.1: Factors Influencing Work environment

Source: Warech and Tracey (2004)

ii. Organisational factors: An organisation culture, structure, technology, system and

climate influences its competence, output and decision. These insightful influences

can habitually be controlled and managed by the leaders or managers. The

organisational factors include: the workflow, work practices, task characteristics,

ergonomics, and technology. Task characteristics bring together a number of task

in a job and at the same time assesses the nature and level of influence an individual

worker has on the job. Work Practices focus on the arrangement and process of

workflow which differs from organisation to organisation depending. Technology

is the logical application of scientific or other structured knowledge to performing

certain tasks. This means that technology includes ideas and new knowledge, in

addition to equipment and machinery. Organisations and their managers must adapt

to changing technology to remain competitive. Technological forces require

management to keep abreast of the latest development and, where possible,

incorporate advancements to maintain the organisation’s competitiveness. Change

in technology is a critical issue inhibiting many organisations and institutions,

particularly those in high-technology, high-velocity institutions. This challenge is

made more difficult by the ever rapid pace of technological change (Lee & Brand,

2005). This problem is always recurring especially in the educational sector.

Institutions especially the state Universities are confronted with massive and

accelerating changes due to quest for global competitiveness.

iii. Managerial factor: Management is the process of accomplishing tasks through

people, therefore, it is important for managers to display a strong interest in the

continuing performance of the organisation, with an appropriate vision for the

25

future. Managers are largely responsible for setting the scene for change, managing

the change process and by actions reinforcing the existing corporate culture, if

appropriate, or reshaping it if not appropriate. This gives the managers the

opportunity to be proactive in increasing work flexibility, creativity and adapting to

changes that occur from time to time. The links between individual and group

performance and the achievements of the firm are now one of the central concerns

of HRM and of crucial importance is the employment quality. This can necessitate

a move from a belief in a hierarchical organisation to an acceptance of

organisational roles where greater responsibility and involvement become

prominent. Though there are salient factors that influence managerial decisions

which include: external contexts (structure of the industry, market growth rate,

nature of competitors, socio-economic constraints, product differentiation);

organisational characteristics (culture, size, resource allocation, socialisation); and

characteristics of the manager (communication skills, perseverance, problem-

solving skills, passion and commitment to work, purpose-driven skills). Therefore,

to increase output and increase global competitiveness, managers must continually

change the way they are organised and managed to avoid business failure.

iv. Employee-related factor: This relate to changing employees’ attitude and

behaviour so that they will strategically fit and conform with the emerging culture.

With increasing complexity in employees’ attitude, organisations formulate and

implement policies that help in the realisation of both individual(s) and

organisational objectives. Such policies deal with decisions involving company

policies, selection, career advancement, employment continuity, and other equal

employment opportunities. Understanding the kind of people the organisation needs

to find and keep takes an organisation one step closer to determining an effective

human resource strategy. As the work of Noordin and Jusoff, (2009) demonstrated

that the new experience will pose a challenge to the biased attitudes, leading to the

development of more appropriate attitudes.

26

2.2.4 Determinants of Work Environments

Organisational environments are turbulent and change is always present. The complexity

and diversity of the world of work have created many areas of employment where

individual workers are obliged to respond to the tune of management, often at the risk of

their own dignity and well-being. Consequently, the development of and adherence to a

friendly working environment and satisfaction of employees set the right direction for

positive retention outcomes. Without this, work may be less meaningful and ultimately the

employee will be less motivated to perform. Clearly, there is no one way of motivating

employees through a favourable work environment nor is there a single strategy for job

designs with equitable reward that stimulates employee and maintain maximum levels of

productivity. Therefore, it becomes imperative to identify the basic determinants of work

environment.

The basic determinants of work environments in this context is represented in Figure 2.2:

Figure 2.2: Predictors of Work Environment

Source: Asmui, Hussin and Paino (2012)

1. Physical workplace environment

The management of stress through the provision of physical environment requires one or

two different strategies (or both). First, the strategy requires an alteration of the physical

environment to lessen noise, increase ventilation and provide comfortable spatial

arrangement. Second, the strategy should centre on the protection of employees from

Physical

Factors:

Noise

Ventilation

Lighting

Spatial

Arrangement

Ergonomics

PREDICTORS OF WORK

ENVIRONMENTS

Reward

System:

Salary

Pay Incentives

Fringe Benefits

Promotion

Recognition

Training

Psychologi

cal

Factors:

Equity

Perception

Motives

Cognition

Learning

Attitudes

Personality

Traits

Job

Contents:

Job design

Task

Identity

Role Clarity

Skill

Variety

Task

Significance

Autonomy

Organisational

Climate:

Participation &

Involvement

Management

Style

Communication

Style\

Culture &

Climate

Job Security

QWL or WLB

27

hazardous environment by providing them with improved safety equipment. The physical

factors involve the interactions of employees with office space arrangement, computers,

chairs, tables, lighting, office temperature etc. that enhance employee’s comfortability

(Knudsen, Bucks & Lindt, 2011); safety, health, satisfaction and performance (Moran,

2010). Thus, to ensure employees’ satisfaction and workplace performance, organisations

must provide a suitable environment that is noise free (Bozeman & Gaughan, 2011),

adequate office spaces (Al-Anzi, 2009), appropriate work tools and furniture (Odunlade,

2012; Okebukola, 2002). Organisations are expected to identify areas where there is poor

ergonomics workstation that contribute to stress outcome such as employees’

dissatisfaction, poor performance, complaints and perhaps, intention to quit the organisation

as a result of stress (Okiki, 2013). Various workplace features exist with the degree of the

impact and variability in employee behaviours. Some of this workplace variables are

captured in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Predictors of Physical Work Environment

Source: Holmgren, Hensing and Dellve (2010)

(i) Noise:

Noise is regarded as one of the major climates in an organisation that hinders employees’

concentration on the job (Joo & Park, 2010). An employee, in the process of discharging

some of his/her duties could be distracted by excessive noise and vibration in the workplace

which could affect his/her performance. This implies that where the sound is loud and

workers are exposed to it for long, their performance and commitment can be affected.

28

(ii) Air Quality:

The importance of air quality has become a fundamental aspect of physical work

environment in determining retention outcomes in any sector. In today’s environment and

with the level of competitive trend, organisations are built with air conditioning systems that

help to reduce suffocation and stimulate workers to stay longer in the offices (Oyekan,

2014). However, it is said that the ideal temperature in the offices should consider four (4)

major elements namely temperature, humidity, ventilation, and cleanliness (Holmgren,

Hensing & Dellve, 2010). A relaxed office work milieu should be characterized by the

elements where employees can perform efficiently and effectively. An office with the right

quantity and quality of temperature would aid employee comfort-ability and subsequent

performance.

(iii) Ergonomic Tools:

It is a systematic approach of arranging employees’ workstation and designing equipments

and systems to ensure continual comfort and increased productivity. Ergonomics is the

systematic process of designing, setting, organising and arranging workplaces furniture

(chairs, tables, and shelves), facility and machine used to fit the people who use them.

Ergonomics can further be seen as strategic methods designed to enhance employees’

comfort, health, welfare, safety and overall system performance (Khalid, Irshad &

Mahmood, 2012). The Ergonomic Handbook of the IBM Corporation (2010) in the USA

stresses the importance of job design which can be explained through the following:

(i) Posture: Central to ergonomic resources is the ability to integrate meaningful

job design to prevent protracted stillness which causes lethargy, exhaustion and

discomfort.

(ii) The back: Many employees suffer from back pain. Hence, in reducing back

injuries, organisations should design lifting tasks carefully by designing

arranging and providing workplaces furniture such as chairs, tables, shelves,

facility and machine that can be used to ease the performance of a given task.

It is of no doubt that the result of selecting improper office furniture can affect

employees' comfort and convenience. It is paramount that organisations should select

and use suitable ergonomic resources that will make workers more comfortable in their

jobs and perform their tasks efficiently (Prasetya & Kato, 2011).

29

2. Psychological factors

Irene (2010) adduced that psychological factor of work environment is a pattern of

reactions to a situation where job demands that are not compatible with employees’

competence, abilities or aptitudes, and which challenge their coping mechanism. The

psychological reactions could be a response to pressures, intensity, rigidity or

apprehensions arising from changes and situations in an individual’s life. Studies from

Kayastha and Kayastha (2012) revealed that factors such as perception, motives, learning,

attitudes and personality traits of the staff affects their psychological behaviours. Pouliakas

(2010 affirmed that the attitudes of the staff are mostly influenced by the use of pygmalion

effect. This effect becomes enhanced when organisations provide challenging goals with

which employees agree and compare their performance regularly with these goals. Asmui,

Hussin and Paino (2012) added that organisations should do this in a manner that is not

critical or demeaning. The changing demands of work ultimately affect the attitudes of

employees especially those working under a lot of pressure such as University academic

staff. The response changing demands to psychological factor reduces the productivity of

employees and this is when an employee is unclear as to his duties and responsibilities,

meaning that he does not know what duties are required of him. The predictors of

psychological factors are shown in Figure 2.4 below.

Figure 2.4: Predictors of Psychological Factors

Source: Pearce (2010)

30

(i) Perception:

A major goal of the psychological states is fairness or perceived equity, experienced

meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results. Employees are also influenced

by their perception on how they are answerable and responsible for their performance

outcomes. Studies (Şenol, 2011; Siegel, Schraeder, et al., 2007) revealed that employees

are often affected by their perception on knowledge of results and equity. The knowledge

of result in this context means the degree to which employees determine and interpret their

own individual perception of compensation equity by using the formula espoused in equity

model. Equity model proposes that employees compare what they receive as reward (pay,

career development and advancement, recognition) from the job with their inputs

(education, experience, skill and efforts). The ratio is then compared to the ratios of others;

if the ratios are perceived as inequitable, dissatisfaction may result. Dissatisfaction

probably does not occur if positive inequity (the person feels over-rewarded) is the result

of the comparison. Research has shown that workers have been found to be happy when

they perceive they are paid more than they are worth (Pfeifer, 2012; Fapohunda, 2012).

Furthermore, when negative inequity (the person is under-rewarded) occurs, employees are

generally dissatisfied and de-motivated. This dissatisfaction may cause them to seek new

employment, to become less productive, or to be absent. Thus, the selective nature of

perception leads to the other two conditions.

Selective Distortion: this occurs when the individual changes or twists currently

received information into personal meanings and interpret it in a way that will support

rather than challenge his pre-conceptions.

Selective retention: this dictates that an individual tends to remember information

inputs that support personal feelings and beliefs and forget inputs that do not.

Organisations adopt numerous techniques to address the selective nature of perceived

equity. The process of establishing a secured perception that reduces tension while ensuring

external, internal, and procedural equity consists of five (5) steps namely:

(a) conduct a comparison wage survey to make certain external equity;

(b) provide a comprehensive job evaluation that specifies the value of jobs to make

certain internal equity.

(c) classify and organise related jobs into pay grades.

(d) with the use of a wave curve, value each pay grade

(e) evaluate, monitor and control the pay rates.

31

Perceptions of equitable treatment have become a fundamental and critical aspect of

retention. Adams (1963) observed that perception of equity is the degree to which an

employee recognises he is fairly treated and rewarded with other employees within and

outside the workstation. An employee’s perception begins by comparing his inputs

(skills)/outcomes (reward) ratio to that of others within and outside the establishment of

organisation. Seemingly, the inputs refer to all the values that the employee offers which

include knowledge, skill, ability, know-how, time, exertion, etc. While the outcomes

include the rewards (monetary and non-monetary) that the employee receives in exchange

of his contributions. Studies have assessed the role of employees’ perception of equity on

job satisfaction (Anvari. Amin, Ahmad & Seliman, 2011; Şenol, 2011). Therefore, the

factors that influence the perception of employees in any workstation is represented with a

diagram as presented in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Factors that Influence Perception

Source: Şenol (2011)

Figure 2.5 shows that employees possess various perception towards their rewards in the

course of their employment relations. These perceptions are largely influenced by their

attitudes, motives, interests, experience and expectations. Importantly, employees are

intensely stimulated to increase performance and productivity only when they perceive a

balance between their inputs and their rewards. When pay disparities and discrepancies

arise, conflict becomes inevitable.

32

(ii) Motivation

The concept of motivations arises out of the concept of need. Motivation is the aspiration

and determination to perform excellently. It refers to the effort, reinforcement and

encouragement which enables individuals to perform their work. Motivation is the strategic

means of inspiring individual worker to achieve a desired result (Shin & Jung, 2013;

Armstrong, 2001). Motivation is the strategic process of creating organisational conditions

which propels and facilitates employee’s performance towards the achievement to

corporate objectives (Senturk, 2014; Bashir & Ramay, 2010). Where workers are inspired

towards appropriate goals then the possibility of organisational success will be improved.

The need for continuous improvement in job performance has become a source of concern

in the business world. Research have indicated that continuous improvement can be

achieved through motivational strategies. Employees’ motivation requires a flexible reward

strategy capable of reacting to issues that are internal (e.g. quality of competent staff,

resource availability and allocation) and external (e.g. government policy on the minimum

wage) in context with the rewards offered by competitors (Bloom & Van Reenen, 2011;

Armstrong, 2001). It becomes imperative to reiterate that motivational strategies which are

not malleable and dynamic are perilous and counterproductive (Umoh, Amah & Wokocha,

2014; Sofat, 2012; Griffin, 2012). A framework of motivation as prescribed by Griffin

(2012) is shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: The Motivation Framework

Source: Griffin (2012)

33

Griffin (2012) also identified four basic steps for motivating employees. They include

assessing issues needful for increased performance; establishing a network of motivating

strategies; deciding and applying motivators; and the feedback. Ostensibly, for

organisations to be successful and competitive, the 4P’s of motivation which include

promotion; praise; prestige; and pay cheques must also be highly considered for employees’

performance. Undoubtedly, a single theory cannot be used to explain and explore all the

motivational problems as displayed in Figure 2.6; however, something can be learned from

each theory.

(iii) Learning

Learning is a significant aspect of people management. Learning refers to an integrative

and continuous process through which dexterity, skill, talent, competence and knowledge

of an employee is enriched and improved (Sofat, 2012). Every learning programmes must

be need-based and must be well designed to achieve set targets and objectives. According

to the Chartered Institute of Personnel Development (CIPD), it is important to structure the

learning sufficiently in order to enhance mutual benefits for the employees and

organisation. Predictably, the importance of learning from confronting and solving

problems at work is undermined, whilst retaining the strategic perspective of business-

driven and individual-driven approaches (CIPD, 2007).

Climate within the learning organisation have a duty to infuse all collective activities (e.g.

meetings, conferences) where there is a severe understanding of what happens in the

organisation in terms of the underlying opportunities or threats. The success of this learning

depends on how it is linked to the strategic identification needs, culture change and

employee involvement. It is also important to adduce that the collection of learning

activities required for performing a function can be seen as occupational competencies.

Management, for example, is seen as an occupation since managers have a particular role

to play, and managerial competencies that relate to such specific roles have been defined.

Vocational competencies can be identified as the technical competencies required by a job

or occupation. These can change over time as the technology or work practices are altered

and as opportunities for further skill formation arise. On the other hand, Individual generic

competencies are those that are fundamentally inferred from performance in a given

situation. In addition to these competencies, interest is growing in other types of generic

34

competencies, such as the ability to: (1) find, process and use information; (2) solve

complex problems; and (3) use technology. Hence, the use of a competency-based approach

provides for integrated, flexible and responsive education and training and facilitates life-

long learning, the new international trend which is currently needed in Nigerian state

Universities.

(iv) Ability and Attitudes

Organisations that provide well-developed training and development programmes,

educational reimbursement plans, and state-of-the-art equipment can expect employees

with extremely high ability. Likewise, organisations with strong personnel policies with

respect to compensation, rewards, promotions and career development usually have

employees with positive attitudes toward their job and the organisation. Studies have

identified several ways to combat poor attitudes (Kaufman, Chapman & Allen, 2013;

Abdulkareem & Oyeniran, 2011). First, let employees know they matter and are important.

Second, keep vital information flowing freely. This gives the employee a sense of control

about how things are going. Third, give employees a stake or ownership in the

organisations. Finally, lighten it up. Humor is an excellent way to combat poor attitudes.

Abdulsalam and Mawoli (2012) advocated that effective HR policies can significantly

contribute to the attitude of employees towards their organisations/institutions. These

positive attitude reduces absenteeism and turnover thereby leading to greater fulfilment and

commitment of the employees. Ahmed, Usman and Rana (2011) indicated that no one

technique improves employees’ attitudes across the board. Instead, a combination of

motivational tools should be used. Also, it is important to remember that the tools must be

consistent with the organisational culture for them to be effective.

3. Job Contents

The concept of job content is one of the new variables that make up contemporary work

related issues. Job contents means the process of organising responsibilities into a

productive unit of work to enhance organisational efficiency and employee job satisfaction

(Culpepper, 2011). Job content is also the arrangement of the task, functions and

relationships among jobs towards the attainment of personal and organisational objectives

(Bashir & Ramay, 2010). The characteristics of the job and job holders influence a number

of personal and work outcomes. The work to be done and how it gets done have become a

35

concern for employers and employees (Iyoha et al., 2015; Olajide, 2010). Additionally, two

major approaches to job design are available for management of organisations: a

specialization –intensive approach and a motivation-intensive approach as shown in Figure

2.7.

Job Design Dimension Performance Outcomes

Figure 2.7: A Framework for Job Design

Source: Adapted from Hackman and Oldham (1976)

Strategic Guidelines for Job Contents

One of the most comprehensive frameworks for job design is the job characteristics model.

It proposes specific characteristics of jobs that can lead to important psychological states.

In turn, these psychological states lead to a number of positive and work outcomes as shown

in Figure 2.8. The Job Characteristics Model recognises that specific dimensions of the job

are intrinsically encouraging for some employees and sometimes these employees may

perceive and respond to the job characteristics in different ways. Hackman and Oldham

(1976; 2005) expressed that the relationship between the job dimensions and performance

outcomes can moderated by growth need strength. Growth need strength is the need to

acquire necessary skills, develop and be challenged. This means that employees who

perceive their jobs to be enriched and enlarged are likely to experience increased

psychological state. If employees perceive the psychological states from their work and

they have high growth need strength, ultimately their personal and work outcomes will be

enhanced. In essence, the model in Figure 2.8 works best for employees with a need to

learn, grow and be challenged (high growth need strength).

Job contents:

Task variety

Task autonomy

Task complexity

Task difficulty

Task identify

Job functions:

Responsibility

Authority

Information flow

Work methods

Co-ordination

requirements

Relationships:

Dealing with others

Friendship opportunities

Teamwork requirements

Feedback

Feedback

Task Accomplishment:

Productivity

Effectiveness

Efficiency

Worker Reaction:

Satisfaction

Absenteeism

Turnover

36

Figure 2.8: Motivation through the Design of Work

Source: Adapted from Hackman and Oldham (2005)

Hackman and Oldham (2005) identified five core job characteristics which are:

i. Task identity: this requires arranging a set of tasks with necessary information that

stimulates the operation, performance and accomplishment of the job (Mohsan,

2012)

ii. Task significance: the level at which the work itself impact on others (Olajide,

2010).

iii. Skill variety: the degree to which employees’ exercise different skills and abilities.

iv. Autonomy: This also refers to the amount of discretion, freedom and independence

employees enjoy in accomplishing a given task (Khan, Farooq & Ullah, 2010).

v. Feedback: the degree to which the job provides necessary and required information

to employees regarding performance and work outcomes.

Critical Psychological

States

Personal and Work

Outcomes

Core Job Characteristics/

Job Contents

Skill Variety

Experienced

Meaningfulness of the

Work

Experienced

Responsibility

Knowledge of Results

from Work Activities

Relationships are

Moderated by

Employee Growth

Need Strength

High Internal

Motivation

High Satisfaction

High Work

Quality

Task Identity

Autonomy

Feedback

Task Significance

37

4. Reward System

The approach to rewarding people at work is enduring significant changes and the word

reward is progressively being used for contemporary remuneration strategies and policies.

Reward includes pay, compensation and benefit. It is a managerial function that

incorporates financial and non-financial values to reward employees who add value to

achieve distinctive advantage (Danish & Usman, 2010). The use of reward has become

indispensable in stimulating staff performance. Reward which is interchangeably used with

compensation system has also played an indispensable role in encouraging staff physically,

emotional and psychological (Hafiza, Shah, Jamsheed & Zaman 2011; Kinicki & Williams,

2003). Adequate compensation often leads to greater commitment (Ogunbameru, 2012;

Pesik & Gounko, 2011). But in the recent times, effort to compensate and control salaries

has become a critical problem for organisations competing in the global marketplace

(Carrington, et al., 2012). Rewarding employees is to some extent as much an art as a

science as shown in Figure 2.9 below.

Figure 2.9: Components of Total Reward Strategy

Source: Armstrong (2001)

In every organisation, especially in the educational sectors, the use of pay, bonus,

compensation, profit sharing, etc has played a major role in motivating and retaining

workers for higher performance and commitments (Osibanjo, Adeniji, Falola, & Heirsmac,

2014). If all the remuneration packages (salary, fringe benefits and incentives) enumerated

are present in any organisation/institution, there is no doubt that there will be a high level

of satisfaction among the employees of such organisation, and this will enable them to

38

perform better in their respective jobs. In other words, reward and satisfaction go hand in

hand. However, the absence of rewards will cause dissatisfaction (Fredman & Doughney,

2012; Hashim & Mahmood, 2011). It is also important to note that this reward covers both

the extrinsic and intrinsic values which employees are entitled to as part of their

employment benefits. Therefore, Table 2.2 shows the total reward system (extrinsic and

intrinsic values) required for employment continuity. .

Table 2.2: Employees’ Total Reward System

Employees’

Reward System

Extrinsic

Rewards

Monetary

Rewards

Hourly wage

Salary

Bonuses

Commissions

Pay incentives

Benefits

Insurance

Retirement

Paid holidsys

Paid public holidays

Food services

Medical

Recreation

Intrinsic Rewards

Recognition

Promotion opportunities

Working conditions

Interesting work.

Source: Khan (2010)

To enhance academic staff retention in Nigerian tertiary institutions, the following must be

considered: the pay should be based on performance or related to workers’ productivity in

order to retain employees; the differences in the pay plan for jobs should reflect variations

in job requirements such as skills, abilities and responsibility and job conditions (Ozongwu,

2013); the pay must reflect increases in costs of living; employees’ earnings should be

adjusted over time so that they may be adequate for the employees to live and work well

(Udoh, 2000). Additionally, organisations should endeavour to make sure the pay system

is clearly defined and stated, adequately publicised and properly used without departures

from the established structure. Khan, et al., (2010) suggested sustainable development can

only be enhanced through an effective and consistent reward/compensation package which

subsequently lead to increasing employee loyalty.

39

Determinants of Reward System and staff Satisfaction

No organisation, whether profit making or a non-profit making can exist void of human

capital. Every organisation comprises of people who perform certain duties and

responsibility in order to ensure a smooth functioning of the organisation. Basically,

organisations have an end-result and desired goals they look forward to accomplishing.

Every organisation therefore has to strive towards the effective management of its human

capital, in ensuring that they stay satisfied at the work functions they perform, because the

employees in such an organisation are solely charged with the responsibility of translating

these goals and desired results into a visible reality (Chobelueh, 2013; Udoh, 2000).

Organisations should therefore, ensures a well-structured compensation package for their

employees, in motivating them to put in the required efforts towards the attainment of their

objectives.

Many researchers adduced that these factors that lead to job satisfaction have been a major

concern for management over the years. This was due to the power and principle of

individual differences that what motivates Mr. A for higher performance may not really

motivate Mr. B for organisational efficiency. Conversely, if what motivate Mr. A can also

motivates Mr. B then the road to job satisfaction will be guaranteed but if they have

differing needs, they must be motivated according to their needs, else increased

productivity will only become a dream. Studies revealed that when the basic needs of

employees are not fulfilled, job dissatisfaction tends to exist.

Studies have examined many determinants of reward system, fringe benefit and employee

welfare (Ozongwu, 2013; Ayeni, et al, 2008). Some of the major determinants are as

follows:

i. Labour Pool: Conditions in the labour market or demands and supply for labour in

the market should be considered in deciding on indirect remuneration packages. The

relationship between supply and demand in a given location or job can influence

remuneration to a great extent of there is a surplus of applications; pay rates will

remain relatively low.

40

ii. Economic Condition: cost of living, depending on boom, depression, inflation,

deflation in a given location also determines the administration of compensation that

managers need to attract and retain competent staff.

iii. Ability to pay: whether a particular labour or skill is scarce or plentiful, an

organisation will only hire it if has the capacity to pay such salary and benefit

attracted.

iv. Collective Bargaining Power: Any organisation with a well organised union law

negotiate with the union representatives for the workers. This criteria and methods

are very common within the private sector in Nigeria. A strong union with bargaining

power can always gain concessions for its members, subject however to the

organisation’s ability to pay and the level of productivity.

v. Nature of the organisations work: that is the relative worth of job e.g. banks, Oil

Company, ministry e.t.c, will be considered before given packages.

vi. Competitors: competitions are also major determinant of fringe and employee

welfare; in an environment where there is high level of competitions there will be

different kinds of packages in order to retain the incumbent worker.

vii. Technology: the skill or technological requirement of the job is also one of the

determinants of indirect remunerations packages.

Daneshfard and Ekvaniyan (2012) added that when the genuine needs and supplications of

the employees are not taken into cognizance and managed properly, then job dissatisfaction

takes effect and this facilitate undesirable feelings towards work. Houston, Meyer &

Paewai (2006) revealed that organisational performance is affected by the moment an

employee feels dissatisfied or discouraged about how things are being done. They argued

that organisations should put in practice mechanisms that will recognise the principle of

individual differences when it comes to satisfying their (employees) expectations and

demands. Several factors have been identified to influence the high job satisfaction in the

workplace. Amongst these are career development and progression, opportunities for

growth, communication, training and other work related issues (Dobbins & Knill, 2009).

Invariably, several studies have also revealed that low compensation was the most common

reason given for dissatisfaction. Ibrahim, Usman & Bagudu (2013) stated that employees

feel they are satisfied only when the work itself is challenging, interesting, and motivating.

41

Studies by Fredman and Doughney (2012); Danish, et al., (2010); Kamal and Normah-binti

(2012) indicated that there are different and dynamic ways of motivating worker for

efficiency and effectiveness. Amongst these are pay, interpersonal relationship, sense of

achievement, etc (Spector, 2008). In the analysis of Schultz and Schultz (1998), job

satisfaction has become a stimulus that influences the attitude and work of the employees

negatively or positively depending on the work-related characteristics, and demographic

characteristics such as age, sex, educational status and personal characteristics. Bashir and

Ramay (2010) stressed that people spend most of their hours in the work place for several

years with a revolving and routine work schedule which will later and eventually lead to

discouragement, discontentment and despondency; these feelings and attitudes are often

extended to families and later affect their social life, mental and psychological wellbeing.

The relationship between motivation and job satisfaction cannot be underestimated because

the two variables go together and react in different response to increased employees

involvement and retention, efficiency, commitment and working surroundings.

Going by the definition of Fredman and Doughney (2012), it should be noted that an

employee’s morale will be boosted as a result of what he contributes and gets from work.

Ubeku (1995) however, enumerated some ways through which worker’s loyalty can be

boosted as follows:

a) Wages and Salaries: Good adequate wages and salaries should be given to

employees to meet their basic needs. Once this is done, the average worker would

be able to contribute to the fulfillment of organisational objectives.

b) Job security: This boost the morale of individual workers in an organisation as they

feel secure in the performance of their duty. It also enables the workers to exert all

their efforts to achieve the objectives of the organisation.

c) Promotion: This serves as motivation, in that it allows the extent to which

individual performance is recognised. Any employee promoted puts in more efforts

in his work.

d) Job enrichment: this is when the task performed by many people is compressed

into one job, so as to enable one person to start and end the task. Job enrichment is

the vertical integration of various tasks into harmonious whole and assigning it to a

subordinate worker in such way that such a worker can see his finished product.

This goes a long in boosting the morale of an individual in an organisation.

42

e) Workers should be encouraged to take part in decision making. This will enable

them to talk about their interests, and giving them a sense of belonging.

Therefore, if all the aforementioned factors are put into consideration by an organisation,

it will boost the loyalty and morale of their employees, which will in turn enhance their

performance and make it easier for organisational goals and objectives to be achieved.

5. Organisational climate

The environment of every nation affords it the opportunity to exist, to survive and to

function. It is evident that organisations have intentionally established social tools that are

created out of the larger society (environment). They are consciously established to add to

the value of the larger environment through their daily activities. In evaluating the

workplace environment, one of the major variables to be considered is the organisational

climate. The climatic condition with which the organisation inhabits itself has a huge role

to play in organisational performance and in influencing workplace behaviours (Govaerts,

et al., 2011; Fletcher & Nusbaum, 2010). The climatic setting of the organisation comprised

variables such as social, economic or political that influences employee’s behaviour. Some

of these climatic conditions vary from the communication structure, the management style,

the pay system, the organisations room temperatures, workload among others. Put together,

the organisational climate and culture significantly affect performance (Holmgren, et al,

2010; Stansfeld & Candy, 2006). It is widely believed that this organisational variables that

are sometimes regarded as the culture adopted by the organisation enhances performance

and employees' behaviour.

Determinants of Organisational Climate

(i) Organisational Culture

Learning the culture of an organisation is an important step in the socialization process.

The culture of an organisation comprises of set of values (shared beliefs), history, custom

and artifacts that the group holds in common (Schneider, 2008). Culture is the cement or

glue that holds a group or organisation together. The process of acquiring the culture of an

organisation is known as acculturation (Skuza, 2007). Even though culture is represented

by art and artifacts. It is considered intangible, hidden, and not easily recognised. In the

past decades, the role of organisational culture has acquired wide acceptance. It serves as a

43

strategic means by which members of the organisation understand what it stands for, how

things are done, and what it considers important. The relationships are captured in Table

2.3 and Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: The Paradigm of Organisational Culture

Source: Adapted from Osibanjo and Adeniji (2013)

Table 2.3: Components and Meaning of Corporate Culture

Source: Asmui, Hussin and Paino (2012).

It can be inferred from Table 2.3 and Figure 2.10 that organisational culture has important

role in employee productivity. The culture of an organisation is made manifest to

employees in form of orientation programme. Orientation is familiarizing the employees

with its operations and culture. Orientation occurs in two ways: formally and informally

(Schneider, Salvaggio & Subirats, 2002). The formal orientation is conducted by the

organisation. Many organisations go to great lengths to ensure a match between information

provided formally and informally. This helped to reinforce corporate philosophy with

existing employees as well as new ones. This philosophy covers four (4) key points:

(a) Face to face communication of all performance figures with all employees is

critical;

(b) Training and the opportunity for development should be provided to all employees;

S/N COMPONENTS MEANING

1 Values Basic beliefs; strongly held attitudes about important ideas

2 Norms Accepted standards of behaviour

3 History and Tradition The historical or traditional way of doing and thinking above

things

4 Mores Customs or rituals that the society believes in and follows

5 Myths Common stories or folklore passed from one generation to

another.

6 Art and artifacts Art, symbols, weapons, pottery, and so on that are physical

representation of the culture.

Organisational

Culture

Symbols

Control Systems

The

Paradigm

Rituals &

Routines

Power Structure

Stories &

Myths

44

(c) Job security should be provided for all people;

(d) Incentive programmes based on ideas, suggestion, and hard work should be

established as a reward.

A short, simple straightforward statement, such as the one above, consistently emphasised

and communicated, can do much to ensure that the formal orientation strategy for

acculturation is reinforced on the job.

(ii) Leadership Style

Schneider (2008) argued that leadership is one of the most important means of directing

people. It is the process by which an executive influences the work and behaviour of

subordinates in choosing and attaining specific objectives. Braham (2005), who brought a

new perspective to the leadership issue, refers to it as ‘crisis of trust and confidence’ and

summarises employee’s evaluation of leaders into three fundamental questions. Leadership

is the process or activity concerned with influencing the behaviour of others and the

motivation efforts in a specific situation towards a goal (Ullah, 2012; Tsai, 2011).

Leadership Style defined

The studies in leadership styles established three experimental social conditions (autocratic,

democratic and Laissez-faire). These categories of leadership styles by Lewin (1939)

continued to be cited in works of institutional leadership.

Autocratic Leadership Style

According to Slusher, Van Dyke and Rose (1972), an autocratic leader has the central

power and the decision making structure concentrated in him alone. He takes full authority

and assumes full responsibility. In this kind of leadership style, followers maybe

uninformed, feel insecure and afraid of the leader’s authority. However, despite its

shortcoming, it can be positive because the leader can use power to dispense rewards to the

groups. This type of leader is regarded by Davis as a benevolent autocratic. Autocratic

leadership style can be used to achieve productivity and job performance in some situations.

It has also been discovered that leaders may also feel more effective when in autocratic,

feel more secured and when conflict occurs, they can take action that provides strong

motivation and reward for the leader and permit quick decision making because authority

is concentrated in just one person. However, people may dislike it if it is extreme and the

45

motivational style is negative. As a result, there may be frustration, conflict and low morale.

Followers may feel that they are producing because they are required to do so. Gibb (1971)

labels this style of leadership as defensive model, which according to him emanate from

fear and from the leaders feeling of insecurity, control and their behaviour.

Democratic Style of Leadership

The democratic style takes into consideration or accounts every member of the group.

Responsibilities and decisions making are based on consultation, deliberation and

participation among the group (Awan & Mahmood, 2010). In this kind of leadership style,

the employers and employees work cordially as a team to achieve some set of goals. The

employer can be said to derive his power and authority from employees whose basic needs,

rights and freedom are guaranteed. The employer always act on behalf of the group and

seek their consent or suggestion before taking decisions. Every member of this system feels

satisfied because they participate in the achievement of goals. He uses praises and blame

for work result and he is not sentimental. In this situation, the employer tends to understand

his work and at the same time enjoys it. There is open discussion in which members are

free to express their feelings. This tends to lead to a sense of resourcefulness, creativity,

discretion, autonomy and work quality.

Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

Followers of the laissez-faire leadership style believe that people are most productive when

they pursue their own interest without external restrictions. The laissez-faire style of

leadership connotes a situation where power is totally among the people. In this type, things

go better in the absence of the leader who is just a figurative head. Slusher and van Dyke

(1972) write that leaders do not believe in a laissez-faire style but instead take initiative in

seeing to it that members know what their responsibilities are and who has the authority to

make decisions on problems. The laissez-faire leader, according to Davis (1968), avoids

power and depends on the group to establish its own goal and solve its own problems. He

tends to permit different units of organisation to proceed at cross-purposes. This type of

situation has been found to degenerate into chaos. Here, the employer does not make use

of the power invested on him and tends to depend on the employees to decide and establish

goals.

46

Although democratic leadership style may prove to be the most effective, some situations

may call for autocratic or laissez-faire style. So the behaviour of leaders is dependent on

situations. Shadare and Hammed (2009) explains that leadership is concerned with the

implementation of those policies and decisions, which assist in directing and co-ordinating

the wok activities towards the attainment of corporate objectives

(iii) Mentoring

Mentoring has been discussed in various literatures as a process that aids talent retention

(Govaerts, Kyndt, Dochy & Baert, 2011). But hardly has it been described with regards to

the act and employees' commitment to work. Hence, simply put mentoring is the process

whereby an experienced individual puts another with lower experience, and in similar field,

through for the purpose of his development. It is against this background that managers

believed that a mentoring process for an employee should stimulate her to be dedicated and

passionate for a system that had provided the opportunity for career development because

this is the end product of mentorship. The growing competition in Nigeria, especially in the

educational industry has called for steady implementation of strategies for facilitating

employment relationship and continuity between the employer and employee through

proper mentoring programes. It is also argued that this relationship could influence

employees’ attitudes, commitment and involvement, which eventually result in retention

(Weiss, 2012; Taiwo, 2010; Wagner & Harter, 2006), leads to turnover intention (Robbins

&Judge, 2012), displeasure, tiredness, stress and low productivity (Kaufman, Chapman &

Allen, 2013). Conversely, Griffin (2012) also indicated that poor reciprocity of mentorship

programmes are essentially accompanied with incessant absenteeism, fatigue, emotional

exhaustion, depersonalization and intension of employees to leave their job; all of which

impacts on organisational performance. A committed employee will perform better, and a

performing employee will be efficient and effective which in turn create advantages for the

organisation in terms of performance. With the current trends of the high rate of labour

turnover, which is a summary of various employees deviant attitude to work, and with the

paucity of studies on mentoring and employees' commitment, this study finds a void to fill

in knowledge.

(iv) Employer-employee relations

Employee relation has commonly been used relatively in recent years to promote

employment relationship (Mike, 2008). The International Labour Organisation (ILO)

47

describes it as a legal notion to mean the relationship between a person called an employee

and another person called the employer. Employee relations are a rather wide-reaching

topic with many different angles it has grown in subject area and range of analysis

conducted (Fein, 2010). From this, it can be deduced that employee relations is concerned

with how to obtain people’s commitment towards achieving an organisation’s objective.

The term “employee relations” is described as the relationship between the employers,

employees and trade unions which represents the employees. It is also known as the

relationship between two parties (employee and employer) in which one party the

employees performs certain functions for the employer in return for pay, remuneration and

compensation. This employer-employee relationship begins from the moment a job is

offered by an employer and accepted by an employee with the terms and conditions of

employment. This relationship becomes terminated if the employee decides to resign or is

fired from the organisation. Above all, employee relations are highly crucial in any

organised institution in order to maintain a stable organisational growth. It is also to be

noted that employees play a vital role in the sustenance of growth in an organisation.

(v) Work Flexibility

According to Ogunbameru (2004), work is the human effort which creates useful goods.

Work could be in the form of rendering services or producing goods for man’s needs.

Various development strategies in areas of managing both work and people at work have

attracted attention on helpful studies on matters of division of labour, Total Quality

Management (TOM), Management By Objectives (MBO), Human Resource Management

(HRM) and flexibility management to mention a few (Kontz, O’Donnell & Weihrich, 2013;

Cole, 2007). These issues arising in the work place are profit driven and also beneficial for

both the employers’ and employees’. Flexibility management for instance have varieties

ranging from shift working, overtime, moonlighting (multiple job holding), and part time

work arrangement involving flex-times and so on. The new ideology, flexibility

management involves job flexibility, wage flexibility, work process flexibility and even

time flexibility; though intended on making more money by management to the exclusion

of the people; but not entirely disadvantageous to the employees (Fletcher & Nusbaum,

2010).

48

Flexibility management is a managerial strategy which tends towards protecting

management in times of business crisis. It also allows for such things as casualization,

contract work and multiple tasking. Oziengbe and Obhiosa (2014) explained that this

approach receives the support of those seeking cost efficiencies through control of staffing

numbers and development and so flexibility management is a management defensive

strategy for breaking more profit grounds; it has brought many advantages for the

employees’ while it allows management to be able to pay the workers conveniently.

Flexibility management gives the employees opportunities to manage their private

schedules and frees them from the rigid bureaucratic fixed time work arrangements;

through its flex-time work system. In this vein, employees decide the favourable work

times in as much as they are able to fulfil their contractual obligation in terms of hours

worked over a set period and organisation’s goals. Thus the working day is not rigidly

controlled (Fletcher & Nusbaum, 2010). Flexibility management affects wage flexibility

hence, an employee can decide on how much to be earned during a period of time and how

to go about it. It is strongly argued that flexitime work arrangement gives the employees

the freedom to choose hours of work to suit the constraints imposed by one’s life styles,

avoidance of rush travels hours, and engagement in other economic activities.

(vi) Promotion

The term promotion is one of the most emotionally charged practices of human resource

management. Organisations where promotion opportunities have declined and need for

flexibility and multiskilling have increased are more likely to benefits from broad banding.

For instance, if the general consensus is that the wrong person has been promoted, there

will be resentment and probably lack of cooperation from other members. Promotion can

be defined as progress, advancement or development in career and a reward for hard work

in an organisation (Fatimah, Noraishah, Nasir & Khairuddin, 2012). It enhances the level

of reward, benefits, authority and responsibilities which employees enjoy in organisational

context. Promotion in the workplace must be done objectively and it must be done to satisfy

the following features:

(a) opportunities for employee growth and development are provided;

(b) Equal opportunity or advancement to all employees is provided;

(c) Creating awareness and openness of opportunities known to all employees;

49

(d) Increasing the awareness of employees on what constitutes effective job

performance;

(e) Effective communication of corporate objectives and thus allow each individual the

opportunity to find a personal fit in the organisation. It is imperative that decisions

about promotions are based on reliable data.

A large number of organisations place significant importance on promotion. Available

research evidence has shown that overall employee satisfaction results from a mix of

rewards which include promotion (Cole, 2004; Armstrong, 2001; Onasanya, 1999; Arthur,

1995). Thus, it is pertinent to examine the relationship between promotion and job

productivity in an organisation.

(vii) Decision Making

Decision-making is a very important part of managerial and operational process function

in achieving organisational goal. Robbins and Judge (2012) defined decision making as

the act of making choices from two or more alternatives. Similarly, Ferguson and Reio,

(2010) sees decision making process as the selection of alternative course of action from

available alternatives in order to accomplish corporate goals. Ogunbameru, (2004)

identified four major steps involved in the decision-making process which include

identifying the problem; alternative solutions; evaluating and choosing from alternative

solutions and then implementing them. Hence, at any point in time employers or employees

must take a decision in other to perform an action in the organisation. Very often, decision-

making is a managerial function but subordinates will find themselves in situations that

demand them to take decisions. In a bureaucratic setting, making decision could be a task

that may not be achieved by employees; since actions of employees are already pre-

determined by the structure of bureaucracy. In the same way, Chobelueh (2013) indicated

that the importance of the environment, rank of employee and knowledge and experience

of an employee in the organisation significantly influences decision making in the operation

system of a purely bureaucratic establishment. The standardised written rules and

hierarchical down-flow control pattern of communication impedes on employees’ ability

to make decisions; make use of their initiatives or even make innovative moves in a

bureaucratic setting. Thus bureaucracy creates tension and fear most especially for those

on the bottom side of the ladder in its unintended effects, leading to indecisions that are

likely to affect the achievement of organisation’s goal; whose rules it is meant to protect.

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Decision-making enhances creativity (use of initiative and innovation). Through decision-

making, new ideas which could bring changes that are likely to create radical improvements

in the process of business come to take place. According to Rusli, Eileen and Sopian (2015),

there are two major types of decision-making-Programmed and un-programmed decision-

making and these depends on the type of problem emanating in the workplace. Explaining

further, he said programmed decision-making are usually structured, repetitive and routine

types with defined rules and procedures for operating them. Un-programmed decision-

making types are of accidental nature which arise out of some necessity on the job; and

could create opportunity for ‘change’ that can greatly influence employee’ performance

leading to organisation goal achievement.

2.2.5 Staff Loyalty

Staff loyalty can be best labelled in terms of a practice by which certain attitudes and

approaches give rise to specific behaviours (envisioned or real). Over the years, there have

been dramatic changes in business activities and workforce attitudes due to the competitive

nature of global environment. Historically, once employed an employee assumes it is a life

contract job and managers anticipated their generous loyalty to the organisation. In the

same way, employees used to be dedicated and committed to their employer. This spitting

image of engagement loyalty has slowly changed with the pace of “globalisation” and

“development”. Today, employees are faced with incessant occurrence of down-sizing,

restructuring or re-organisation, retrenchment and compulsory retirement. Employers are

breaking the rules, shared requirements are re-evaluated, life contract employment and

dedication is far from reality, moonlighting is considered to be a common practice, and

workers keeps demanding for increase in salaries, benefits or better working conditions.

Loyalty and reliance have turned out to be more challenging to acquire and offer in the

work place (Josée Bloemer & Odekerken-Schröder, 2006; Keller 2005). Loyalty can be

categorised into two (2) namely internal and external. The internal loyalty largely focuses

on emotional attachment or components which includes affection, recognition, respect, etc.

To enhance staff commitment, it becomes important for management to note that the

internal loyalty must be nurtured, fostered and fascinated. On the other hand, the external

loyalty has to do with components that manifest itself. The external loyalty are often

demonstrated to reflect conformity with organisational policies and compliance with

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management decisions. Certainly, the days of waiting for retirement age are long gone.

Organisations can also strategically formulate and implement friendly policies to earning

staff loyalty. This gives them the opportunity to attract, acquire and retain the best and the

brightest. It is evident that company’s and shareholder’s returns on investments are

unswervingly associated with the rates of staff retention. Happy workers equal happy

returns on investment. This implies that workers tend to be loyal to the organisation only

when they are happy with the provisions or benefits made available for the workforce.

2.5.6 Staff involvement

Staff involvement has become a fundamental issue and a growing concern to researchers,

academics, instructors, government, decision makers and human resources experts. The

issues in staff involvement focused on skill attraction and development, engagement, etc.

staff involvement is defined as “consistent and formalized efforts to increasing workers’

participation and heartening the yearnings and aspirations of employees’ and the

organisation’s needs (Mohsan, 2012). The concept of staff involvement can be considered

as a platform that supports staff to look beyond their present jobs and prepare for optimistic

future positions within organisations and sometimes outside the organisations. This

platforms gives organisations the opportunity to retain competent and efficient staff for

their growth and continued existence. Staff involvement is not a new or fancy issue, but

what makes it complex especially in the higher institutions is who should take responsibility

for its implementation? Should this be implemented solely by employees or the employers?

Similarly, Kaufman, Chapman and Allen (2013) recognised the need for staff involvement

in every organisation: “(i) to actively engage employees in the activities of the organisation;

(ii) to keep potential employees clearly informed about career paths within the organisation;

and (iii) to fully implement established human resource programmes that will help to

enhance the activities that select, allocate, improve, and manage individual careers with the

organisations’ plans.” The fundamental principles of staff involvement provide

expectations about factors involved in job-related development. The principles provide a

platform for improving and managing skills, abilities, expertise, experience, promotion,

values, recognition and reward (Mishra & Sachan, 2012).

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2.2.6 Staff commitment

In human resource management practices, organisational commitment is the individual's

psychological and emotional attachment to the organisation. The principle that underlies a

number of these studies was to discover methods to identify how workers feel about their

jobs and determine factors that influences their commitment to the organisations.

Organisational commitment envisages work variables such as labour turnover, staff

retention, and job satisfaction. Some factors such as role ambiguity, employment insecurity

and employability, organisational policies and culture, and management styles have been

linked to organisational commitment. Studies also indicated the significant relationship

between organisational commitment and job satisfaction. Therefore, it is not a gain saying

that attractive and adequate incentive package guarantee worker full commitment and

dedication to work activities which may in turn lead to organisational success. Ogunmaberu

(2012) added that sustenance of every organisation is a dependent factor on how they can

organise and provide adequate benefits/welfare packages that will motivate and stimulate

their employees to perform better with higher commitment and dedication. Organisations

should also take into cognizance the implications for design and re-design of jobs incentives

in order to ensure effective utilisation of human resources and controlling labour turn-over

rate.

Models of Commitment

Meyer and Allen (1991) identified three-component model of commitment. These

components are parallel to different psychological states. Meyer and Allen’s research in

1991 indicated that there are three "mind sets" which can illustrate commitment of

employees to the organisation:

(i) Affective Commitment

This means employee's emotional engagement with the organisation. Meyer and Allen

(1991) revealed that affection commitment is the positive desire of an employee to be

committed. A worker who is affectively committed intensely recognises and aligns with

the goals of the organisation and wishes to remain a part of the organisation. Workers are

committed to the organisation simply because they want to do so. This commitment are

often influenced by demographic variable such: gender, age, education, experience, etc but

53

these influences are neither sturdy nor reliable. The common challenge with these variables

is that they are visible but they cannot clearly be defined.

(ii) Continuance Commitment

Continuance Commitment refers to the “need” component of working with the

organisation. This component compares the strength of gains and losses that may occur

should an individual stay or leave an organisation. An employee may decide to be

committed to the organisation simply because he/she sees a high cost of losing

organisational membership (Tafida, 2008). The cost of losing organisational membership

may arise from economic costs and or social costs.

(iii) Normative Commitment

This refers to the feelings of individual worker to remain with an organisation. These

feelings are influenced by work related stress which may occur before and after joining an

organisation. For example, an institution may have invested resources in training an

academic staff to acquire M.Sc or Ph.D certificate who there and then feels a 'moral'

obligation to exert greater effort on the job and stay with the organisation to 'repay the debt.'

Such an academic staff stays with the organisation because he/she "ought to". Normative

commitment is practiced in organisations that appreciate loyalty and steadily stimulate

employees with adequate rewards, incentives and other strategies that can increase their

intention to stay. Normative commitment in employees becomes inevitable where such

employee sees habitual examples of the employer’s commitment to their welfare and well-

being. University lecturers with increased organisational commitment will largely

contribute to organisational success and will also derive job satisfaction (Chobelueh, 2013;

Udoh, 2000). When there is high job satisfaction, the rates of attrition, turnover and

absenteeism will reduce. This will also serve as a platform for increasing organisation’s

ability to attract, develop and retain talent.

2.2.7 Job Satisfaction

Traditionally, job satisfaction has been defined, measured and investigated from the

perspective of the individual employee. Feelings of job satisfaction tend to reflect more of

the appraisal of job experience in the present and past more than expected. It has to do with

the favourableness or un-favourableness with which employees view their work. It results

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when there is a fit between job requirements and the desire of the job and the rewards that

the job provides. Abdulla, Djebarni and Mellahi (2010) described job satisfaction as the

extent to which workers feel their expectation are fulfilled by the reward or disregards

system in the workplace. Bentley, Coates, Dobson, Goedegebuure and Meek (2013) stated

that job satisfaction is conceptualized as a multi-dimensional variables that conveys how

the workers access expectations against reward and disregards taking into account other

available in the labour market. Kontz, O’Donnell and Weihrich (2013) confirmed that the

offer of fringe benefits to workers lead to job satisfaction which has been defined as the

individual state of mind that gives rise to wants.

Job satisfaction has been seen to have five major components. These include:

i. The attitude towards work group

ii. The general working condition

iii. The attitude towards the economy

iv. Monetary benefits

v. The attitude towards the supervision.

According to Kontz, O’Donnell and Weihrich (2013), the major apparatuses that could be

added to satisfaction are the individual worker's personality. Many studies have shown that

satisfied employees are motivated to improve on the performance of their job so as to bring

about higher productivity, reduction in absenteeism and turnover, increased productivity

are all achieved when a worker is satisfied.

Nature of Job Satisfaction

The process of defining job satisfaction leads to two different definitions. Bozeman and

Gaughan, 2011) adduced that “Job satisfaction is a strategic way of evaluating the value

and excitement employee places on their job. Job satisfaction is regarded as affective

feelings that explain employees’ arousal to work, physical condition, commitment,

prolonged existence and organisational outcome (Spector, 2008). Luthans and Stajkovic

(2000) identified the following job characteristics: the work itself; pay; promotion

opportunities; supervision; and co-workers. Basically, the level of satisfaction an employee

derives is mutually dependent on the socio cultural and economic circumstances

surrounding the given country. A banker who dresses corporate but cannot equitably get a

satisfactory pay will be faced with the problem of pilfering, theft, bankruptcy, etc. These

problems also exist when he/she receives a pay that is lower than his contributions. So

55

where all these exist, motivation becomes a useful tool for increasing the willingness to

work (Ozongwu, 2013; Khan, et al, 2010). Also, it becomes important to state that without

motivation, there can never be job satisfaction. The moments an employee observes that

what he/she is being paid is lower than his/her input or lower than what his/her counterpart

in other organisations receive, there is high tendency for such an employee to pose a

negative attitude to work. These factors can be explained with the help of Figure 2:12.

Figure 2.12: Sources and Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction

Source: Watts and Robertson (2011)

Conversely, it becomes important for management to imbibe the culture of motivating the

employees for higher performance and retention at the right time, else attrition and turnover

will increase. Studies have established the causes and factors responsible for influencing

job satisfaction (Mbah & Ikemefuna, 2012: Malik, Nawab, Naeem, & Danish, 2010). This

study also identified consistent correlation of certain variables with the job satisfaction.

2.2.8 University Education and its Status in Nigeria

University education is perhaps the most important and indispensable component in human

capital development in the building of a strong and sustainable economy. The pivotal aim

of any University, as the apex of a nation’s educational system, is to develop the whole

person mentally, morally, culturally and physically for the transformation of the economy,

hence the spectacular growth of Nigerian Universities which now stand at one hundred and

fifty three Universities (National Universities Commission, 2016) and yet are still unable

to accommodate the teaming millions yearning for higher education (Adeyeye, 2009;

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Oziengbe & Obhiosa, 2014). Research, which is primarily the reason for the creation of

Universities, leading to the acquisition of new knowledge, engendering innovation,

enhancing teaching quality and increasing the economic value and reputation of the

institutions, has unfortunately suffered major decline in Nigeria beginning in the late 1980s

(Faborode, 2016). Before then, the National Universities Commission (NUC) noted that

the quantity and quality of research outputs in Nigerian tertiary institutions was the best in

sub-Saharan Africa (Karani, 1997). By the mid-90s the quantity and quality of research had

declined to an alarming low rate (Okebukola & Solowu, 2001). Nigeria university system

is fast losing its high esteem in the labour market and the industry. They added that

Nigeria’s total number of scientific publications in 1991 was 2862 but this number dropped

to 1031 by 2000. This is not unexpected as Nigeria was spending an average of 6% instead

of 26 percent recommended by the UNESCO. At the onset of the “holocaust” years, 1980

to 2000, the pertinent factors for outstanding research, such as experienced academics,

training, motivation, availability of equipment, funding and facilities, had more or less

faded away (Okebukola, 2002). What took over was a “vicious national dilemma of a badly

managed and plundered non-commodity economy and a self-afflicted and degraded

education system that ultimately lost its once vibrancy and global reputation” (Faborode,

2016).

It is a well-known fact that conflicts within the University system have also contributed

immensely to the problem of having low quality education (Alimba, 2016) and as a result,

dysfunctional or mismanaged conflicts have negatively imparted on the quality of graduates

from the Universities. According to Fatile and Adejuwon (2011), the results of these

conflicts do not only lead to extended academic sessions, destruction of life and properties

which renders the academic environments unsuitable and unsafe for serious academic

activities but also impede educational development as people are denied the capability to

develop new ideas, initiatives and innovations as they cannot engage in any meaningful

thinking or research in an environment fraught with conflict. Ojeifo (2014) argued that

Nigerian state Universities have high enrolments without the required quantity and quality

of academic staff. As a result, staff/student ratios have worsened and deteriorated to the

impairment of student learning and academic research. Okebukola (2002) enumerated other

factors contributing to the decline in quantity and quality of research which include frequent

industrial actions and poor research motivation. Indeed, for the quantity and quality of

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research outputs to make the desired impacts on national development, University research

in Nigeria must achieve research focus, research motivation, integration of information

technology in teaching and research, as well as the commercialization of research results

(Faborode, 2016).

2.2.9 Problems and Prospectus of Management Education in Nigeria

National Universities Commission (NUC) has accepted the principle of quality control in

higher education. It is evident from then above that the NUC offers among other disciplines,

management education programmes have established very strong quality control measures

to ensure that their programmes meet the needs of the institutions and related

establishments they are employed to serve. More importantly, programmes of accreditation

are meant specifically to control the threats posed on management education by the

innumerable mushroom satellite campuses, consultant outfit, and continuing education

institutions. They are meant to save the country from the untold damage of accreditation,

with declined quality and quantity of academic standards.

NUC requires that approved education for administration and management programmes

provide students with a common body of knowledge. The common body of knowledge

helps to form the background upon which more specialised knowledge is hinged. There are

bright prospects for management education in Nigeria. Policy makers and indeed, well-

meaning Nigerians are of the opinion that the vital aspects of the economy should be

controlled by management education. All what NUC needs is combining human resources

with appropriate levels of finance to produce the much desired results. This does not,

however, happen fortuitously. It requires a total re-appraisal of the institutional framework

and re-ordering of priorities in favour of a dynamic economy capable of producing most of

the needs, rather than depending on massive importation of both durable and consumer

goods.

Management of University education from a global point is indispensable to the building

of a strong economy and society in all nations (World Bank, 2008; Adeyemi & Ekundayo,

2010). Importantly, it has become a cornerstone for noteworthy development which is

central to creating economically valuable intellectual resources and also to provide direct

in-out benefits for economic prosperity. With over hundred recognized federal, states and

private universities across the country, millions of Nigerian youths that are desirous of

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university education find it difficult to access higher education. The issue has been

attributed to the low carrying capacity of the universities. About 96% of the candidates who

sat for the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination – UTME chose university as their

preferred institutions; 1.69% chose colleges of education while 1.9% settled for polytechnic

as their preferred institutions. The situation has given rise to the proliferation of illegal

degree meals, preying on the desperations of Nigerians for university education

(Chobelueh, 2013; Okiki, 2013). Most of them claim affiliation to established universities

in the United States, United Kingdom and Canada. Neighbouring countries have also

discovered Nigeria to be a fertile ground for the business of illegal universities. The issues

confronting a candidate who gained admission into any university are the challenges of cost

and quality. This doubt support the argument by labour market to question the quality of

graduate produced by the university system and some experts posited that the country

provides quantity rather than quality education. This supports the submission of Executive

Secretary of the Nigeria Universities’ Commission, Prof Abubakar Rasheed, says the

country needs an influx of private universities in order for it to measure up to the level of

other countries:

“The country is awash with candidates who are seeking admission yearly.

Only 20% of those who write UTME are admitted due to the non-availability

of the facility to cater for them and except we encourage the establishment of

more private universities, this backlog would continue to grow,” he said.

Abubakar (2016) pointed out that it is regrettable that a country, whose population currently

stands at over 190 million people only has less than 200 universities, meaning each of the

university would have to accommodate not less than 1.2 million students so as to fulfil its

education responsibility, a situation which he says is responsible for many of the issues

experienced in the education sector. In the mid- to late-1970s, every Nigerian university

was known for proficiency with high quality in specific programmes (Ozongwu, 2013).

Today, it is a different situation and this is thus as a result of massive ill-equipped students

whom the universities give admission without increasing the resources to meet specific

requirements. In spite of the existing 42 state Universities in Nigeria, there is need for

Nigerian Universities to transit from producing ordinary wellsprings of graduates, but

rather becoming engines of community development. Principal changes and reforms will

be required in the educational programmes and this will require community oriented efforts

by governments, educationists, business and civil society to re-examine the management

of University education in Nigeria.

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2.2.10 Public Universities and their Staff Unions in Nigeria

Public Universities in Nigeria are those set up by state and federal governments to provide

and promote educational requirements for various states and the country as a whole. These

public Universities have various staff unions that are recognised for effective functioning

of the system. Three (3) prominent unions are widely acknowledged within Nigerian public

universities. They include: Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU), Senior Staff

Association of Nigerian Universities (SSANU) and Non-Academic Staff Union (NASU).

The primary goal of these unions is to protect the interest and welfare of their members.

On ASUU, for example, Iyayi (2002) indicated that the union is a trade union, which like

trade unions is an "association of workers who come together to regulate the terms and

conditions of employment. In so doing, Iyayi (2002) laid out the driving force that guide

ASUU as a union. This includes:

i Integrity, diligence and responsibility;

ii Competence, Proficiency and objectivity;

iii Possibility mentality, capacity development and total commitment and;

iv Patriotism, internal democracy, collaboration and group cohesiveness.

In achieving these through the guiding principles, ASUU has been at loggerheads with both

the university authorities and government. At the level of government, the union has

consistently been agitating on three (3) noteworthy issues. These are:

1. Funding of the major activities in the University

2. University autonomy and academic freedom; and

3. Conditions of work environment

The issue of funding in Nigeria has been a growing concern and source of conflict in the

educational sector. Various labour unions, parents, civil societies, etc., have at different

times drawn the attention of the government and its agencies to the problem of poor funding

which has inhibit proper and quality education. This has also led to increase in brain drain,

an occurrence which has dwindled universities in Nigeria (Nwokolo, 2011; Ayeni,

Jaiyeoba, & Atanda, 2008). The nation has lost the majority of its erudite and great scholars

to other African nations, for example, Ghana, Rwanda, Kenya, South-Africa, and so on

(Okogie, 2004). The state and federal government support Universities by funding major

activities but surprisingly, this function of the government is hardly performed in the recent

years. Some state has whined about immense measure of cash it takes from the state month

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to month distribution for college subversion and staff compensations. The impact of these

cost has left many state Universities to source more than 40% of their allocation through

tuition and creation of developmental fees. The impact has cause sporadic increment in

educational cost for some state Universities in Nigeria. The issue of University autonomy

and academic freedom has often been a provoking issue between the governments and

ASUU particularly. The Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) had indicated that: first,

internal democracy and administration of every higher learning shall be its own particular

obligation; second, the issue of academic freedom for the institutions should center on the

following: selection of students for admission; appointment of staff; teaching and selection

of research areas; determination of the course(s) contents. Remarkably, government has

consistently specify its specific role, which says: "Government shall continue to recognise

this academic freedom as long as these areas are in accordance with the objectives of the

country". The question is: What characterises "consonance with national goals"?

These and many more have brought about incessant strikes to Nigeria’s University

education. In view of the fact earlier stated that conflict is inevitable in all human dealings,

Nigeria public Universities are plagued with series of conflicts involving students and

University management. This has become worrisome as these conflicts often result in

communication breakdowns that lead to violent protests which render the institution

ungovernable with all its attendant costs (Adeniji, 2011). Geofrey (2010) asserted that

though the University is an academic venture, a lot of administrative efficiency and

competency is required on the part of the University administrators for the effective

management of conflicts within the system.

The crux of the conflict between the ASUU and the Government has over the years, been

attributed to different factors. ASUU leadership decried the situation whereby funds are

made available for other sectors such as power, financial institutions, aviation, oil and gas,

and textile industry while the educational sector the bedrock of development has endlessly

being abandoned and ignored. Therefore, the objectives of the 2009 agreement were to

reposition the decay in the University System; reverse the level of brain drain by offering

equitable rewards; to bring back Nigerian Universities to a citadel of learning through

direct, massive and sustainable financial supports; and to stimulate unpretentious university

autonomy and academic freedom.

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However, in 2009, the Federal Government eventually signed a memorandum of

understanding (MoU) with the Union. The contents of the MoU included funding,

University autonomy, academic freedom, earned academic allowances and registration of

Universities Pension Management Company, review of retirement age, adequate funding,

progressive increase of budgetary allocations to education by 26 per cent etc. The signed

agreement, according to Onyeonoru (2011), was to be reviewed every three years in order

to reflect social and economic changes in the country but unfortunately the agreement

which was freely reached and signed by both the government and ASUU has however

become the source of regular conflict between the parties. There is hardly any year there is

no industrial conflict between the government and ASUU because of the non-

implementation of the agreement, usually on the part of government.

According to Ujumadu (2011), the Coordinator of the Nsukka branch of ASUU, Dr. Moses

Chendo, asserted that the impression of members of the Nigerian society is that ASUU was

only interested in the salary increase for its members. However, apart from salary increase,

the other part of the MoU yet to be implemented, according to him, was more important for

the improvement in the standard of education in the country. He further stated that the

essence of the 2009 agreement was to enable the Nigerian Universities to compete

favourably with other standard world Universities (Premium Times, 2013). Some other

conflicts between University staff, management and government from 1980 to 2015

showing the number of times ASUU went on strike are shown in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4 ASUU Strikes (Between 1980 and 2015)

Year

1980 ASUU embarked on an industrial action because of the threat of termination of

lecturers from the University of Lagos.

1981 ASUU embarked on further strikes to demand consistent and appropriate

funding for the Universities system.

1983 There was negotiation on the Elongated University Salary Structure (EUSS)

and this resulted into industrial dispute in 1988 because implementation of

prior contractual agreement was far-fetched.

1984 ASUU embarked on strike to fight against the deregulation of the economy and

to resist military dictatorship.

1985 The Union embarked on strike to resist the military regime and its authoritarian

decree 16 of 1985.

http://premiumtimesng.com/author/webmaster

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1986 ASUU embarked on strike to object the introduction of the Structural

Adjustment Programme (SAP) by the Ibrahim Babangida’s administration.

1987 ASUU protested for the implementation of the Elongated University Salary

Scale and to establish a joint negotiation committee between ASUU and the

Federal Government.

1988 Strike against the effects of imposed Structural Adjustment Programme.

1992 Went on strike due to the failure of negotiations between the Union and the

Federal Government over the working conditions in Nigerian Universities.

1993 ASUU was banned again because it refused the order of the Industrial

Arbitration Panel (IAP) to suspend industrial action and return to the

negotiation table.

1994 ASUU embarked again on a strike to demand renegotiation of agreements

reached in 1992, the reinstatement of over eighty lecturers whose appointments

were terminated.

1996 ASUU embarked on a strike due to the dismissal of the ASUU President, Dr.

Assisi Asobie.

2001 ASUU declared an industrial action on issues related to funding of Universities,

and also sought the reinstatement of 49 sacked lecturers at the University of

Ilorin for taking part in a previous industrial action in 2001.

2002 ASUU embarked on a strike to protest the failure of the government of

Obasanjo to implement the 2001 agreement.

2003 ASUU embarked on a further industrial action due to the non-implementation

of previous agreements, poor University funding and disparity in salary,

retirement age.

2007 It was the same agitation for salary increment and other reforms in the

education sector the ASUU cried out for in 2005 that led to the strike. In 2007,

ASUU went on another strike for three months.

2008 There was a two-week “warning strikes” to press on a range of demands,

including an improved salary scheme and re-instatement of 49 lecturers who

were dismissed many years ago.

2009 ASUU embarked on an indefinite strike over a disagreement with the Federal

Government on an earlier agreement reached. After three months of strike, in

October 2009, and MoU was signed and the strike was called off.

2013 July 1st, 2013 another industrial action started

2014 University staff strike nearly six months over a pay dispute between the

government and lecturers.

2015 Strike over pay and provision of enabling environment

Source: Statisense (2015) and Oni-Ojo (2015)

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While ASUU feels justified in carrying out industrial actions, members of the public and

the government opine that ASUU is not sensitive to the plight of the students who are

negatively affected by such actions (Obateru, 2013). Be that as it may, it is worthy of note

that when Universities are closed down for a long time due to protracted infrastructural

negligence and inequitable reward, academic activities are disputed. Some Universities

have lost one or two academic sessions as a result of strike actions embarked upon by trade

unions during disputes. The negative effects of these incessant strikes by ASUU have been

explained by Adesulu (2013):

(i) Drastic effect on students since courses curricula cannot be completed due to

time lost as a result of the strikes.

(ii) Bad image accorded graduates of Nigerian Universities by the international

community as they are considered half-baked.

(iii) Loss of revenue to the government as a result of potential students preferring to

school abroad or in neighbouring African countries’ Universities

(iv) Loss of internally generated revenue to the Universities

(v) Psychological trauma on the students who have stayed at home doing nothing

and prolonging the years they would have spent in school. This sometimes leads

to the students engaging in social vices like kidnapping and robbery which in

turn affect the society at large.

2.2.11 Wok Environment in Nigerian Public Universities

University continued existence and management in a rapidly changing world require the

process of acquiring and retaining staff with unique aptitude and propensity for excellence.

Nigerian Public Universities have played a substantial role in nation building and economic

affluence. Amazingly, these Universities today are subdued by limited access to resources,

infrastructure inadequacies, and massive rate of enrolment due to increasing number of

students seeking admission to higher education institutions (OECD, 2012). The main

concern is now how these public universities can subsist with the increasing massive

enrolment and creation of private universities in Nigeria (Adeyeye, 2009). Today, a

University degree has become a need and requirement and this is evident in the number of

enrolment and graduation from these Universities. This increase and agitation for the

degrees have fostered a competitive growth in the University education. The capabilities of

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higher education in developing countries especially in Nigeria to provide this obligation is

recurrently influenced by poor work environments, poor funding, delay and non-payment

of salary, over congestion, and dogmatic governance" (Ojeifo, 2014; Ogu, 2008). The

growing and changing nature of public universities has generated sturdy economic forces.

Inexplicably, the old-fashioned source of funding (federal and state) have not increased and

paved way for the growing demand. Therefore, disparity between demand and resources

available is intensified by increase in the number of students seeking admissions to the

universities. With this increase in students’ enrolment, staff of public Universities also

expect increase in their remunerations. Apparently, when the expectations are far from

reality, most talented academic staff have seized to abandon academia for better job

opportunities with greater remunerations and proportionate recognition (Obateru, 2013)

The public university must become a crucial tool for national development. Unfortunately,

in Nigeria, the Nigerian universities had become factories of unending crises, rather than

citadels of learning. In the past few decades, there has been a major agitation that the work

environments in Nigerian public universities have declined. Infrastructure, particularly

those required for teaching and learning have become shoddier. A significant number of

students are given admission without following due process and beyond what their capacity

in terms of facilities and academic staff strength can rationally accommodate. Apparently,

majority of the graduates are no longer equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills

to complement back their grades and degrees. Quite a lot of publications in Nigerian

newspaper contend that majority of these graduates of Nigerian Universities who wish to

reputable organisations and parastatals do not possess requisite skills and employment

abilities (The Punch Newspaper, January, 2013). Poor planning for physical work

environment, academic programmes and funding are parts of the problems many of these

institutions suffer in Nigeria, even when they have apparently met the NUC's prerequisite

for opening a University (Akinnaso, 2012). These and many more have contributed to the

weakening of the university system in Nigeria.

2.2.12 Staff Turnover in Nigerian Higher Institutions

In today’s environment, Scholars have attributed the prevalence of turnover menace to

many factors, even though there is convergence of opinions expressed in literature. Among

such factors are: poor funding of educational system, social unrest/conflicts, poor pay

65

package for lecturers, poor working environment, and inadequate research facilities in

educational institutions (Ibrahim, Usman and Bagudu, 2013); lack of conducive

environment for professional growth, poor social conditions, corruption, political

instability, unsatisfactory living/working conditions (Adefusika, 2010); poor conditions of

service, limited access to education (Abdulkareem and Oyeniran, 2011). In the light of the

multi-various causes, the basic fact is that a migrant has his/her reason (s) for wishing to

leave a country or a job for another.

It is a fact that staff turnover and brain drain are rampant in tertiary institutions in Nigeria.

This is influenced by factors, such as:

1. Inadequate Funds/Support for Researches:

In an ideal situation, one of the mandates of tertiary institution is to serve as research centre.

Academic staff are thus expected to carry out research on the challenges facing the country,

with a view to finding solution to them. Research needs fund for it to be carried out

effectively and achieve its objectives. The issue of research funding in tertiary institutions

in Nigeria, leaves much to be desired (Akinnaso, 2012). Many researches had been

abandoned due to inadequate funds which often demoralizes lecturers and forced them to

leave for foreign countries where opportunity for such, abound.

2. Abuse of power/too much concentration of power:

Many tertiary institutions’ administrators in Nigeria are „thin gods‟ in the campuses.

Students and staff dare not challenge them on any issue. Policies being implemented in

many tertiary institutions have also not been staff and students‟ friendly. Many lecturers

do consider the option of leaving their institutions for better job in the foreign countries

because of hostile work environment (Chobelueh, 2013; Ayeni, et al, 2008).

3. Incessant Student Unrest, Strike, and Cultism in Campuses:

Incessant cases of student unrest, strike, and cultism are features of tertiary institutions in

Nigeria, which had in the past led to the death of students and destruction of valuable

properties within and outside the institutions (Ige, 2010; Adewale, 2005). At times,

lecturers and their families are humiliated, assaulted or live under threats over issues such

as non-compromise with students in the award of good grade, competition with male

student (s) over relationship with female.

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4. Disciplinary Action(s) on Staff:

The issue of indiscipline of staff/teachers cuts across all the educational levels in Nigeria,

where tertiary institutions have been involved. Cases of indiscipline of staff/lecturers of

tertiary institutions abound in literature, such as: late/non-availability for lectures, extortion

of money from students, indulgence in examination malpractice, sexual harassment of

female students, sponsoring cult groups or belonging to cult groups, presentation of

fake/forged certificate for appointment, indulgence in admission fraud/racketeering, and

connivance with students during unrest, just to mention few (Moses, 2003). Over the years,

many lecturers of tertiary institutions had been dismissed from service,

rusticated/suspended from work, retired compulsorily, among other disciplinary measures.

Apart from the fact that those lecturers that are often dismissed are often sent packing from

the campuses This is a special issue that often leads to decrease in the number of staff of

tertiary institution, .makes students to lose their expertise in such institutions, some erring

lecturers that are suspended do consider the option of seeking for fresh job overseas, so as

to save their faces from disgrace/humiliation.

5. Non-Accreditation of Programmes/Courses:

In Nigeria, it is a norm for Government, either at the state of federal level to set up

accreditation panel to examine the courses in tertiary institutions, so as to detect whether

they are of the minimum standard or not. Reports of Accreditation Panels are often

submitted to Government for review and implementation. Negative report of Visitation

Panel at times, makes many distinguished academic staff in institution to leave for foreign

countries. Many lecturers are not usually disposed to working in an institution whose

majority of courses are unaccredited. The low ranking of universities in Nigeria over the

years has not been helping matter. Unfortunately, none of the universities in Nigeria ranked

among the first fifty in the world. This is shameful for a country that claims to be the giant

of Africa and hoping to achieve quality higher education. This is a wrong signal because it

discourages the staff of institutions and makes them to prefer to take up lecturing job in any

of the high-ranked institutions.

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6. Inadequate Funding of Education Sector:

It needs not be overemphasized that funding is paramount in educational institution. No

educational system can develop beyond the level of its funding. In an educational

institution, fund is required for the payment of remunerations and other benefits to staff,

purchase the needed facilities, construct and repair buildings and administer the institution

on daily basis. UNESCO declared that for effective funding of education, 26% of the Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) of each country in the world must be allocated to education. The

case of Nigeria over the years however portends a non-compliance with this standard.

Allocation to education sector has been very low when compared to the annual budget and

this invariably affect employment relationship and continuity.

Table 2.5: Allocation to Education in Nigeria as % of Total Budget: 2000-2016

Year Educ. All as % of Total Budget

2000 8.36

2001 7.00

2002 5.9

2003 1.83

2004 10.5

2005 9.3

2006 11.0

2007 8.09

2008 13.0

2009 6.54

2010 6.40

2011 1.69

2012 10.0

2013 8.70

2014 9.12

2015 12.8

2016 8.0

Source: Central Bank of Nigeria, 2016

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Data in Table 2.5 shows that between 2000 and 2015, Federal Government’s allocation to

education relative to the total budget was between 1.69 % (in year 2011 ) and 13.0% (in

2008). One would have expected higher expenditure on education in view of its stupendous

roles in national development.

Table 2.6: Allocation to Education as % of GNP in Selected 20 Countries in the World,

including Nigeria, as at year 2012)

S/N Country % budget Allocated to

education

Rank

1 Ghana 31.0 1st

2 Cote d Iviore 30.0 2nd

3 Uganda 27.0 3rd

4 Morocco 26.4 4th

5 South Africa 25.8 5th

6 Swaziland 24.6 6th

7 Mexico 24.3 7th

8 Kenya 23.0 8th

9 United Arab Emirates 22.5 9th

10 Botswana 19.0 10th

11 Iran 17.7 11th

12 USA 17.1 12th

13 Tunisia 17.0 13th

14 Lesotho 17.0 14th

15 Burkina Faso 16.8 15th

16 Norway 16.2 16th

17 Colombia 15.6 17th

18 Nicaragua 15.0 18th

19 India 12.7 19th

20 Nigeria 8.4 20th

Source: World Bank (2012)

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It is indicated in Table 2.6 that while Nigeria spent 8.4 % of its GNP on education during

the period, Ghana spent 31.0 (the highest), followed by Cote d Ivoire (30.0%), Uganda

(27.0%), and Morocco (26.4). therefore, due to low allocation and expenditure on

education, educational institutions have not been getting substantial fund to put in place the

needed infrastructural facilities and for effective management of the institutions.

Consequently, what can be observed in many institutions these days are array of dilapidated

buildings, inadequate classrooms, and inadequate facilities, among others. Lecturers have

even been at the receiving end of the poor funding. On many occasions, the issue of fund

has been one of the root causes of several crises in the tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Many

staff of some tertiary institutions have had cause to leave for foreign countries due to

frustration.

7. Corruption/Mismanagement of Institution’s Funds:

Corruption has been the bane of the development of the economy of Nigeria. According

(Kpolovie and Obilor, 2013), as at 2013, Nigeria ranked 144th out of the 177 countries.

Educational institutions are not even spared in the issue of corrupt practices in Nigeria.

Many forms of corruption thrive in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, such as

favouritism/nepotism in the allocation of allowances, fellowships; collection of bribes;

collusion with contractors, by pass of allocation criteria (Adeyemi & Ekundayo, 2010).

Such cases of corrupt practices of the leaders do discourage staff many among who do take

solace in leaving their institutions for jobs in other countries.

8. Instability of Government

Nigeria is a country that had in the past experienced high level political instability.

Although there has been stability in the country since the advent of the democratic

government in 1999. The situation in the past where several military governments ruled the

country in quick succession could be described as unfortunate. One thing that can be noted

with military government is the draconian rules/laws they enact which are mostly

intolerable by the masses. Many academic staff of tertiary institutions have had cause to

leave the country during this period, because of instability in government, occasioned by

death of citizens and unstable economy.

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9. Growing Insecurity:

One of the basic needs of man is the guaranty of his/her security, that is, the security of all

citizens ought to be guaranteed by the government in power, whether at the state or federal

level. The situation in Nigeria over the years leaves much to be desired. Killing of innocent

citizens and destruction of properties have been rampant. There had also been wars and

demonstrations in villages, towns, and cities due to issues such as boundary dispute,

election, local government areas creation, and religion (Kpolovie & Obilor, 2013). The case

of Boko Haram insurgency which originated from the Northern part of Nigeria but now

spreading to other parts is disturbing. Many lives, including teachers and staff of tertiary

institutions, had been lost while properties destroyed through the activities of the

insurgents. Report (UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2007) indicates the list of casualties

arising from the activities of members of this sect including the killing of 150 citizens on

November 4, 2011; killing of 40 students and undisclosed staff of Federal Polytechnics

Mubi, Adamawa state. There is no doubt that many of the casualties are academic staff

which will send wrong signal to their counterparts in other campuses. Without mincing

words, kidnapping is now a lucrative business in Nigeria. What started in the Niger Delta

areas few years ago, as a weapon for protesting over-exploitation of Oil without

commensurate development in the region, has spread to every nooks and crannies of the

country including educational institutions. Cases of armed robbery involving loss of

innocent souls and valuable properties also abound in the print and electronic media. For

example, in (Ibeh, 2009), there was a report of the assault on a particular lecturer by soldiers

in a university in the Northern part of Nigeria. The crises in Nigeria now make the country

unsafe for the citizens and serving as impetus for many lecturers of tertiary institutions to

flee the country for safety.

10. Victimization of Staff:

There has been selective victimization of academic staff of tertiary institutions, especially

those who are not disposed to government’s programmes and policies, although there has

been improvement since the advent of the civilian government in 1999. During the military

era of the past, any staff of tertiary institution who dare criticise any of government’s

policies, would be victimized, occasioned by threat to his/her lives, arrest, detention, and

humiliation by the security agents, as well as delayed promotion, kidnapping, assassination

and damage to properties, by law enforcement agents. Many lecturers had been retired

while some dismissed from service unjustly. The case of forty four (44) lecturers of a

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particular university in Nigeria few years ago, which generated controversies and led to

strike in almost all the universities in Nigeria, is a reference point. Those lecturers were

dismissed for joining their colleagues in other tertiary institutions to embark on strike, to

press home their demand for increased welfare packages. Within the past decade, a

particular Head of State in Nigeria directed that any lecturer in any of the universities who

refused to resume from strike they embarked on then, should be ejected from their quarters.

What seemed to be a joke became reality when many lecturers were bitten by law

enforcement agents and their properties thrown out of their quarters. It took the intervention

of influential Nigerians to resolve the issue amicably. This action of government forced

many lecturers to exile where they felt their safety will be guaranteed.

11. Introduction/Implementation of Obnoxious Policies by Government:

Policies and programmes of Government do have impact on the living standard of the

citizens, which can be positive or negative. In the past, policies such as introduction of

tuition fee, cancellation of meal subsidy and free meal in tertiary institutions, introduction

of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), withdrawal of subsidy on petroleum products,

deregulation of downstream petroleum sector, acceptance of N120 million World bank loan

for development of universities, were rebuffed by the masses including staff and students

of tertiary institutions who could easily visualize their merits and demerits (Kpolovie &

Obilor, 2013). Many lecturers had thus in the past arrested, humiliated, assaulted, and

retired forcefully because of their grievances over government’s policies and programmes

(Ige, 2014). Many are thus forced to go on exile in other to avoid the embarrassing situation.

12. Interference of Government in Institutions’ Internal Affairs:

In Nigeria, Government pays the piper and thus dictates the tune of the education music.

Due to its commitment to the funding of education, government believes that it must

exercise full control of all activities in the public educational institutions, including the

tertiary, in spite of the age-long agitations for autonomy. Contests for leadership positions

often lead to fractionalization, hatred, conflicts, unrest, and strike in the campuses. These

days, it is a norm for each tertiary institution in Nigeria to be willing to be governed by

leader that studied or worked in the institution in the past, based on the belief that this will

guarantee effective leadership in the institution. On several occasions, Governing Council

of tertiary institutions in Nigeria had recommended best candidates among the contestants

to Government for ratification. Rather than appoint any of the candidates, Government

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often impose candidates on tertiary institutions at will, against the interest of staff and

students, which has been encouraging conflicts and strikes among staff as well as

emigration of staff from their institutions.

In conclusion, for institutions to be effective, the working conditions or environments must

be suitable and conducive. Management must make sure that the working condition

encourages creativity and innovation to allow suggestions for improving the effectiveness

and quality of working life. Fletcher and Nusbaum (2010) added that the environment must

engage in providing employees with equitable reward system, challenging work and good

working conditions in an open and participatory environment marked by equal

opportunities for personal growth and development. Long, Perumal and Ajagbe (2012)

indicated that working conditions include providing a safe, clean and hygienic working

conditions for employees; maintaining good working conditions and safety, including

adequate ventilation, lighting, hygiene and heating (Asmui, Hussin & Paino, 2012). The

functions of labour, welfare and good working conditions include the provision of health

services, safety of workers, reasonable working hours, recreational facilities, housing,

sanitation, good lighting and ventilation, etc. Institutions, management and governments

who see these as excessive cost will surely find it difficult to satisfy and retain employees.

2.2.13 Consequences of Staff Turnover and Brain Drain in Nigerian Public

Universities

Studies have shown that turnover and brain drain have many consequences in tertiary

institution. These include:

1. Loss of Staff of Tertiary Institutions:

Inadequacy of high-level manpower has been a feature of Nigeria. Little can one wonder

that it has been a developing country when the indices of national development, are

considered. As brain drain continue in Nigeria, many professionals and intellectuals in the

ivory towers migrating due to poor rating of the universities among the other universities

in the world. Should the trend of brain drain also continue in Nigeria, there is tendency for

tertiary institutions to be filled with young and less experienced staff that lacks the

necessary mentors and role models to guide student. It is not a gainsaying that some

programmes are worst hit by dearth of lecturers. Presently, programmes such as medicine,

engineering and technical, among others had lost majority of their staff to the gulf states of

Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq and others such as USA, Great Britain.

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2. Production of Low Quality Graduates:

Ordinarily, the worth of an educational system can be measured by the quality of its

outputs. It is thus expected that the graduates of educational institutions would be able to

display quality skills and knowledge at their respective places of work. While it cannot be

contested that educational institutions in Nigeria had produced graduates in different fields

of science and technology, many among these graduates in various sectors of the economy,

are of poor quality. Many scholars (Kpolovie & Obilor, 2013; Ibeh, 2009; Ajayi &

Shofoyeke, 2003) had criticised the quality of education at the three levels of the

educational system in Nigeria, where all point to the fact that there is declining quality in

such education To the extent that the employers of labour are complaining over the inability

of those employed to perform. Many public and private establishments are thus spending

huge money to train and retrain their employees in order to meet standard. Presently,

graduates of tertiary institutions in Nigeria must pass aptitude tests before they can be

employed. Those seeking admission into tertiary institutions for further studies at national

and international levels, are either denied admission or subjected to tests due to loss of

confidence on their quality. Also, one of the goals of education is that through it, a child

would be able to obtain and develop requisite expertise, aptitudes and competence

(Dabaleen & Adekola, 2000). A graduate of educational institution is expected to be able

to communicate effectively among his/her colleagues in the public, by virtue of the level

of education received. Unfortunately, many graduates of science and technology in Nigeria

display poor quality in public conversations (Ajayi & Shofoyeke, 2003).

3. Low Rating of Institution/Non-Accreditation of Courses:

Many tertiary institutions and programmes may also suffer accreditation problem if this

persist. It is worthy of note that some higher institutions had resulted to the rationalization

of courses as a result of dearth of academic staff. The implication of this in a country that

is characterized by high level unsatisfied higher education admission demand will be

serious. This will indeed continue to aggravate the situation and makes tertiary education

elitist in Nigeria. Quite unfortunate is the fact that an online report in (Osaigbovo, 2000)

indicates that as at year 2015, no university in Nigeria is among the world best five hundred

(500) universities list. The best university from the Africa continent was university of Cape

Town, South Africa. In Africa, the best university from Nigeria (Obafemi Awolowo

University, Ile Ife) ranked 44th while university of Ibadan and Benin ranked 65th and 69th

respectively.

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2.3 Theoretical Framework

The concept of work environment has become an important subject in management studies

due to the fact that an organisation’s corporate performance is a function of the performance

of its workforce. Modern organisations need to understand individuals and group behaviour

so that their needs can be met in order to make them happy at work and gear them up so

that they can be more productive. The major way to achieve this goal is the application of

the knowledge and understanding of the nature of man and motivation theory in the tertiary

institutions. For the purpose of understanding, several theories have been propounded about

human motivation and work environments. These theories have been used to explain the

relationships between the variables examined for this study.

For the purpose of this study, three (3) of the major theories were considered and they are:

2.3.1 Adams Equity Theory

2.3.2 Fredrick Herzberg Two Factor Theory

2.3.3 Expectancy Theory

2.3.1 Equity Theory

Equity theory of motivation by Adams (1963), is an all-inclusive theory for explaining and

understanding employee motivation. The equity theory argues that employees are not

concerned about what they are paid; rather they are more concerned about what others are

paid. More often than not, when an individual has a sense of inequality or when he/she

perceives that his/her reward is not commensurate with his/her contribution when compared

with that of other colleagues, it may lead to absenteeism, pilfering, dissatisfaction, etc. By

implications, incentive scheme should be equitable i.e. reward should be proportionate to

individual contribution, training and ability. The explanation is represented with the equity

equation in Figure 2.13:

EQUITY EQUATIONS

Overpayment Inequity

Outcomes (self) / Inputs (self) > Outcomes (other) / Inputs (other)

Underpayment Inequity

Outcomes (self) / Inputs (self) < Outcomes (other) / Inputs (other)

Equity

Outcomes (self) / Inputs (self) = Outcomes (other) / Inputs (other)

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Figure 2.13: Equity Equations

Source: Adams (1963)

From Figure 2.13, the equity theory explains the issue of ideal interaction between the

organisational environment and levels of motivation, as follows:

i. Expectations in terms of performance are translated into specific and hard goals that

are attainable.

ii. Employees are allowed to participate in the setting of these goals, and they have a

realistic appreciation of the link between effort and performance aimed at goal

attainment.

iii. Employees are endowed with the necessary competence and confidence to ensure

the effort made results in appropriate performance

iv. Jobs are designed in such a way as to offer employees’ variety, autonomy, and

frequent and clear feedback on their performance.

v. Control systems that regulate people’s work are only used as and when necessary.

By implications, it is important to note that rewards received by employees for successful

performance are geared towards their individual requirements and preferences, and are

perceived as equitable. Therefore management education stakeholders must ensure

equitable reward for the staff in order to have a promising products for sustainable

developments.

Scales “Calibrated” and measured against

comparable measures in

What I put into my job, time, effort,

ability, loyalty, tolerance, flexibility,

integrity, commitment, reliability, heart

and soul, personal sacrifice etc.

What I get from my job: pay, bonus,

pecks, benefits, security, recognition,

interest, development, reputation, praise,

responsibility, enjoyment etc.

INPUTS OUTPUTS

People are demotivated, reduced input and or seek

change/improvement whenever they feel their inputs are not being

fairly rewarded. Fairness is based on perceived market norms.

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2.3.2 Fredrick Herzberg Two Factor’s Theory

This theory propounded by Fredrick Herzberg is also called Herzberg's two factor theory

and is centred on job satisfaction at workplace. The theory identified certain factors leading

to job satisfaction while certain others in most cases led to dissatisfaction at work. The

factors that lead to satisfaction were branded motivators or satisfiers with those that lead to

dissatisfaction were called hygiene factors or dissatisfiers. Thereafter, the study was

extended to cover various categories of worker in manual and clerical calibres where the

outcomes were acknowledged as following a similar pattern.

From the Herzberg’s study, the most significant motivators revealed were achievement,

recognition, the work itself, responsibility and opportunity or workers’ advancement and

growth on their jobs. These factors were considered intimately related to the content or task

to be performed in a work process. On the other hand, the team of researchers, that is,

Herzberg and others agreed that the hygiene factors or dissatisfiers comprises

organisational policy and administration, supervision, relationships, salary administration,

personal life, status, security of employment and working conditions. Apparently, the

hygiene factors are said to be more related to the work environments than the job contents.

This indicated that motivators can only lead to positive satisfaction while the hygiene

factors can only be used to prevent dissatisfaction. By implication, where the motivators

are absent from the job, employees will ultimately experience low morale, productivity or

performance. On the other hand, where the hygiene factors are provided for, good health

will not only be achieved, but will also serve to prevent sickness.

The application of the theory to industry is reflected in the scientific management that

advocated for hygiene factors such as pay, benefits, suitable supervision and conditions of

work. The human relations school also placed significant emphasis on hygiene factors, i.e

interpersonal relations. However, it is crystal clear that the neo human relations school gave

priority to motivators as the key components in job satisfaction and worker performance.

The theory has also stimulated considerable research on job enrichment. This involves the

design of jobs in such a way that they contain appropriate and adequate number of

motivators. This is however, contrary to the effects of several years of Taylorism during

which work would normally be broken down into its elements or components, and

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responsibilities and control are removed from the workers while placing them with the

supervisors and manager.

However, Herzberg’s model has been given less attention by fellow social scientists owing

to its applicability to non-professional cadres and the perception of the term job satisfaction.

Again, the model has been challenged by many researchers and management philosophers.

According to Cheloha and Farr (1980), Herzberg’s hygiene factors were not linked to job

satisfaction. Koontz and Weihrich, (2013) also discovered that social environment and

interpersonal relations were significant motivators for staff. Despite all, Herzberg

motivation model served as landmark for further empirical studies on employees’ motives

at work. The model focused attention of researchers to the requirement for apprehension of

the significance of motivation in every organisation irrespective of the nature and scope.

Finally, the model allowed and encouraged managers and administrators to consider

thoroughly factors other than monetary compensation as possible tools and techniques for

improving corporate performance.

2.3.3 Victor Vroom and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The expectancy theory of motivation emanated from the work of Victor Vroom and E. E.

Lawler in the 1960s. The most important point to note in this expectance approach to

motivation is that human behaviour depends on individual’s perception of ideal life style,

situations and environment. The pivotal component of the theory relates to how an

individual considers the relationship between human effort, job performance and the

rewards or compensation arising from such a process. The strength of the attraction of

specific results, benefits or rewards for an individual is known as valence. The degree of

belief that a specific behaviour will lead to a specific result is called expectancy. Both

valences and expectances are collectively a function of the perception of a circumstance by

an individual (Vroom, 1964). For instance, the prospect of promotion could be considered

a critical factor by a younger officer as a striking outlook or valence. However, individual’s

expectancy of being promoted may reduce if such individual perceives that promotion is

solely dependent on other factors apart from competence and performance. It is important

to note that efforts or motivated action takes place when an employee thinks that such action

or behaviour would lead to effective performance of activities or events that will also attract

rewards or compensations. However, this may not be possible through effort alone as other

78

factors such as workers personal traits like personality, knowledge, skills, ambition or

orientation and his perception of his roles serve as active criteria. Other environmental

conditions or variables which are hidden may also influence performance of an activity or

event (Houston, Meyer & Paewai, 2006). Examples of such environmental factors or

variables are constraints of the job, organisation style and structure, and leadership.

Consequently, effort does not always lead to effective performance as effective

performance may not necessarily lead to expected compensation. An employee’s

perception of compensation or rewards play a vital role in the expectancy model of

motivation. In this case, the compensation may be internal (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic).

Internal compensation concerns the rewards that emanate from the fulfilment of the

employee’s personal ambition or satisfaction while extrinsic or external compensation

involves the rewards that are provided by the organisation, and which are outside the

control of the individual employee. These include rewards like employee’s salary, his

promotion, attractive working environment and so on. Some empirical studies, however,

have suggested that the compensations connected with internal phenomena are more likely

to be considered as producers of job satisfaction by the employee. The extrinsic rewards

however, are not always come up to the level expected of the individual worker in an

organisation.

It is evident that the main features of the Vroom’s expectancy model as compared to other

models involves an-inclusive perception of the motivation process. It shows that employees

perform excellently when they have an equitable perception that their action will produce

the desired result. The theory emphasizes the significance of employees’ perception of

realities of their working environment in the motivation process (Lunenberg, 2011). Also,

the job satisfaction follows effective job performance rather following job satisfaction.

Finally, the expectancy theory has contributed largely to the developments of job redesign

through internal or intrinsic criteria like variety of work content, autonomy of employees,

task identity as well as information feedback.

The expectancy theory is particularly applicable to modern management and administrative

practice because it recognises the significance of employees’ needs and motivation that

bring about their behaviour and actions, and stresses the probability of variations in

motivational states among different workers in an organisation. The theory is more realistic

when compared to other theories as it recognises the fact that motivation is a complex

79

process of making workers to perform better. The assumption that motivation, values and

perceptions differ from persons to persons at different times and places is highly realistic,

accurate, adequate, valid and reliable theoretically, empirically and practically.

Consequently, management policies, programmes, procedures, strategies, plans and

practices should be designed and focused or directed towards establishing and reinforcing

employees’ perception and orientations towards the belief that high performance,

dedication and commitment to their responsibilities are the main antidotes for the

accomplishment of their individual objectives such as high pay, promotion, career

development, security of employment, recognition and self-respect.

2.4 Empirical studies

In view of the relevance of work environment in enhancing employee retention, it was

evident that in the literature that favourable work environment stimulates employee

performance. For instance, Bloom and Van Reenen (2011) submitted that quality working

conditions have an impact on employee satisfaction and motivation.

The first objective of this study is to determine the role of physical work environment and

employee commitment. Bozeman and Gaughan (2011) explored the impact of work

environment and physical environment and found out that the variables have positive and

significant relationship with nurses' commitment. The effect of physical environment on

individuals have been investigated mainly in marketing and organisational behaviour. A

large portion of the examination in social insurance decide the relationship between doctor's

facility configuration and patient results (Chandrasekar, 2011). There is much work on the

configuration of the office arrangement and its consequences for employees in hospitals,

banking sector, factories and telecommunication industry (Bushe, 2012; Bozeman &

Gaughan, 2011). In a study investigated in telecommunication, it was indicated that

physical work environment significantly affect group cohesiveness (Chandrasekar, 2011;

Adelola, 1999), intellectual ability (Fafunwa, 1974), emotional feeling (Osaigbovo, 2010;

Moja, 2000), high involvement (Omoifo, Badmus & Awanbor, 1997; Mustapha, 1995).

Hafiza, et al, (2011) in their study of workplace environment and workers' commitment in

Agro-based Industries uncovered that that physical environment, for example, reliable

communication channel, stress coping mechanisms, accessibility of power, and

occupational safety are significantly connected with workers' commitment, and thus

performance. Demet Leblebici (2012) in his study effect of workplace quality on worker's

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productivity: contextual analysis of a bank in turkey demonstrates that while the workers

are troubled with the physical states of the working environment, they have remarkable

fulfillment and satisfaction with the workplace by having strong behavioural workplace

conditions. As indicated from the findings, it is demonstrated that physical environment

influences worker performance yet behavioural workplace environment has more

prominent impact on employees’ commitment.

Based on the second objective which is to investigate the effects of psychological factors

on employees’. The study by Ervin and Langkamer (2008); Deci and Ryan (2008) and;

Escribà-Agüir, Martín-Beena and Pérez-Hoyos (2006) demonstrated the correlations

between psychological factors and workers' retention using various sectors excluding the

tertiary institutions. Ervin and Langkamer (2008) analysed the relationship using 300

workers in the manufacturing sector and discovered a significant effect of psychological

factors (like promotion, recognition, self-actualisation, respect, autonomy) on employees’

intention to remain with their current employers. Deci and Ryan (2008) and Escribà-Agüir,

Martín-Beena and Pérez-Hoyos (2006) also indicated the same findings by using

employees in the automobiles industry and hospitals respectively. the study carried out by

using Accountants revealed that workers who are actively satisfied are positive with their

work, conscious of business environment, maintains team spirits, and always ready to

perform beyond expectation and thereby enhance productivity (Hyvonen, Feldt, Tolvenen,

& Kinnunen, 2010). The findings from various studies like Olajide (2010); Spector (2008);

Stansfeld and Candy (2006); Cook and Crossman (2004) pointed out that workers get

persuaded to work when they get incessant promotions as at when due and job security in

their work place. Be that as it may, when they are promoted as at when due, they turn out

to be profoundly energetic and keep on making extraordinary results possible in the

organisation (Osibanjo, et al., 2014; Torrington & Hall, 2009; Schneider, 2008). To brace

this, Skuza (2007) added that when management slights the role of promotion and job

security, the achievement and accomplishment of the organisational objectives become

elusive.

To ascertain the relationship between job contents and employees’ involvement, Abdali

(2011) demonstrated in his study of 250 employees in the banking sector that ability is the

result of capacity (skill, instruction, preparing and experience), combined with workers'

retention (engagement, improvement, test and wellbeing) and fulfillment. In examining

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how reward encourages satisfaction, findings from studies like Asmui, Hussin and Paino

(2012); Abejirinde (2009); Al-Anzi (2009); Aluko (2007) and; Abiodun-Oyebanji (2011)

discovered pay as a controlling factor towards job satisfaction. Anyim (2012); Deci and

Ryan (2008) and; Hackman and Lawler (1971) also indicated in their investigation that pay

is one of the greatest motivating factors and that organisations with an equitable reward

system creates attention and keep hold of their qualified personnel thereby reducing costs.

When workers are well paid, they become reluctant to change jobs (Hashim & Mahmood,

2011). So for organisation to survive and be productive, the employees must be attracted,

rewarded and retained (Gberevbie, 2010; Geofrey, 2010; Egbokhare, 2000). The survival

of every organisation depends on how best they can motivate and retain their workers’

efforts through a consistent reward system.

In assessing how organisational climate enhances staff performance, the study carried out

by Ibrahim et al. (2013); Litwin and Phan (2013); Houston et al. (2006); argued that

employees’ satisfaction is determined by the level of organisational climate which

communication flow, Mentorship/Supervision, participation & involvement, Leadership

style, Personnel Policies, etc. Meanwhile, Zaman, Hafiza, Shah & Jamsheed (2011)

indicated in their study using the public institutions that high level of academic staff

turnover could constitutes a major setback to the quality of services and the image of the

institution. Thus, it has been discovered that highly skilled academic staff hardly stay for

long in a University before moving to another University or other sectors (Watts &

Robertson, 2011; Adeniji et al, 2014). Evidently, the concluding remark of this study is in

line with the submission of Umoh et al, 2014; Zabrodska et al, 2013; Shin et al, 2013;

Armstrong (2001) findings who stressed that friendly organisational climate is fundamental

to an organisation’s ability to attract, develop, reward, deploy and retain highly skilled

employees for excellent job performance. Some studies added that mutual relationship and

understanding between employers and employees significantly contribute to employees’

motivation and this thereby help in reducing their intention to leave or absent from work

(Okiki, 2013; Onyeonoru, 2011; Olorode, 2001; Omoifo, Badmus & Awanbor, 1997).

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2.5 Conclusion and Gaps in the Literature

The degree of relationship between work environments and job satisfaction, employee

commitment, employee retention is provided with a conceptual model. Conversely, no

scientific and wide-ranging work has been done that collaborates all the facets viz. work

environments, staff retention, employee satisfaction, etc to contest the most blazing

challenge of the present times most especially among academic staff of Nigerian state

owned Universities. So there is the need to show this relation empirically.

Secondly, there is a need to conduct an empirical study to explore the psychological and

attitudinal effects of work environments on retention outcomes among academic staff in

Nigerian state owned Universities.

The bulk of empirical research, however, appears to have focused on the magnitudes of

work environment, both at the individual and organisational level. Given that work

environment today has achieved the status of an institutionalised norm, the relevant

question is not so much whether or why institutions/organisations should provide friendly

work environment, rather, this study tends to show how best to implement the process and

strategy in a way which will enable institutions/ organisations to amass benefits and

successfully create an environment that ultimately promotes job satisfaction and retention

efficacy. Therefore, it becomes an important research question to identify what aspects of

work environment contribute in determining employees’ retention. Despite the dispersed

efforts on retention among academic staff in the UK, Canada Australia, and New Zealand,

there is dearth or limited research in Nigeria, importantly in relation to quality work

environments, hence, this study is considered necessary at this time.

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CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Preamble

This chapter focused on the procedure by which the study was carried out and also dealt

with the selection of methodology deemed appropriate for the study. This covers research

methods, research design, population of the study, sample and sampling techniques, sources

of data, research instruments and administration, validity and reliability of the study and

method of data analysis.

3.2 Research Methods

A mixed method was adopted for this study. This approach combines the use of quantitative

and qualitative approach to allow extraction of analytic, narrative and descriptive data to

explain the variations between work environment and retention outcomes. Specifically, the

use of Sequential Explanatory Approach was used. This approach allowed the researcher

to use the quantitative (questionnaire) data to validate the qualitative (in-depth interview

and observation) data. The adoption of both methods enabled the researcher tap the

advantages of both and to use the strength of one to support the weakness of the other. The

mixed method was deemed appropriate because the qualitative instruments would provide

more in-depth themes and perspectives on the issues which the quantitative instrument may

not.

3.3 Research Design

The descriptive (survey) design was adopted for the study. The choice of descriptive

research design was premised on its value and feasibility in addressing the research problem

raised in the study. Its applicability for collecting standardised data allowed the researcher

to create information for precisely answering the how, who, what, where and when

questions concerning the measurement and determinants of work environments and

retention outcomes. Besides, the data structures created from survey methods have

increased the researcher’s ability to make generalised inferences about the defined target

population as a whole. The use of descriptive survey research enabled the researcher to

assess the magnitude of the relationship between and among variables for the study.

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3.4 Study Population

The study population for this study comprised all the state Universities operating in

Southern Nigeria. This study was all-inclusive and all the state Universities in Southern

Nigeria were given an equal chance of participating in this study. The geo-political location

of the Universities to be covered in this study was presented in the table below.

Table 3.1 Population of the Study

S/N South-West South-South South-East

Name(s) of University Name(s) of University Name(s) of University

1 Ekiti State University

Year of Establishment: 1982* River State University of

Science & Technology Year of

Establishment: 1980*


Science & Technology


2 Olabisi Onabanjo University,

Ogun


Ambrose Alli University,

Ekpoma, Edo

Year of Establishment: 1981 *

Ebonyi State University


3 Lagos State University


Delta State University


Abia State University


4 Ladoke Akintola University

of Technology, Osun.


Niger Delta University,

Bayelsa.


Imo State University


5 Adekunle Ajasin University,

Akungba, Ondo.


Cross-Rivers State University

of Science & Technology.


Evan Enuerem University,

Owerri


6 Tai Solarin University of

Education, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun.


Anambra State University

of Science & Technology.


7 Osun State University,

Oshogbo.


8 Ondo State University of

Science and Technology.


* Means the study population and they are selected based on years of establishment

Source: Ministry of Education (2016).

Defining the study population and geographic area poses a number of challenges for this

study. Although studies have identified various ways in determining the study population

which includes: performance, age, geographic mapping, etc. The population definition

reflected the population which is of interest and directly related to the behaviour that results

in the assessment of work environments and retention outcomes. This study therefore,

adopted the years (age) of establishment. This study focused on two oldest state

Universities in each of the Southern geo-political zone, Nigeria. These state Universities

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were: Ekiti State University; Olabisi Onabanjo University (OOU); River State University

of Science & Technology; Ambrose Alli University; Enugu State University of Science &

Technology and; Ebonyi State University. Table 3.2 present the statistical information

regarding the selected academic staff in respective universities as of June, 2016.

Table 3.2: Study Population

Name of Sampled Universities Total Population of Academic staff

Ekiti State University 448

Olabisi Onabanjo University 528

River State University of Science & Technology 396

Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo 449

Enugu State University of Science & Technology 421

Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State. 417

Total 2659

The target respondents were made up of all the members of the academic staff ranging from

the Professors, Associate Professors, Senior lecturers, Lecturers 1, Lecturers 2, Assistant

lecturers and Graduate Assistants of all the state Universities in Southern Nigeria. The

selected state Universities are known for a distinct/special feature. This selection is based

on the following:

1. Ekiti State University is chosen because it is the oldest state University in South-

West.

2. Olabisi Onabanjo University (OOU) is included because it is one of the oldest

institutions and recently rated No.1 state University in Nigeria (NUC, 2015).

3. River State University of Science & Technology is the oldest state University in

South-South.

4. Ambrose Alli University is also one of the oldest institutions in South-South.

5. Enugu State University of Science & Technology is the oldest state University in

South-East

6. Ebonyi State University is also selected because it is one of the oldest in South-East

and it has been ranked among the BEST in the use of ICT for its teaching, learning

and research activities.

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3.5 Sampling Frame and Sample Size Determination

The sample frame comprised a list of all the elements in the population from which the

sample was drawn while sample is a subset of the population under investigation. That is a

proportion of the population selected in a systematic way so that the elements or

characteristics of the population can be inferred from the findings. A truly representative

sample is the one whose characteristics are approximately the same as that of the population

under study. In this research work, the sampling frame for this study was drawn from

academic staff of six (6) oldest state Universities in Southern Nigeria. Guilford and

Fruchter (1973:47) postulated the formula below to determine the sample size for the study

of the Academic staff:

n = N .

∑ [(1+N (e)²]

Where;

n = the desired sample size to be determined

N = total population

e = accepted error limit (0.05) on the basis of 95% confidence level.

In our case: N= 2659 e=0.05 n=sample size

Therefore: n= 2659

1+2659(0.05)2

n = 2659

1+ 6.6475

n = ______ 2659

7.6475

n = 347.70

Approximately 400 Academic staff

Therefore, a sample size of 400 was used to represent the study population as computed

above. The distribution of the sample size was based on the proportion of academic staff in

the selected state Universities. The sample size was calculated based on proportionate

ration or proportional affixation criterion (PAC). This sample size adopted for estimating

and distributing proportion among the six (6) state Universities was calculated below:

Population of the sampled University multiply by Sample size

Total population

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Table 3.3: Population Distribution of Sampled Universities

Name of selected Universities in Southern

Nigeria

Population of

Academic staff

Distribution of

Questionnaire to

selected Universities

Ekiti State University 448 67

Olabisi Onabanjo University 528 79

River State University of Science &

Technology

396 60

Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo 449 68

Enugu State University of Science &

Technology

421 63

Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi

State.

417 63

Total

2659 400

3.6 Sampling Techniques

Triangulation method was adopted for the sampling. This includes multi-stage sampling

which comprises: non-probability sampling technique (purposive) and probability

sampling technique (stratified and simple random sampling techniques) was adopted for

this study. This method was appropriate because it helps to obtain satisfactory

representation of various subgroups within a population. At the first stage, a non-

probability sampling technique, purposive sampling technique, was employed in the

selection of the public (state) institutions across Southern Nigeria. The second stage is

stratified random sampling technique which was used and appropriate ensure adequacy and

equal representation of the sample. The population was divided into homogenous sub-

groups, then the third stage, a simple random sample was taken. The main characteristic of

a randomised procedure is that every academic staff in the selected Universities has an

equal chance of being selected. The simple random system was used to compliment the

stratified sampling to select samples from each level (stratum) and the number of academic

staff selected from a particular level was proportional to the stratum’s share of the total

population. The combination of the methods significantly helped to (a) amplify statistical

representation; (b) ensure adequacy of data for analysing the various sub populations or

strata; and (c) enabled the usage of different research methods and procedures for different

strata.

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3.7 Sources of Data

The study considered the sources on which to base and confirm their research and findings.

The sources adopted primary data and secondary sources and the use of both, which is

termed triangulation, or dual methodology. The primary data was collected through the use

of quantitative (questionnaires) data and qualitative (Interview & observation) data; while

the secondary data focused on the use already existed data extracted from previous

research, articles, journals, web information, historical data and information, NUC

brochures, etc.

3.8 Research Instruments

The researcher made use of a combination of two instruments for the purpose of data

collection and the sequential explanatory approach of the mixed method adapted from the

work of Creswell (2003) was employed.

3.8.1 Quantitative Data

The use of questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data on the assessment of work

environments and retention outcomes among University academic staff. Participants were

requested to respond to items in a self-administered, quick-answer, structured (close-ended)

and unstructured (open-ended) copies of questionnaire. Primary data were collected using

questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised of two sections, the demographics of the

participants and the section regarding the antecedents of work environments and retention

outcomes. Work Environment was measured using items adapted from studies of Mowday

(1979); Becker, Randal and Riegel (1995) and Wanous (1974). Some items related to job

security were adapted from the questionnaire used by Weissenberg and Gruenfeld (1968);

while pay satisfaction was measured by 5 items adapted from the works of Agarwala

(1978), Hoppock (1935); Kanungo (1979). Participation in decision making was measured

by items adapted from the questionnaire of Rabinowitz (1981), Rabinowitz and Hall,

(1977), and Rabinowitz and Hall (1981). The study adopted items from previous studies

(Locke, 1976; Rabinowitz, 1985; Batlis, 1978; Brief and Aldag, 1975; Gberevbie, 2008;

Adeniji, 2011) who successfully used survey questionnaire to measure job satisfaction

levels of librarians using physical environment & ICT infrastructure, personal growth,

organisational culture, social prestige, salary, promotion, nature of the work and

demographic profile respectively. This study adopted Karasek's Job Content Questionnaire

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(JCQ) version 1.8 (revised 2007), which was a self- administered instrument, designed to

measure social and psychological characteristics of jobs, that is,. as a tool for psychosocial

job assessment. All the items were measured using 5 Point Likert Scale ranged from

strongly disagreed (1) to strongly agreed (5). The questionnaire is shown in Appendix A.

The structured questionnaire was adopted mainly to enhance uniformity of response

bearing in mind that the degree of variations in behaviour is likely to be high when dealing

with such complex constructs like nature of work environment, retention and strategy. This

combination of methods was well suited for obtaining in-depth responses, especially for

providing broad insight into the nature of their work environment and with emphasis on the

retention outcome.

3.8.2 Qualitative data

This was also designed for gathering primary data needed for the study. Unstructured in-

depth interviews and observation were instruments used for gathering qualitative data for

the study. These methods were judged adequate because they helped provide in depth

information, knowledge and special insight into the topic examined. The Qualitative data

were collected through In-depth Interview (IDI) and observation.

3.8.2.1 In-depth Interview

In order to explore the individual meanings attached to retention outcome, twelve (12) in-

depth interviews were conducted. This implies that one member of management (this was

chosen from establishment/registry) and one (1) staff union (ASUU leadership) were

selected from each state University. Establishment/registry department and ASUU

leadership provided information on turnover rate, nature of work environments, staff record

and documentation. The IDIs involved face to face interactions between the researcher and

respondents with pre-determined structured and unstructured questions. The interactions

were recorded with the aid of tape recorder. The in-depth interviews gave room for

flexibility and provided opportunity to probe deeper on some aspects which the

questionnaire could not cover. Questions for IDI were the same for each respondent and

were directly linked to evaluation goals. The questions asked were in same order with

careful consideration given to the wording and order. The list of questions asked are shown

in Appendix. In addition, research assistants were recruited and trained on the study

instruments and data collection procedures.

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3.8.2.2 Observations

Observation (non-participant) method and the use of mechanical device (photo camera)

were employed. Non-participant observation refers to direct observation, where the

researcher is a neutral and passive external observer and is not involved in the phenomenon

of interest. This instrument was adopted as a fundamental and the basic method of getting

information on physical environment of the research settings. The researcher observed the

events, actions and things related to physical work settings such as office rooms, classrooms

and the teaching devices and methods used. The academic staff were observed deliberately

in different situational contexts.

3.8.3 Matrix of Research Instruments and Objectives

Table 3.4 shows the matrix indicating study objectives and methods for data collection.

Table 3.4 indicating Matrix of Research Instruments and Objectives

Objectives Structured

questionnaire

IDI Observation

1

2

3

4

5

3.9 Pre-distribution of research instruments

a. Instrument for data collection was pre-tested to ascertain their ability and strength

to capture the completeness and suitability of the questions, orderliness of the

questions, and aptness of the length of the interview and probable logistic problems

that may occur during the process.

b. A pilot study was conducted to establish the adequacy and reliability of the

instrument. A survey is reliable if it can be administered a number of times and still

produce the same results. This helps to carefully consider the wording of questions

and pretesting the survey invariably help to increase the reliability. Assistance of

specialist was sought to develop the instruments for face and content validity.

c. For the pilot survey, 20 copies of the questionnaire were given to academic staff

and statisticians from Lagos State University (LASU), Ojo, Lagos state to ensure

that the items were not only reliable but also valid.

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3.10 Data Collection Process

1. Quantitative Data (Questionnaire)

Data collection involves a combination of different activities. The first step was to recruit

and train Field Assistant (FA) to administer the questionnaire alongside the researcher. Two

(2) field assistants from each state were recruited and trained on the administration of

questionnaire and other social issues associated with it. The criteria for selection was that

field assistants reside in the state of the sampled Universities and the reason was basically

for convenience. Next, they were trained to understand the study questionnaire, the

processes necessary for successful administration, their allotment in the administration,

how to select participant and the probable challenges they may encounter. The training

ensured that all assistants have a thorough understanding of the concept, the place, the

people and the instrument before proceeding into the field. Each participant was given a

questionnaire to pre-test before actual administration.

2. Qualitative Data (IDIs)

In-depth interviews (IDIs) are unstructured, open-ended, discovery-oriented methods that

permit greater depth of meaning on issues to be discussed. The usefulness of this qualitative

instrument in research is the unfolding of how individuals view their work environments.

This qualitative instrument was conducted before the use of the quantitative instrument

because insight gained from it was useful for the administration of survey questionnaire.

The discussion guide for IDI was adapted and modified in line with the study problem. The

introductory part of the interview was to establish rapport and make participant willing to

start and complete the interview. Moreover, despite the explicit design of the discussion

guide, the interview was made informal and relaxing. The interview topics were facilitated

in a conversational flow that accord interviewees the freedom to discuss what they want

without any fear. This also ensured that discussants had the sense of being in control, free

to talk about topics in order they preferred, and comfortable in bringing up other issues at

their will. Probing techniques were applied to encourage discussants to give the fullest

answers possible. Hence, while notes were taken, all interview session was recorded with

audio tapes to avoid loss of data.

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3.11 Validity and Reliability of the instruments

Warwick and Linninger (1975) described the goal of research instruments as being able to

obtain information relevant to the purpose of the study; to collect information with maximal

reliability and validity. Consequently, content validity was adopted to authenticate that the

research instruments actually measured exactly what they were designed to measure. The

content validity ensured the items were certified valid by the supervisors and consultants

who were experts in this field of study. Also, to ensure the reliability of the instruments, a

pilot study was conducted by administering ten percent (10%) of the instruments to the

respondents. This allowed for proper review and modification of the instruments before the

final administration. Therefore, in determining the reliability of this research instrument,

the Cronbach’s Alpha was used to measure the reliability of the instrument taking into

consideration the rule of crobach’s alpha, which states that the result was reliable when the

research instrument yields a figure higher than 0.7. This was presented in the table below:

Table 3.5 Reliability Coefficients for the Variables in the Study

Construct/Variables Number of

Items

Cronbach’s Alpha

(Decision Rule)

Cronbach’s Alpha

(Results)

Physical setting

Staff commitment

8 > 0.7 0.74

(Reliable)

Psychological Work Milieu

Staff Loyalty

9 > 0.7 0.83

(Reliable)

Job contents

Staff involvement

9 > 0.7 0.76

(Reliable)

Reward structure

Staff satisfaction

10 > 0.7 0.71

(Reliable)

Organisational climate

Staff productivity

10 > 0.7 0.79

(Reliable)

A high value of Cronbach`s alpha test indicates that the stability, dependability and

predictability of the measuring instrument is very certain (Asika, 1991). The literature

reveals that acceptable reliability should fall between 0.50 – 0.60, although 0.70 and above

is desirable (Hair et al., 1998), also 0.70 is recommended by (Nunnally & Berstein, 1994

& Pallant, 2007). The result of the reliability analysis sum up in Table 3.5 revealed a high

internal consistency and reliability with Cronbach’s alpha values higher than the minimum

perimeter, (Cronbach’s alpha > 0.70). Thus, the internal consistency of the measure used

in this study is considered acceptable.

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3.12 Method of Data Analysis

Data analysis is not an end itself. Its purpose is to produce information that helps to address or

answer the research questions of the study. The data generated for this study were analysed

using two (2) folds namely:

(i) Quantitative Data

(ii) Qualitative Data

(1) Quantitative data:

The returned questionnaire were sorted and collated to check for and minimise errors. When

errors had been checked and reduced, the questionnaire with incomplete information were

discarded while completed ones were coded for analysis and inputted into SPSS Version 18.

The descriptive statistics was based on frequencies, means and standard deviations while

inferential method was used to measure the formulated hypotheses through the use of

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0, regression with Stata and

Structural Equation Modeling. Data analysis procedures were carried out using IBM SPSS

AMOS 22. Reponses were analysed in SPSS data format, while Structural Equation Modelling

(SEM) was used to explain complex relationships between variables, and to reduce the

relationships to visual representations. However, the results of the survey were analysed and

presented with managerial implications.

(2) Qualitative data:

Qualitative data emerged from IDIs. Texts from qualitative data were transcribed, identified

and analysed through thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is the systematic analysis of themes

(that is who says what, to whom, why, and to what extent and with what effects in a qualitative

manner. This was done through three stages:

1. Data assembly: field notes (notes taking during interview and observation),

researcher’s views and perceptions, audiotape redirecting and its transcription for

previous day were retrieved from research assistants before the commencement of work

for a new day. The data assembled were checked for proper recording and transcription.

http://sociology.about.com/od/Statistics/a/Structural-Equation-Modeling.htm

94

2. Data Reduction: The data were sorted and organised to reduce error. Data were coded;

responses analysed in a thematic order, similar and different ideas were clarified on

issues.

3. Data Display: Data presentation was done following the study objectives and relevant

issues (themes) to the administration and implementation of strategies for employees’

retention.

The interviews were analysed on the basis of detailed descriptions, explanations, direct

quotations, and observations from the interview were provided as the foundation of the

analysis. Content analysis involves a process designed to condense raw data into categories or

themes based on valid inference and interpretation. Coded ideas, issues and expressions were

identified and thematized. Some aspects of the in-depth interviews were quoted verbatim to

bring out the essential points. Observations made on workplace environment and other

behavioural issues were concretised through photographs.

Thus, coding and grouping based on these ideas and themes were used as reference points for

the study. The IDIs were analysed manually by adopting Hawe, Degeling and Hall (1990) four

basic steps to analysing qualitative data. The first step organised the data by transcribing notes

from tape recording of IDI; particular attention was paid to phrases with contextual or special

connotations. It was thereafter reviewed by a competent third person to avoid alterations in

context and meaning. This gives an overall picture of the complete set of qualitative data. The

second step shaped the data information by assessing themes that emerge from the guides. This

was done by sorting and noting the different categories of responses found under topic

headings. The third step interpreted and summarised the information by looking at the range

of views expressed. The fourth step explained the findings from the qualitative data analysis.

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3.13 Ethical considerations

According to Babbie (1998), ethical principles comprise the consideration for voluntary

participation, anonymity and confidentiality. In compliance with these and other ethical

standards on research work involving human subjects, the researcher made every attempt to

uphold the principles which aim at protecting the dignity and privacy of every individual who

in the course of the research work was requested to provide valuable information for the study.

This anonymity and impersonality no doubt enhanced the rate of return of the questionnaire

and objective response. The principles were observed in the following areas. Permission to

conduct the research was obtained from the selected respondents (i.e. Informed consent). The

objectives of the study were clearly explained to them. It is incumbent on the researcher to

protect the rights, dignity and safety of the participants in the study. The consent of every

participant in the study was sought and the right of refusal and withdrawal of the participants

at any stage of the study were also emphasised prior and during the course of the study.

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CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Preamble

This chapter presents the data generated from respondents through the administered

questionnaires. The Objectives and hypotheses formulated for this study guides the

arrangement of the tables. An interpretation of the results of the analysis follows each of the

hypothesis and in addition where necessary, selected results from the demographic data

collected were used to support and contrast the results of the analysed hypotheses.

4.2 Data Presentation

The presentation of data for this study was divided into two. The demographic data, which is

the first section of the structured questionnaire, was presented in tables of frequency for

categorical data (sex, marital status, etc.). Also, cross-tabulation was used to further analyse

the demographical data with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software,

version 22, due to its suitability in primary studies. The more reason why cross-tabulation was

used was to test for significant differences in the way respondents had responded to the items

under the demographical section.

4.2.1 Response Rate of Questionnaire Administered

A total of four hundred (400) copies of questionnaire were randomly administered to the

academic staff of selected Universities in Southern Nigeria. Three hundred and eighty four

(384) copies of the questionnaire were retrieved, which amounted to 96% response rate (see

Table 4.3). Three hundred and eighty four (384) copies of the retrieved copies of the

questionnaire were found useable. Sixteen copies of the questionnaire representing 4% were

unusable because they were badly completed. This response rate is considered reasonably high

and better than the response rates in previous studies. Below are the tables showing the

frequency distribution of variables and responses to administered questions. Table 4.1a below

shows the respondents by the type of institutions.

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Table 4.1: Response Rate of Sampled Institutions (Comparative)

Region Institutions Academic

Staff

Strength

Questionnaire

Distributed

Questionnaire

Retrieved

Total % of

Questionnaire

Analysed

South-

West

Ekiti State Univ. 448 72 69 17.97

Olabisi Onabanjo Univ. 528 78 76 19.80

(1) Total 976 150 145 37.77

South-

East

Enugu State University

of Science & Tech.

421 60 57 14.84


Abakaliki, Ebonyi.

417 60 58 15.10

(2) Total 838 120 115 29.94

South-

South

River State University of


396 62 60 15.62

Ambrose Alli

University, Ekpoma,

Edo

449 68 64 16.67

(3) Total 845 130 124 32.29

Overall Total 2659 400 384 100.0%

Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)

Figure 4.1: Response Rate of Institutions by % (Comparative)


Interpretation:

Table 4.1 shows that 145 or 37.77% of the population were from South-west (Ekiti State

University (17.97%) and Olabisi Onabanjo University (19.80%) respectively); 115 or 29.94%

of the population were from South-East (Enugu State University of Science & Technology

1819.8

14.9 15.1 15.6 16.7

0

5

10

15

20

25

EKSU OOU ENSUST EBSU RSUST AMBROSE ALLI

Perc

enta

ge

Response Rate of Institutions by %

98

(14.84%) and Ebonyi State University (15.10%) respectively); 124 or 32.29% of the population

were from South-South (River State University of Science & Technology (15.62%) and

Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo (16.67%).

4.3.2 Biographical Characteristics of Respondents

This section describes the biographical characteristics of the respondents. Important variables

considered were gender, current rank/status, work experience and current University as

presented in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Biographical Characteristics of Respondents

DISTRIBUTION BY GENDER

Gender Frequency Percentage Cumulative Freq.

Male 236 61.5 61.5

Female 148 38.5 100.0

Total 384 100%

DISTRIBUTION BY STAFF STATUS

Staff Status Frequency Percentage Cumulative Freq.

Ass. Prof & prof. 18 4.7 4.7

Senior Lecturer 38 9.9 14.6

Lecturer 1 68 17.7 32.3

Lecturer 2 172 44.8 77.1

Graduate & Ass. lecturer 88 22.9 100.0

Total 384 100%

DISTRIBUTION BY YEARS OF SERVICE

Years of Service Frequency Percentage Cumulative Freq.

0 - 10 years 239 62.2 62.6

11 - 20 years 125 32.6 94.8

21 years and above 20 5.2 100.0

Total 384 100%

DISTRIBUTION BY HIGHEST EDUCATIONAL QUALI FICATION

Highest Educational

Qualification Frequency Percentage

Cumulative Freq.

Bachelor’s Degree 8 2.1 2.1

Master’s Degree 229 59.6 61.7

Doctoral Degree (Ph.D) 147 38.3 100.0

Total 384 100%

Source: Field Survey (2016)

99

a. Gender: Table 4.2a shows the frequency distribution of respondents’ biographical data.

The distribution of gender reveals that male respondents had a total frequency of 236

(61.5%) and females were 148 (38.5%). Despite the 23.0% difference between the two

genders, data obtained represent opinion of both genders. The information on gender in

Table 4.2a is shown in a bar chart as presented below.

Table 4.2a: Cross-Tabulation of Gender across Sampled Universities

Gender

Gender * University Cross-tabulation Total

Universities

Ekiti State

University

Olabisi

Onabanjo

University

Enugu

State

University

Ebonyi

State

University

River State

University

Ambrose

Alli

University

Male

Count 48 47 35 34 38 34 236

% within

Gender 20.3% 20.0% 14.8% 14.4% 16.1% 14.4% 100.0%

% within

University 69.6% 61.8% 61.4% 58.6% 63.3% 53.1% 61.5%

Female

Count 21 29 22 24 22 30 148

% within

Gender 14.2% 19.6% 14.9% 16.2% 14.9% 20.3% 100.0%

% within

University 30.4% 38.2% 38.6% 41.4% 36.7% 46.9% 38.5%

Total

Count 69 76 57 58 60 64 384

% within

Gender 18.0% 19.8% 14.8% 15.1% 15.6% 16.7% 100.0%

% within

University 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Source: Field Survey (2016)

Figure 4.2a: Cross-Tabulation of Gender across Sampled Universities


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

EKSU OOU ENSU EBSU RISU AMAU

Freq

uenc

y

Gender

Male Female

100

b. Staff Status: The staff status distribution revealed that 18 (4.7%) are Associate Professors

and Professors, 38 (9.9%) are senior lecturers, 68 (17.7%) are Lecturer I, 172 (44.8%) are

Lecturer II and 88 (22.9%) falls under Graduate Assistant and Assistant Lecturers. This

implies that staff status in the selected institutions represents all the academic cadre. The

information on staff status in Table 4.2b is shown in a bar chart as presented below.

Table 4.2b Cross-Tabulation of Staff Status across Sampled Universities

Current Staff Status

Current Rank * University Cross-tabulation Total

Ekiti State

University

Olabisi

Onabanjo

University

Enugu

State

University

Ebonyi

State

University

River State

University

Ambrose

Alli

University

Prof. &

Associate

Prof.

Count 4 4 2 2 0 6 18

% within

Current Rank 22.2% 22.2% 11.1% 11.1% 0% 33.3% 100.0%

% within

University 5.8% 5.3% 3.5% 3.4% 0% 9.4% 4.7%

Senior

Lecturer

Count 4 10 4 4 9 7 38

% within

Current Rank 10.5% 26.3% 10.5% 10.5% 23.7% 18.5% 100.0%

% within

University 5.8% 13.2% 7.0% 6.9% 15.0% 10.9% 9.9%

Lecturer 1

Count 22 13 12 7 5 9 68

% within

Current Rank 32.4% 19.1% 17.6% 10.3% 7.4% 13.2% 100.0%

% within

University 31.9% 17.1% 21.1% 12.1% 8.3% 14.1% 17.7%

Lecturer 2

Count 30 25 22 29 37 29 172

% within

Current Rank 17.4% 14.5% 12.8% 16.9% 21.5% 16.9% 100.0%

% within

University 43.5% 32.9% 38.6% 50.0% 61.7% 45.3% 44.8%

Asst. Lect.

& Grad.

Asst.

Count 9 24 17 16 9 13 88

% within

Current Rank 10.2% 27.3% 19.3% 18.2% 10.2% 14.8% 100.0%

% within

University 13.0% 31.6% 29.8% 27.6% 15.0% 20.3% 22.9%

Total

Count 69 76 57 58 60 64 384

% within

Current Rank 18.0% 19.8% 14.8% 15.1% 15.6% 16.7% 100.0%

% within

University 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

101

Figure 4.2b: Cross-Tabulation of Staff Status across Sampled Universities


c. Years of Service: By years worked in the institution in Tables 4.2 and 4.2c, 239 (62.2%)

respondents of the staff had worked between the periods of 1 to 10 years, 125 (32.6%)

respondents had been in the institution for 11 to 20 years, 20 (5.2%) respondents worked

for more than 21years. The information on years worked in Table 4.2c is shown in a bar

chart as presented below:

Table 4.2c: Cross-Tabulation of Work Experience across Sampled Universities

Universities

Work Experience

Ekiti State

University

Olabisi

Onabanjo

Enugu

State Univ.

Ebonyi

State Uni.

River State

University

Ambrose

Alli Uni.

Total

1-10yrs

Count 35 51 38 40 36 39 239

% within Work

Experience 14.7% 21.3% 15.9% 16.7% 15.1% 16.3% 100.0%

% within University 50.7% 67.1% 66.7% 69.0% 60.0% 60.9% 62.2%

11-20yrs

Count 29 20 17 16 24 19 125

% within Work

Experience 23.2% 16.0% 13.6% 12.8% 19.2% 15.2% 100.0%


21yrs-

Above

Count 5 5 2 2 0 6 20

% within Work

Experience 25.0% 25.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0% 30.0% 100.0%

% within University 7.3% 6.6% 3.5% 3.5% 0% 9.4% 5.2%

Total

Count 69 76 57 58 60 64 384

% within Work

Experience 18.0% 19.8% 14.8% 15.1% 15.6% 16.7% 100.0%


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40


Freq

uenc

y

Staff Status

Prof & AP SL L1 L2 AL & GA

102

Figure 4.2c: Cross-Tabulation of Work experience across Sampled Universities


d. Highest Educational Background: Information provided by respondents in Table 4.2d

on highest educational background shows that 8 (2.1%) had Bachelor’s Degree, 229

(59.6%) had Master’s Degree, while 147 (38.3%) had Doctoral Degree The information on

highest educational background in Table 4.2d is shown in a bar chart as presented below:

Table 4.2d: Cross-Tabulation of Educational Qualification across Universities

Universities

Highest Educational

Background

Ekiti State

University

Olabisi

Onabanjo

Enugu

State Univ.

Ebonyi

State Univ.

River

State Univ.

Ambrose

Alli Uni.

Total

Bachelor’s

Degree

Count 3 4 0 0 1 0 8

% within

Educational

Qualification

37.5% 50.0% 0.0% 0.0% 12.5% 0.0% 100.0%

% within Uni. 4.3% 5.3% 0.0% 0.0% 3.7% 0.0% 2.1%

Master’s

Degree

Count 38 42 31 42 40 36 229

% within

Educational

Qualification

16.6% 18.3% 13.5% 18.3% 17.5% 15.7% 100.0%

% within Uni. 55.1% 55.3% 54.4% 72.4% 66.7% 56.3% 59.6%

Doctoral

Degree

Count 28 30 26 16 19 28 147

% within

Educational

Qualification

19.1% 20.4% 17.7% 10.8% 12.9% 19.1% 100.0%

% within Uni. 40.6% 39.5% 45.6% 27.6% 31.7% 43.8% 38.3%

Total

Count 69 76 57 58 60 64 384

% within

Educational

Qualification

18.0% 19.8% 14.8% 15.1% 15.6% 16.7% 100.0%

% within

University 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

0

10

20

30

40

50

60


Freq

uenc

y

Work Experience

1-10yrs 11-20yrs 21yrs +

103

Figure 4.2d: Cross-Tabulation of Educational Qualification across Sampled Universities


4.3 Cross-tabulation of Biographical Data by Gender

Table 4.3.1: Cross-tabulation of Staff Status by Gender

STATUS OF STAFF

Total Prof. & Ass.

Professors

Senior

Lecturer

Lecturer 1 Lecturer II Ass. Lecturer

& Graduate

GENDER

Male 13 23 40 107 53 236

% within

Staff Status 72.2% 60.5% 58.8% 62.2% 60.2% 61.5%

Female 5 15 28 65 35 148

% within

Staff Status 27.3% 39.5% 41.2% 37.8 39.8% 38.5%

Total 18 38 68 172 88 384

% within Current Staff

Status 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Source: Field Survey, 2016 (NB: Frequency is for available data)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45


Freq

uenc

y

Highest Educational Background

Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree Doctoral Degree

104

Figure 4.3.1: Cross Tabulation of Staff Status and Gender


The cross-tabulation of staff status by gender in Table 4.3.1 revealed that 384 academic staff

responded to gender and staff status classifications. From the total, 236 (62%) were males and

148 (38%) were females. In the “status of staff” rows, the table showed that for males, 13

(72.2%) were Associate Professors and Professors, 23 (60.5%) were Senior Lecturers, 40

(58.8%) were Lecturer I, 107 (62.2%) were Lecturer II, and 53 (60.2%) were Graduate

Assistant & Assistant Lecturers. For females, 5 (27.3%) were Associate Professors and

Professors, 15 (39.5%) were Senior Lecturers, 28 (41.2%) were Lecturer I, 65 (37.8%) were

Lecturer II, and 35 (39.8%) were Graduate Assistant & Assistant Lecturers. This implies that

there are more males in every academic status than females’ academic staff in the selected state

Universities in Southern Nigeria.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Prof. & Ass. Professors Senior Lecturer Lecturer 1 Lecturer II Ass. Lecturer &

Graduate

Perc

enta

ge

Cross-tabulation of Staff Status by Gender

Male Female

105

Table 4.3.2: Cross-tabulation of “Years of Service” by Gender

YEARS OF SERVICE

Total 0-10 yrs 11-20 yrs 21 yrs & above

GENDER

Male 145 77 14 236

% within

Years of service 60.7% 61.6% 70.0% 61.5%

Female 94 48 6 148

% within

Years of service 39.3% 38.4% 30.0% 38.5%

Total 239 125 20 384

% within Years of service 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Source: Field Survey, 2016 (NB: Frequency is for available data)

Figure 4.3.2: Respondents’ Years of Service and Gender


In Table 4.3.2, the cross-tabulation of years of service by gender is shown. It showed that 384

academic staff responded to years of service by gender classifications. Out of which, 236

(61.5%) were males and 148 (38.5%) were females. In the different categories of years of

service, the table showed that for males, 145 (60.7%) had spent between 0 to 10 years, 77

(61.6%) had spent between 11 years to 20 years, and 14 (70.0%) spent 21 years and above. For

females from the same table above, 94 (39.3%) had spent between 0 to 10 years, 48 (38.4%)

had spent between 11 years to 20 years, and 6 (30.0%) spent 21 years and above. This implied

that there were more males than females that had worked for years of service categories.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

0-10 yrs 11-20 yrs 21 yrs & above

Freq

uenc

y

Cross-tabulation of “Years of Service” by Gender

Male Female

106

Table 4.3.3: Cross-tabulation of Highest Educational Qualification by Gender

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

Total Bachelor’s

Degree

Master’s

Degree

Doctoral

Degree (Ph.D)

GENDER

Male 6 145 85 236

% within

Educational Qualification 75.0% 63.3% 57.8 61.5%

Female 2 84 62 148

% within

Educational Qualification 25.0% 36.7% 42.2 38.5%

Total 8 229 147 384

% within Educational Qualification 100% 100% 100% 100%

Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2016 (NB: Frequency is for available data)

Figure 4.3.1: Respondents’ Educational Qualification and Gender


Table 4.3.3 indicated that 384 academic staff of state Universities, Southern Nigeria responded

to educational qualification by gender classifications. Out of which, 236 (61.5%) were males

and 148 (38.5%) were females. In the different categories of highest educational qualification,

the table showed that for males, 6 (75%) had Bachelor’s Degree, 145 (63.3%) had Master’s

Degree and 85 (57.8%) had Doctoral Degree (Ph.D). For females from table 4.9 above, 2 (25%)

had Bachelor’s Degree, 84 (36.7%) had Master’s Degree and 62 (42.2%) had Doctoral Degree

(Ph.D.). This implied that there were more males than females that have BSc, MSc and Ph.D

working in the selected state Universities in Southern Nigeria.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree Doctoral Degree (Ph.D)

Freq

uenc

y

Cross-tabulation of Highest Educational Qualification by Gender

Male Female

107

4.4 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

VARIABLES BY UNIVERSITY NAME

Descriptive statistics were adopted to show the mean, standard deviation, level of skewness

and kurtosis. The mean scores were also obtained based on a five (5) point likert scale. These

range from strongly agree (representing 5 points) to strongly disagree represented (with I

point). The analysis showed the degree of responses by compiling the mean scores of each

item using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software.

Decision Criteria for Descriptive Statistics

If the mean scores value is greater than or equal to 3.00... Then one can accept the

statement with a 5 Likert scale.

If the mean scores value is less than 3.00... Then one can reject the statement or

proposition with a 5 Likert scale.

If the mean scores value is greater than or equal to 3.50... Then one can accept the

statement with a 7 Likert scale.

If the mean scores value is less than 3.50... Then one can reject the statement or

proposition with a 7 Likert scale.

4.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH VARIABLES BY GENDER

Table 4.4.1a: Physical Work Settings by Gender

Items Male Female

The size of my office does not provide me enough space to

achieve performance expectation

3.50 3.32

The lightning in the office attracts me to stay long on the

job

2.54 2.34

The physical condition under which staff operates promote

workplace safety

3.14 3.22

The size of my office does not provide me enough space to

work comfortably

2.82 3.08

( Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2016

108

In reference to Table 4.4.1a, both categories of respondents replied certainly when asked if the

size of their office does not provide them enough space to achieve performance expectation.

Nevertheless, male respondents (3.501) agreed more from the table reading above. In addition,

Most of the respondent both male (2.543) and female (2.342) also slightly disagree that

lightning in the office attracts them to stay long on the job. In other words, both category of

respondents did not come to term with the statement ‘lightning in the office attracts me to stay

long on the job.

Table 4.4.1b: Psychological Work Milieu and Job Contents by Gender

Items Male Female

The University motivate lecturers by providing job-related training

with opportunity for growth

3.66 3.71

The degree of influence on the job as a lecturer gives opportunity

for career development and enrichment

3.19 3.65

The strategies put in place to motivate staff such as career

development and opportunity to earn promotion have helped to

retain competent staff for the realisation of organisational

fulfilment

2.86 2.51

The University’s use of recognition and appreciation has enhanced

my stay and bond with them

3.30 3.23

My institution gives the possibility of learning new things through

the work and gives high priority to job satisfaction

3.48 3.55

The University gives lecturers the opportunity to creatively

develop their own abilities

3.81 3.92

Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2016

With reference to the Table 4.4.1b, the two categories of respondents replied positively when

asked if the University motivate lecturers by providing job-related training with opportunity

for growth. Interestingly, both male and female also affirmed positively to the fact that the

degree of influence on the job lecturers give opportunity for career development and

enrichment. Though, the categories of respondents slightly acclaimed that he strategies put in

109

place to motivate staff such as career development and opportunity to earn promotion have not

effectively helped to retain competent staff for the realisation of organisational fulfilment. This

could be as a result of increasing demand to meet and fulfil their expectations. However, all

the respondents irrespective of their gender affirmed that the institutions give the possibility of

learning new things and the opportunity to creatively develop their own abilities

Table 4.4.1c: Extent of Reward System by Gender

Items Male Female

The University’s reward system has increased my opportunities for

personal development satisfaction

2.37 2.30

The salary structure commensurate with lecturers current status and

thereby facilitate continuous employment relationship

2.25 2.12

Outstanding efforts are recognised and appreciated with remunerations

that stimulates job quality

2.72 2.76

Opportunities for advancement or promotion exist within the

University

1.88 1.64

Adequate provision of grants and funds increased my pay satisfaction. 3.86 3.96

The benefit package is a significant factor in my decision to stay with

the University

3.83 3.83

Compared with other related industries, the University salary package

is reasonable

4.07 3.84

institution is based on other factors than merit and this adversely affect

my dispositions to increasing commitment

3.71 3.53

The institution’s strategies for staff promotion are based on ‘whom you

know’ and this result in poor career satisfaction

3.64 3.64

I will continue to work for my institution to achieve its goals because

of the rewards and supervisory supports am currently enjoying.

3.22 3.25


110

With reference to Table 4.4.1c, both male and female slightly disagreed that the University’s

reward system has increased their opportunities for personal development satisfaction.

Interestingly, all the respondents in the categories affirmed strongly that the salary structure

does not commensurate with lecturers’ current status and opportunities for advancement or

promotion does not exist within the University. Though a few number of respondents disagreed

with the notion above. Surprising, categories of respondents strongly affirm that promotion in

the institution is based on other factors than merit and this adversely affect my dispositions to

increasing commitment. It was added by the same categories of respondents that institution’s

strategies for staff promotion are based on ‘whom you know’ and this result in poor career

satisfaction.

4.4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH VARIABLES BY STATUS

Table 4.4.2a: Physical Work Settings by Status

Items Prof. &

Ass. Prof

SL L1 LII AL &

GA

The size of my office does not provide me enough

space to achieve performance expectation

2.39 2.37 2.61 2.57 2.74

The lightning in the office attracts me to stay long

on the job

3.72 3.42 2.63 2.35 2.24

The physical condition under which staff operates

promote workplace safety

4.17 3.21 3.29 3.16 3.08


space to work comfortably

2.83 3.18 2.87 2.94 2.84


*Prof. & Ass. Prof: Professors & Associate Professors

*SL: Senior Lecturer * L1: Lecturer 1

* L11: Lecturer 11 *AL & GA: Assistant Lecturer & Graduate Assistant

111

With reference to Table 4.4.2a, the professors, associate professors and senior lecturers replied

negatively when asked if the size of their office provide them enough space to achieve

performance expectation. They also affirmed that lightning in their offices attract them to stay

long on the job. Unexpectedly, all categories of the respondent replied certainly to the claim

that size of my office does not provide them enough space to achieve performance expectation.

However, those that negatively react to this may be as a result of their position/status that

requires greater performance expectation compared to those at the lower levels.

Table 4.4.2b: Psychological Work Milieu and Staff Loyalty by Status

Items Prof. &

Ass. Prof

SL L1 LII AL &

GA

The University motivate lecturers by providing job-

related training with opportunity for growth

4.72 2.95 2.71 2.59 2.69

The degree of influence on the job as a lecturer

gives opportunity for career development and

enrichment

4.22 3.39 3.28 3.16 3.35

The strategies put in place to motivate staff such as

career development and opportunity to earn

promotion have helped to retain competent staff for

the realisation of organisational fulfillment

3.33 2.34 2.32 2.59 2.47

The University’s use of recognition and

appreciation has enhanced my stay and bond

4.44 3.18 3.26 3.14 3.12

My institution gives the possibility of learning new

things through the work and gives high priority to

job satisfaction

3.33 3.12 3.17 3.18 3.09

The University gives lecturers the opportunity to

creatively develop their own abilities

4.00 4.11 4.15 3.73 3.73


*Prof. & Ass. Prof: Professors & Associate Professors


* L11: Lecturer 11 *AL & GA: Assistant Lecturer & Graduate Assistant

112

With reference to Table 4.4.2b, the professors and associate professors replied positively when

asked if the University motivate lecturers by providing job-related training with opportunity

for growth. While others slightly agree with the statement. Interestingly, all the respondents

also affirmed positively to the fact that the degree of influence on the job lecturers give

opportunity for career development and enrichment. Though, all the categories of respondents

except the professor and associate professors acclaimed that he strategies put in place to

motivate staff such as career development and opportunity to earn promotion have not

effectively helped to retain competent staff for the realisation of organisational fulfilment. This

could be as a result of increasing demand to meet and fulfil their expectations. However, all

the respondents irrespective of their status affirmed that the institutions give the possibility of

learning new things and the opportunity to creatively develop their own abilities.

Table 4.4.2c: Extent of Reward System by Status

Items (Reward System and Staff Satisfaction) Prof. &

Ass. Prof

SL L1 LII AL &

GA

The University’s reward system has increased my

opportunities for personal development satisfaction

3.39 3.13 2.73 2.33 2.10

The salary structure commensurate with lecturers

current status and thereby facilitate continuous

employment relationship

4.22 3.05 2.28 2.20 2.20

Outstanding efforts are recognised and appreciated with

remunerations that stimulates job quality

3.61 2.76 2.63 2.51 2.67

Opportunities for advancement or promotion exist

within the University

3.89 2.55 2.35 2.28 2.72

The benefit package is a significant factor in my

decision to stay with the University

3.89 3.17 2.96 2.81 2.69

Promotion in the institution is based on other factors

than merit and this adversely affect my dispositions to

increasing commitment

1.78 2.74 3.51 3.69 3.58

The institution’s strategies for staff promotion are based

on ‘whom you know’ and this result in poor career

satisfaction

1.61 3.53 3.60 3.61 3.78



*L11: Lecturer 11 *AL & GA: Assistant Lecturer & Graduate Assistant

113

With reference to Table 4.4.2c, the professors, associate professors and senior lecturers replied

positively The University’s reward system has increased my opportunities for personal

development satisfaction. While others slightly agree with the statement. Interestingly, all the

respondents in the categories of Lecturer 1, lecturer 11 and Assistant lecturers affirmed

strongly that the salary structure does not commensurate with lecturers’ current status and

opportunities for advancement or promotion does not exist within the University. Surprising,

categories of respondents (Lecturer 1, lecturer 11 and Assistant lecturers) strongly affirm that

Promotion in the institution is based on other factors than merit and this adversely affect my

dispositions to increasing commitment. It was added by the same categories of respondents

that institution’s strategies for staff promotion are based on ‘whom you know’ and this result

in poor career satisfaction. Though, the professors, associate professors and senior lecturers

strongly disagree with some of the issues.

4.4.3. PHYSICAL WORK ENVIRONMENT AND ACADEMIC STAFF

COMMITMENT

Organisations thrive to provide employees with an environment and office design, which fulfill

the employees’ needs and ensures job satisfaction (Davies, 2005:128). In order to establish the

significant role of physical settings in state Universities, this study set for itself the first

objective of examining the role of physical settings in promoting the commitment of academic

staff in Southern Nigeria. , i.e. “To determine the role of physical work environment in

enhancing commitment of academic staff in state owned Universities”.

In order to achieve this objective, the study raised the first research question:

114

RESEARCH QUESTION I: “What are the roles of workplace physical factors in

enhancing the commitment of academic staff in state owned Universities?

Table 4.4.3a: Mean Statistics of physical work milieu and staff commitment

Items MEAN STATISTICS

EKSU OOU ENSU EBSU RISU AMASU

N = 69 N = 76 N = 60 N = 64 N = 57 N = 58

Working in noise free environment increases my

job performance 3.872

4.325 3.923 4.638 4.739 4.527


space to achieve performance expectation 3.435

3.873 3.993 4.176 3.173 4.101

The offices are well ventilated for service

improvement 4.026

3.623 3.819 4.002 3.933 3.729

The lightning in the office attracts me to stay long

on the job 2.462

2.211 3.003 2.391 2.193 2.419

Provision of ergonomic tool/furniture improves my

workplace health promotion 3.231

4.020 3.913 4.111 3.966 3.628

The office space arrangement induces my work

engagement 3.504

3.941 3.863 3.733 4.0733 3.633

The physical condition under which staff operates

promote workplace safety 3.776 4.004

3.523 4.010 4.005 4.072


space to work comfortably 2.923 3.813

3.683 3.959 3.911 3.980

Source: Field Survey, 2016.

Table 4.4.3a reveals that when respondents were asked if working in noise free environment

increases their job performance, most of the respondents acknowledged positively to the

statement. Nonetheless both RISU and EBSU respondents admitted favourably to the

statement with (4.739) (4.638) respectively however respondents from EKSU (3.872) slightly

agreed. In addition, both respondents from EBSU and AMASU also agreed that the size of

their office does not provide them enough space to achieve performance expectation. The

findings from the table also indicated that when also interviewed, respondents from ENSU

slightly agreed that lightning in the office attracts them to stay long on the job while the

remaining sampled Universities (EKSU, OOU, EBSU, RISU, AMASU) strongly disagree.

This shows that the use of power (electricity) is a major problem in the sampled Universities.

The findings also indicated that respondents from OOU and EBSU (4.020 and 4.111) strongly

agreed that provision of ergonomic tool/furniture improves their workplace health promotion

while the remaining sampled Universities (EKSU, ENSU, RISU, AMASU) slightly agree. This

shows that the use of ergonomic resources such as tables, shelves, chair, etc. have significantly

115

improved workplace health promotion in the sampled Universities. All the sampled

Universities also concurred that the physical condition under which staff operates promote

workplace safety. Though respondents from EKSU and ENSU more or less concur with the

claim. Summarily, the findings indicated that the level of physical setting in the selected

institutions is encouraging but adversely influenced by lightning, noise and spatial

arrangement.

Analysis of Independent and Dependent Variables for each University

Table 4.4.3 analyses data generated through the administered questionnaire from respondents

in the selected state Universities, Southern Nigeria. The analysis for each University are

presented in the table using the correlation analysis. Correlation analysis is used to describe

the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. The Universities

are represented below with alphabets and the procedure for interpreting the test statistics in use

are also presented Table 4.4.3(b) below.

Table 4.4.3b: Universities and their Alphabetical Representation

S/N Name of Universities Represented with:

1 Ekiti State University University (EKSU) A

2 Olabisi Onabanjo University University (OOU) B

3 Rivers State University of Science & Technology University (RISU) C

4 Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo University (AAU) D

5 Enugu State University of Science & Technology University (ESUT) E

6 Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State. University (EBSU) F

4.4.3(c). Analysis of Independent and Dependent Variables for each University

Table 4.4.3(c): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Variables for each University

Descriptive Statistics * For University A, B, C, D, E, F

University A University B University C University D University E University F

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

PHYSETs 3.551 .783 3.398 .884 4.042 .706 3.281 .879 4.000 .779 3.289 .904

STAFFCOM 3.391 .899 3.039 1.00 4.067 .880 2.938 .978 4.184 .771 2.922 1.012

Freq = 69 Freq = 76 Freq = 60 Freq = 64 Freq = 57 Freq = 58

PHYSETs = Physical Settings (Noise, Lighting, Ergonomic & Spatial Arrangement, Temperature/Ventilation)

STAFFCOM = Staff Commitment


116

The mean values of physical settings on staff commitment for Ekiti State University are 3.5507

and 3.3913 (University A) respectively; 3.3980 and 3.0395 for Olabisi Onabanjo University

(University B); 4.0417 and 4.0667 for Rivers State University of Science & Technology

(University C); 3.2813 and 2.9375 for Ambrose Alli University (University D); 4.0000 and

4.1842 for Enugu State University of Science & Technology (University E); 3.2888 and

2.9224 for Ebonyi State University (University F) in that order. Since it was the five (5) points

Likert Scale that was adopted for this research, Table 4.4.3(c) shows that the mean values are

more than 3.0, it can be established that the respondents of the sampled Universities in

Southern Nigeria agreed that physical settings have significant effects on commitment of the

staff.

TEST OF HYPOTHESIS 1

Hypothesis 1: Physical work setting does not play any significant role in enhancing the

commitment of Academic staff

Statement of Test Statistics in Use

Given that the correlation co-efficient measures the degree to which two things vary together,

this model correlated two variables: physical work settings and staff commitment in testing

hypothesis one. In testing the first hypothesis, the Multiple Regression Analysis was employed

and presented in Table 4.3.3(d).

Decision Criteria for Regression Analysis

The level of significance below 0.05 shows the confidence of level of 95%. Therefore, under

such circumstance, we reject the null (H0) hypothesis once P-value is less than or equals to

0.05 while we accept the alternate (H1) hypothesis.

117

Table 4.4.3(d): Contributions of noise, ventilation, lightning, ergonomics equipment,

workplace arrangement & Moderate office to staff commitment using Stata (S.E 10)

Source | SS df MS Number of obs = 384

-------------+------------------------------ F(1, 382) = 426.56

Model | 158.915509 1 158.915509 Prob > F = 0.0000

Residual | 142.314797 382 .372551825 R-squared = 0.5276

-------------+------------------------------ Adj R-squared = 0.5263

Total | 301.230306 383 .786502104 Root MSE = .61037

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PhyFac | Coef. Std. Err. t P>|t| [95% Conf. Interval]

-------------+----------------------------------------------------------------

StaffComm | .5882292 .0284811 20.65 0.000 .5322298 .6442285

_cons | 1.594039 .1034816 15.40 0.000 1.390575 1.797504 a. Predictors: (Constant), Moderate office/room, Ergonomics equipment , Lightning , Noise , Workspace Arrangement , Ventilation

b. Dependent Variable: StaffComm

Source: Field Survey, 2016

This study revealed in model 1 of Table 4.3.3(d) that there is relationship between physical

work settings and staff commitment at r2=0.528. The r2 is the proportion of variance in the

dependent variable which can be predicted from the independent variable. This value indicated

that there is variance of 52.8% between physical work settings and staff commitment. The

significance of the F-change was assessed and yielded 426.56. This implies that the table is

statistically significant (Sig =.000) and the Fvalue (426.56) is greater than the Ttab1.96 which

represent 95% confidence level. Hence the null hypothesis should be rejected while alternate

hypothesis is therefore accepted.

118

Table 4.4.3(e): Coefficients of the effects of Physical Settings on Staff Commitment

Model Unstandardised

Coefficients

Standardised

Coefficients

t Sig. Collinearity Statistics

B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF

(Constant) 1.157 .341 3.397 .001

Lightning .361 .064 .283 5.617 .000 .706 1.416

Ventilation .330 .056 .302 5.915 .000 .688 1.453

Noise -.088 .051 -.074 -1.730 .000 .976 1.024

Ergonomics equipment .088 .058 .069 1.525 .000 .871 1.148

Workspace Arrangement .004 .056 .003 .070 .000 .841 1.189

Moderate office/room .152 .047 .140 3.213 .001 .947 1.056

a. Dependent Variable: StaffComm

Remark: Ventilation and Lightning are significant predictors of Staff Commitment


Interpretation and Conclusion

Based on the results in model 1, Table 4.4.3(e) revealed the contributions of physical settings

in promoting staff commitment and which of the variables included in the model contributed

to the prediction of the dependent variable and their levels of significance (lighting β = .283;

t= 5.617; p<0.0001; ventilation β = .302; t= 5.915; p<0.0001; Noise β = -.074; t= -1.730;

p<0.0001; ergonomic resources β = .069; t= 1.525; p<0.0001; workspace arrangement β =

.003; t= .070; p<0.0001). Going by the variables with the highest value of β, it was evident that

ventilation (.302) and lightning (.283) are significant predictors of staff commitment. This

implies that increase in ventilation and power stability will ultimately lead to increase in staff

commitment. This findings corroborate with the works of Chandrasekar (2011) who indicated

that accessibility to consistent power supply impact on organisational performance in the

public sector. For noise (β = -.074; t= -1.730; p<0.0001), it was indicated that increase in noise

will significantly lead to decrease in staff commitment.

119

Decision and Discussion of Findings

The significance level of the variables are less than 0.01 and the F change (30.309) is high and

it is significant (0.0001). Based on the results revealed in Table 4.4.3(e), it was justified that

the alternate hypothesis should be accepted while the null hypothesis should be rejected. It can

therefore be concluded that physical settings have significant effects on staff commitment. This

implies that increase in ventilation and power stability will ultimately lead to increase in staff

commitment. This findings corroborate with the works of Akinyele (2010) who affirmed the

influence of physical milieu on workers’ productivity using the oil and gas industry. In the

same vein, Asmui, Hussin and Paino (2012) indicated the importance of physical environment

facilities on job performance in the public sector.

4.4.4. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR VARIABLES IN OBJECTIVE 2

The role of Psychological factors has been described as the pattern of reactions that occurs

when a staff perceived equity or inequality in treatment and opportunities, and which challenge

their intentions to stay or leave the organisation (Irene, 2010:74). In order to investigate the

effects of psychological work milieu in state Universities, this study set for itself the second

objective. i.e. “To investigate the effects of psychological work milieu on the loyalty of

academic staff in state Universities”.

In order to achieve this objective, the study raised the second research question which can be

restated as follows:

120

RESEARCH QUESTION 2: “How do psychological factors influence loyalty of academic

staff in state owned Universities?

Table 4.4.4(a): Statistics of Psychological factors and staff loyalty

Items

MEAN STATISTICS


N = 69 N = 76 N = 60 N = 64 N = 57 N = 58

The University motivate lecturers by providing job-

related training with opportunity for growth 2.583 2.780 2.513 2.864 2.524 2.804

The degree of influence on the job as a lecturer gives

opportunity for career development and enrichment 3.225 3.553 3.112 3.142 3.003 3.411

The strategies put in place to motivate staff such as

career development and opportunity to earn promotion

have helped to retain competent staff for the realisation

of organisational fulfillment

3.975 2.624 2.744 2.954 3.403 3.281

Attitude toward relationships in the institution has put

lecturers in emotionally disturbing situations 3.234 3.090 3.474 2.982 3.550 3.752

My beliefs towards the institution’s mission and values

do not give room for personal growth 2.583 3.324 2.893 2.603 2.924 3.254

The University’s use of recognition and appreciation

has enhanced my stay and bond with them 3.322 2.881 3.813 3.901 3.420 3.703

My institution gives the possibility of learning new

things through the work and gives high priority to job

satisfaction

3.671 3.212 3.602 3.434 3.602 3.614

Management support for workplace health promotion

is not closely associated with employees’ perceptions

of their work environment as healthy and safe.

3.902 3.422 3.931 3.451 3.822 3.454

The University gives lecturers the opportunity to

creatively develop their own abilities 3.813 3.923 4.001 3.570 3.980 3.831


Table 4.4.4a reveals that the University motivate lecturers by providing job-related training with

opportunity for growth. All the sampled Universities slightly agreed. In addition, both

respondents from OOU and AMASU also agreed that the degree of influence on the job as a

lecturer gives opportunity for career development and enrichment. The findings from the table also

indicated that when also interviewed, respondents from EKSU strongly agreed that strategies

put in place to motivate staff such as career development and opportunity to earn promotion have helped

to retain competent staff for the realisation of organisational fulfilment while the remaining sampled

Universities (OOU, EBSU, ENSU, RISU, AMASU) slightly agreed. The findings also

121

indicated that respondents from EBSU and AMASU strongly agreed that the University’s use of

recognition and appreciation has enhanced my stay and bond with them while the remaining sampled

Universities (EKSU, OOU, ENSU, RISU) slightly agree. All the sampled Universities also

concurred that management support for workplace health promotion is not closely associated with

employees’ perceptions of their work environment as healthy and safe. Summarily, the findings

indicated that the University gives lecturers the opportunity to creatively develop their own abilities

Table 4.4.4(b): Descriptive Statistics of Psychological Work milieu for sampled

Universities




PSYWKMIL 3.430 .589 2.945 .574 3.147 .614 3.333 .614 3.269 .508 3.167 .574

STAFFLOY 3.522 .715 3.373 .637 3.439 .581 3.359 .670 3.495 .591 3.293 .646


PSYWKMIL = Psychological Work-milieu (Motivation, Learning, Equity perception, Beliefs, Attitudes,

Relationship)

STAFFLOY = Staff Loyalty


The mean values of psychological work milieu on staff loyalty for Ekiti State University are

3.4300 and 3.5217 (University A) respectively; 2.9452 and 3.3728 for Olabisi Onabanjo

University (University B); 3.1472 and 3.4389 for Rivers State University of Science &

Technology (University C); 3.3333 and 3.3594 for Ambrose Alli University (University D);

3.2690 and 3.4795 for Enugu State University of Science & Technology (University E); 3.1667

and 3.2931 for Ebonyi State University (University F) in that order. Since it was the five (5)

points Likert Scale that was adopted for this research, Table 4.4.4(b) shows that the mean

values are more than 3.0, it can be established that the respondents of the sampled Universities

in Southern Nigeria agreed that psychological work milieu has significant effect on loyalty of

the staff.

122

Table 4.4.4(c): Correlations of Variables for each University

Correlationsa

For each University

Pearson

Correlation

(r)

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Freq Remarks

PSYWKMIL and

STAFFLOY

Sig.

University A

Ekiti State University

.347** .000 69 Significant Medium

Relationship

University B

Olabisi Onabanjo University

.283** .000 76 Significant Weak

Relationship

University C

Rivers State University of Science


Relationship

University D

Ambrose Alli University


Relationship

University E

Enugu State University of Science

189** .000 57 Significant Weak

Relationship

University F


167** .000 58 Significant Weak

Relationship

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).


The findings show a significant positive relationship between these two variables-

psychological work milieu and staff loyalty and the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test. The

Pearson Correlation at r= 0.347, n= 69, p>0.001 significant level and 68 degree of freedom for

Ekiti State University. This implies a significant and weak relationship which means that staff

loyalty would significantly influenced by psychological work milieu.

For Olabisi Onabanjo University, the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test at r = 0.283, .000

significant level and 75 degree of freedom. Thus, the correlation is significant and this means

that there was weak and positive relationship between psychological work milieu and staff

loyalty of the sampled University.

For Rivers State University of Science and Technology, the findings show a significant

relationship using 2-tail test at r = 0.487, 0.01 significant level and 59 degree of freedom. The

p-value of 0.00 was obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies a significant and

medium and positive relationship between psychological work milieu and staff loyalty of the

sampled University.

123

For Ambrose Alli University, the findings show the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test at r =

0.303, 0.01 significant level and 63 degree of freedom. The p-value of 0.00 was obtained which

is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), this means

that there was a medium and positive relationship between psychological work milieu and staff

loyalty of the sampled University.

For Enugu State University of Science, the findings show the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail

test at r = 0.189, 0.01 significant level and 56 degree of freedom. The p-value of 0.00 was

obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies that the correlation is significant at the

0.01 level (2-tailed), this means that there was a weak and positive relationship between

psychological work milieu and staff loyalty of the sampled University.

For Ebonyi State University, the findings show a significant relationship and the Pearson

Correlation using 2-tail test at r = 0.167, 0.01 significant level and 56 degree of freedom. The

p-value of 0.00 was obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies that the correlation

is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), this means that there was weak and positive

relationship between psychological work milieu and staff loyalty of the sampled University.


Hypothesis 2: Psychological work milieu does not have significant effects on the loyalty of

academic staff



this present study correlated two variables: psychological work milieu and staff in testing

hypothesis two. In testing the second hypothesis, the study employed the use of Regression

Estimates (simple regression and multiple regression).

Decision Criteria




124

Table 4.4.4(d): Contributions of Psychological work milieu using Stata (S.E 10) and

Regression: (Independent Variable: Psychological work milieu)


-------------+------------------------------ F( 1, 382) = 3.15

Model | 1.02424353 1 1.02424353 Prob > F = 43.524


-------------+------------------------------ Adj R-squared = 0.8225

Total | 125.354094 383 .327295285 Root MSE = .2032

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PsyFac | Coef. Std. Err. t P>|t| [95% Conf. Interval]

-------------+-------------------------------------------- -------------------

StaffLoy | .0835712 .0471098 1.77 0.077 -.0090557 .1761982

_cons | 2.848657 .1625643 17.52 0.000 2.529024 3.16829


Table 4.4.4(e): Determinants of Psychological work milieu using ANOVA

Variables B-Coefficients t-values Sig

Career Path (motivation) 0.274* 12.122 0.000

Learning 0.193* 10.401 0.000

Equity Perception 0.332* 14.015 0.000

Attitude 0.280* 12.253 0.000

(Constant) 1.994 15.621

R2 0.825

Adjusted R2 0.823

F 43.524

Std Error of the estimate 0.20318

Sig of F 0.000

* Significant at 1% lever or beta Predictors: (Constant), Motivation, Career path, Learning, Equity perception, Beliefs, Attitudes,

Relationship) Dependent Variable: STAFFLOY


125


The F statistic which tests the overall significance of the model has the value of 43.524. The

significance of F is 0.000 and as such the null hypothesis can be rejected at 1% level. The

results of the estimated coefficients indicate that the independent variable is psychological

work milieu, followed by the four estimated coefficients. These include .274, .193, .332 and

.280. The corresponding t- statistic for each of these factors include 12.122 for Career path,

10.401 for learning, 14.015 for equity perception and 12.253 for attitudes and relationships, all

of which have a significance level of 0.000. This means that all the explanatory variables are

statistically significant at 1% level. Therefore, it can be indicated that psychological work

milieu include career path, learning, equity perception, beliefs, attitudes and relationships.

Discussion of Findings

The coefficient of determination in Table 4.4.4(e) is the coefficient of determination and

referred to as R2. In this analysis, 82.5% of the variability in psychological work millieu can

be explained by career path, learning, equity perception and attitudes. The remaining 17.5% of

variability is due to other unexplained factors. This supports further retention of the alternate

hypothesis and the rejection of the null hypothesis. Thus, the finding supported the fact that

factors like career path, learning, equity perception and attitudes contribute significantly to

staff loyalty (82.5%). We can also rank the variables significant impact on staff loyalty.

Therefore, it can be concluded from the result that among the variables of psychological work

milieu, perception (i.e equity perception) is the most significant predictor of staff loyalty. This

implies that perception of a staff towards the organisational characteristics will determine

his/her strength and degree of loyalty; i.e increase in equity perception will significantly lead

to increase in loyalty. This finding is supported by several studies including Şenol (2011;

Zaman, Hafiza, Shah & Jamsheed (2011); Siegel, Schraeder & Morrison (2007); Galanou,

Sotiropoulos, Georgakopoulos & Vasilopoulos (2011) and; Abdulla, Djebarni & Mellahi,

2010; Abejirinde (2009).

126

4.4.5 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR VARIABLES IN OBJECTIVE 3

The characteristics of the job and job holders influence a number of personal and work

outcomes. In order to investigate the relationship between job contents and staff involvement

in state Universities, this study set for itself the third objective. i.e. “To ascertain the

relationship between job contents and staff involvement in academic excellence of state

owned Universities”.

In order to achieve this objective, the study raised the third research question which can be

restated as follows:

RESEARCH QUESTION 3: “In what ways has job content significantly contributed to staff

involvement in academic excellence of state owned Universities?

Table 4.4.5(a) Descriptive Statistics for Variables in Objective 3

Descriptive Statistics on Job Contents and Staff

Involvement

MEAN STATISTICS


N = 69 N = 76 N = 60 N = 64 N = 57 N = 58

The job requires using variety of skills and talents which

gives personal satisfaction 3.813 2.932 4.211 2.763 4.251 2.771

Lecturers have pretty opportunities to learn new things

from their work and ensure a sense of worthwhile

accomplishment.

4.552 3.583 4.442 3.575 4.573 3.482

The job gives me considerable opportunity for

independence and greater achievement 3.754 4.054 4.044 2.744 4.102 2.813

My workload is often increased because my colleagues

are not doing their jobs properly 3.264 3.041 3.532 3.142 3.524 3.004

The job denies me any chance to use my personal

initiative and this affects my employment continuity 2.773 2.511 3.001 3.364 3.152 2.772

The institution provides job where there is constant

opportunity to be creative and innovative 3.192 3.013 3.634 2.832 3.553 2.893

The management provides job with a supervisor/HOD

who is very critical of you and your work in front of other

people.

3.492 2.682 2.740 2.934 3.124 3.594

The University offers tools and resources necessary for

the execution of my responsibilities. 3.721 3.624 3.951 3.762 3.670 3.703

The University provided work related facilities to

enhance effective teaching 3.140 3.033 3.774 3.450 3.802 3.5912


127

Table 4.4.5a reveals that when respondents were asked if job requires using variety of skills

and talents which gives personal satisfaction, most of the respondents acknowledged positively

to the statement. Nonetheless both ENSU and RISU respondents admitted favourably to the

statement with (4.211) (4.251) respectively however respondents from other sampled

Universities slightly agreed. In addition, respondents from EKSU, ENSU and RISU also

agreed that the lecturers have pretty opportunities to learn new things from their work and

ensure a sense of worthwhile accomplishment. The findings from the table also indicated that

the job gives me considerable opportunity for independence and greater achievement. This was

strongly agreed by OOU, ENSU and RISU. While respondents from EKSU, EBSU and AMASU

slightly agreed. Almost all the sampled Universities strongly agreed that the institution provides

job where there is constant opportunity to be creative and innovative. The findings also indicated

that respondents from OOU and EBSU (4.020 and 4.111) strongly agreed that provision of

ergonomic tool/furniture improves their workplace health promotion while the remaining

sampled Universities (EKSU, ENSU, RISU, AMASU) slightly agree. This shows that the use

of ergonomic resources such as tables, shelves, chair, etc. have significantly improved

workplace health promotion in the sampled Universities. All the sampled Universities also

slightly concurred that the University offers tools and resources necessary for the execution of

their responsibilities.. Finally, the findings indicated that the University provided work related

facilities to enhance effective teaching. This was slightly agreed by the sampled Universities.

Table 4.4.5(b): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Variables for sampled Universities

To ascertain the relationship between job contents and staff involvement in academic

excellence of state owned Universities.




JOBCONT 3.478 .414 2.892 .656 3.408 .578 2.91 .628 3.37 .544 2.796 .631

STAFFINVOLV 3.425 .777 3.035 .745 3.756 .710 3.047 .734 3.69 .654 2.920 .691


JOBCONT = Job Contents (Skill Variety, Task Identity, Task Significance, Autonomy, creativity, Teaching

facilities)

STAFFINVOLV = Staff Involvement


128

The mean values of job characteristics on staff loyalty for Ekiti State University are 3.4783

and 3.4251 (University A) respectively; 2.8925 and 3.0351 for Olabisi Onabanjo University


(University C); 2.9115 and 3.0469 for Ambrose Alli University (University D); 3.3713 and

3.6901 for Enugu State University of Science & Technology (University E); 2.7960 and

2.9195 for Ebonyi State University (University F) in that order. Since it was the five (5) points

Likert Scale that was adopted for this research, Table 4.4.5(b) shows that the mean values are

more than 3.0, it can be established that the respondents of the sampled Universities in

Southern Nigeria agreed that job contents/characteristics have significant effect on

involvement of the staff except Universities A and F with a mean score below 3.0.

CORRELATION OF VARIABLES FOR THE SAMPLED UNIVERSITIES

Decision Criteria: The Correlation Method

Determining the strength of relationship. Different authors suggest different interpretations,

however, Cohen (1988) suggests the following guidelines:

R= .010 to 0.29 indicates weak relationship or r= -0.10 to -0.29: weak negative relationship

R= .30 to .49 indicates medium relationship or r=-.30 to -.49: medium negative relationship

R= .50 to 1.0 indicates strong relationship or r= -.50 to -1.0: strong negative relationship

Table 4.4.5(c): Correlations of Variables for each University Correlationsa

Pearson Correlation

(r)

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Freq Remarks

For each University JOBCONT and

STAFFINVOLV

Sig

University A



Relationship

University B


.721** .000 76 Significant Strong

Relationship

University C



Relationship

University D



Relationship

University E


686** .000 57 Significant Strong

Relationship

University F


770** .000 58 Significant Strong

Relationship



129

The findings show a significant positive relationship between these two variables- job

contents/characteristics and staff loyalty and the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test. The

Pearson Correlation at r= 0.214, p>0.001 significant level and 68 degree of freedom for Ekiti

State University. This implies a significant and medium relationship which means that staff

involvement in academic excellence would significantly influenced by job

contents/characteristics.

For Olabisi Onabanjo University, the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test at r = 0.721, .000

significant level and 75 degree of freedom. Thus, the correlation is significant and this means

that there was weak and positive relationship between job contents/characteristics and staff

involvement in academic excellence of the sampled University.

For Rivers State University of Science and Technology, the findings show a significant

relationship using 2-tail test at r = 0.667, 0.01 significant level and 59 degree of freedom. The

p-value of 0.00 was obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies a significant and

strong and positive relationship between job contents/characteristics and staff involvement in

academic excellence of the sampled University.

For Ambrose Alli University, the findings show the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail test at r =

0.637, 0.01 significant level and 63 degree of freedom. The p-value of 0.00 was obtained which

is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), this means

that there was a strong and positive relationship between job contents/characteristics and staff

involvement in academic excellence of the sampled University.

For Enugu State University of Science, the findings show the Pearson Correlation using 2-tail

test at r = 0.686, 0.01 significant level and 56 degree of freedom. The p-value of 0.00 was

obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies that the correlation is significant at the

0.01 level (2-tailed), this means that there was a strong and positive relationship between job

contents/characteristics and staff involvement in academic excellence of the sampled

University.

For Ebonyi State University, the findings show a significant relationship and the Pearson

Correlation using 2-tail test at r = 0.770, 0.01 significant level and 56 degree of freedom. The

p-value of 0.00 was obtained which is less than 0.01 (p<0.01). This implies that the correlation

130

is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), this means that there was strong and positive

relationship between job contents/characteristics and staff involvement in academic excellence

of the sampled University.


Hypothesis 3: There is no significant relationship between job contents and academic staff

involvement in the performance of state Universities



this present study correlated two variables: job contents and staff involvement in testing

hypothesis three. In testing the third hypothesis, the study employed the use of Correlation

analysis.


Determining the strength of relationship. Different authors suggest different interpretations,

however, Cohen (1988) suggests the following guidelines:




Table 4.4.5(d): Mean Statistics between Job Contents and Staff Involvement

Descriptive Statistics

Mean Std. Deviation N

JobCont 3.0877 .64912 384

StaffInvolv 3.3134 .78009 384

131

Table 4.4.5(e): Relationship between Job Contents and Academic Staff Involvement in the

Performance of State Universities.

Correlations

JobCont StaffInvolv

JobCont

Pearson Correlation 1 .744**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

Sum of Squares and Cross-products 161.382 144.283

Covariance .421 .377

N 384 384

StaffInvolv

Pearson Correlation .744** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

Sum of Squares and Cross-products 144.283 233.069

Covariance .377 .609

N 384 384



Interpretation

As presented In Table 4.4.5(e), the correlation coefficient of 0.744 was obtained between job

contents and academic staff involvement in the performance of state Universities. This implies

that there is a strong relationship between job contents and academic staff involvement in the

performance of State Universities. The probability value is less than 0.00(p<0.05). This means

that there is significant strong relationship between job contents and academic staff

involvement. This led to the rejection of the null hypothesis. Therefore, there is a significant

strong relationship between job contents and academic staff involvement in the performance

of state Universities. This means that increase in job contents (skill variety, task significance

and identity and autonomy) with availabilities of learning/teaching facilities, the greater the

level of staff involvement. Thus, it should be noted that when an individual does not have the

right resources to meet up with the demand of a job there will be a demand-supply problem

(such as under performance, job stress, absenteeism) which will affect the actualisation the

organisational goal.

132

4.4.6. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR VARIABLES IN OBJECTIVE 4

The objective of reward systems is aimed primarily at attracting, motivating and retaining

employees (Collins, 2012:119). An organisation’s level of pay is a major attracting factor to

potential employees or recruits. The goal of reward system is to build employee loyalty and

commitment to the employer band consequently increase job satisfaction and reduce turnover,

absenteeism, complaints and grievances which could arise if pay levels are not competitive or

adequate. In order to investigate the effects of reward system in state Universities, this study

set for itself the fourth objective. i.e. “To examine how reward system encourages satisfaction

of academic staff in state owned Universities”. In order to achieve this objective, the study

raised the fourth research question which can be restated as follows:

RESEARCH QUESTION 4: “To what extent are the reward systems effective in enhancing

satisfaction of academic staff?

Table 4.4.6(a): Mean Statistics for Reward Systems and Staff Satisfaction

Descriptive Statistics on Reward System and Staff

Satisfaction

MEAN STATISTICS


N = 69 N = 76 N = 60 N = 64 N = 57 N = 58

The University’s reward system has increased my

opportunities for personal development satisfaction 2.752 2.361 2.462 2.074 2.254 2.141

The salary structure commensurate with lecturers

current status and thereby facilitate continuous

employment relationship

2.613 2.222 2.2643 1.935 2.022 2.083

Outstanding efforts are recognised and appreciated

with bonuses that stimulates job quality 2.804 2.501 2.951 2.762 2.830 2.635

Opportunities for advancement or promotion exist

within the University 2.292 1.873 1.984 1.244 2.120 1.162

Adequate provision of grants and funds increased my

pay satisfaction. 4.033 3.631 4.002 4.175 3.284 4.314

The benefit package is a significant factor in my

decision to stay with the University 3.964 3.883 3.815 3.765 3.684 3.864

Compared with other related industries, the University

salary package is reasonable 4.55 3.641 4.474 3.332 4.632 3.311

The criteria for promotion in my institution is based on

other factors than merit and this adversely affect my

dispositions to increasing commitment

3.872 3.334 4.192 3.162 4.303 3.092

The institution’s strategies for staff promotion are

based on ‘whom you know’ and this result in poor

career satisfaction

3.931 3.556 4.044 3.290 3.702 3.344


133

Table 4.4.6a reveals that when respondents were asked if University’s reward system has

increased my opportunities for personal development satisfaction, most of the respondents

acknowledged negatively to the statement. In addition, all the sampled Universities strongly

disagree with the assertion that the salary structure commensurate with lecturers current status

and thereby facilitate continuous employment relationship. Nonetheless, respondents from

EBSU had the lowest value. The findings from respondents from the sampled Universities also

negated the statement that says opportunities for advancement or promotion exist within the

University. Unexpectedly, all the sampled Universities strongly agreed that the criteria for

promotion in my institution is based on other factors than merit and this adversely affect my

dispositions to increasing commitment. Finally, it was pointed out by the respondents from the

institutions that the institution’s strategies for staff promotion are based on ‘whom you know’

and this result in poor career satisfaction.

Table 4.4.6(b): Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Variables for University

To ascertain the relationship between reward system and staff satisfaction in academic

excellence of state owned Universities




JOBCONT 3.475 .579 2.976 .514 3.247 .665 2.906 .553 3.432 .621 2.924 .515

STAFFINVOLV 3.333 .550 3.000 .721 3.200 .549 2.881 .545 3.333 .569 2.827 .534


REWSYST = Reward System (Salary, Fringe benefits (allowances), Bonuses, Awards, Promotion, Recognition)

STAFFSATIS = Staff Satisfaction


The mean values of psychological work milieu on staff loyalty for Ekiti State University are

3.475 and 3.333 (University A) respectively; 2.976 and 3.000 for Olabisi Onabanjo University


(University C); 2.906 and 2.881 for Ambrose Alli University (University D); 3.432 and 3.333

for Enugu State University of Science & Technology (University E); 2.924 and 2.827 for

Ebonyi State University (University F) in that order. Since it was the five (5) points Likert

134

Scale that was adopted for this research, Table 4.4.6(b) shows that the mean values are more

than 2.5, it can be established that the respondents of the sampled Universities in Southern

Nigeria agreed that reward system has contributed significantly to staff satisfaction.


Hypothesis 4: Reward system does not encourage the satisfaction of academic staff in state

Universities



this present study correlated two variables: reward system and staff satisfaction in testing

hypothesis four. In testing the fourth hypothesis, the study employed the use of Regression

analysis.


Determining the strength of relationship

Different authors suggest different interpretations, however, Cohen (1988) suggested the

following guidelines:




135

Table 4.4.6(c): Correlation co-efficient between Reward System and Staff Satisfaction

Correlationsa

Pearson Correlation

(r)

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Freq Remarks

For each University Reward System and

Staff Satisfaction

Sig

University A


.224** .000 69 Significant Weak

Relationship

University B


.258** .000 76 Significant weak

Relationship

University C



Relationship

University D



Relationship

University E


386** .000 57 Significant Medium

Relationship

University F


358** .000 58 Significant Medium

Relationship




Table 4.4.6(d): Contributions of salary, benefits & incentives, promotion, grants/funds and

recognition to staff satisfaction using Multiple Regression

Model Summaryb Model R R Square Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of

the Estimate

Change Statistics

R Square

Change

F Change df1 df2 Sig. F

Change

1 .587a .344 .343 .52341 .344 200.749 1 382 .000

a. Predictors: (Constant), RewSyst

b. Dependent Variable: StaffSatisf


This study revealed in model 1 of Table 4.4.6(d) that there is relationship between reward

system and staff satisfaction at r=0.587, R-Square is the proportion of variance in the dependent

variable which can be predicted from the independent variable. This value indicated that there

is variance of 34.4% between reward system and staff satisfaction. The significance of the F-

change was assessed and it was significant (0.0001).

136

Table 4.4.6(e): Effects of Reward System on Staff Satisfaction using STATA (S.E 10) and

Regression


-------------+------------------------------ F( 1, 382) = 200.75

Model | 48.4616867 1 48.4616867 Prob > F = 0.0000


-------------+------------------------------ Adj R-squared = 0.3428

Total | 140.678333 383 .367306353 Root MSE = .49133

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

RewSyst | Coef. Std. Err. t P>|t| [95% Conf. Interval]

-------------+----------------------------------------------------------------

StaffSatisf | .5509592 .038886 14.17 0.000 .4745019 .6274166

_cons | 1.42214 .1237809 11.49 0.000 1.178763 1.665517

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 4.4.6(e) has the results of the model. The model is about the effect of reward system on

staff satisfaction. The F-value is the Mean Square Regression (54.996) divided by the Mean

Square Residual (0.274), yielding F=200.749. From the results, the model 1 in this table is

statistically significant (Sig =.000). Hence the null hypothesis should be rejected while

alternate hypothesis is therefore accepted.

Table 4.4.6(f): Coefficients of the effects of Reward system on Staff satisfaction

Coefficientsa Model Unstandardised

Coefficients

Standardised

Coefficients

T Sig. Collinearity Statistics


1

(Constant) .721 .211 3.417 .002

Equitable Salary .278 .058 .333 4.793 .000 .715 1.399

Benefits & Incentives .316 .051 .198 6.196 .000 .691 1.447

Promotion .356 .111 .368 3.207 .001 .978 1.022

Grants/funds .072 .078 .158 .923 .004 .876 1.141

Recognition .074 .084 .221 .880 .003 .854 1.171

a. Dependent Variable: StaffSatis

Remark: Reward system is a significant predictor of Staff satisfaction

137


Table 4.4.6(f) shows a model summary. It reveals the extent to which the variance in the

dependent variable (staff satisfaction) is explained by the independent variables (salary,

benefits & incentives, promotion, grants/funds and recognition) is 51.2% i.e (R square =

0.5124). The table shows the assessment of the statistical significance of the result. The

ANOVA table tests the null hypothesis to determine if it is statistically significant. From the

results, the model in this table is statistically significant (sig = .000) and hence the null

hypothesis should be rejected because it is less than 0.05 significance level. The table also

indicated the simple model that expresses the extent to which reward system impacts staff

satisfaction and which of the variables included in the model contributed to the prediction of

the dependent variable. In this table, the beta co-efficient which relates to equitable salary is

0.333; the beta co-efficient which relates to benefits and incentives is 1.98; the beta co-efficient

which relates to promotion is 3.68; the beta co-efficient which relates to grants/funds is .158

and the beta co-efficient which relates to recognition is 0.221.

Discussion of Findings

Findings from this research, it was indicated that variables with the highest beta co-efficient

are the major predictors. Therefore, we can also rank the two significant impact on staff

satisfaction i.e promotion (.368) and equitable salary (.333) have the highest impact on staff

satisfaction followed by recognition with the (.221). Therefore, it can be concluded from the

result that among the variables of reward system, promotion and equitable salary are significant

predictors of staff satisfaction. This implies that increase in promotional opportunities and

equitable salary will ultimately lead to increase in staff satisfaction. This findings supported

the works of many scholars. Pfeifer (2012) and Abdulsalam and Mawoli (2012) adduced that

the level of compensation system determines the intention of employees to stay or leave the

organisation. To retain skilled staff, management/government must consider compensation

equity within the organisation (Depedri, Tortia & Carpita, 2010).

138

4.4.7 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR VARIABLES IN OBJECTIVE 5

The climatic setting of the organisation comprise of variables such as social, economic or

political that influences employee’s behaviour. Some of these climatic conditions vary from

the communication structure, the management style, the pay system, the organisations room

temperatures, workload among others (Armstrong, 2008: 214). In order to investigate the

effects of organisational climate in state Universities, this study set for itself the fifth objective.

i.e. “To assess how organisational climate enhances staff productivity in state owned

Universities”.

RESEARCH QUESTION 5: “What role do organisational climate play in facilitating

academic staff productivity in state owned Universities?

Table 4.4.7(a): Descriptive Statistics on Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity

Descriptive Statistics on Organisational Climate and

Staff Productivity

MEAN STATISTICS


N = 69 N = 76 N = 60 N = 64 N = 57 N = 58

Management practice of the University only allow

lecturers to attend international and national conferences

as presenters not as participants.

3.70 2.92 3.79 3.09 3.38 3.17

Management and leadership style is sensitive and

supportive of lecturer‘s work schedule. 3.35 2.68 3.63 2.83 3.37 2.86

Management style allows for academic input in the

decision making process. 3.42 2.97 3.46 3.07 3.37 3.13

Management style do not encourage junior academic

career path and growth. 3.59 2.76 2.79 2.72 2.58 2.17

My participation in decision making enhance my ability

to provide organisational supports 3.49 2.55 2.47 2.83 2.18 2.20

The work schedules in the institution have not provided

opportunity for developing & improving technology skills 3.43 3.28 3.63 3.47 3.65 3.42

Communication between management of the University at

all levels and lecturers are often friendly and efficient 3.29 3.68 3.11 3.55 3.22 3.56

The institution devoid friendliness, warmth, empathy and

sense of respect for its academic staff 2.88 3.01 2.68 2.62 2.85 2.64

As a lecturer, what keeps me with the institution is not the

pay but rather the quality of work life balance 3.99 3.79 3.68 4.02 3.43 4.05

The University unlike other organisations do not have any

formal orientation programme for their new lecturers 2.90 2.72 2.67 2.53 2.55 2.69


139

Table 4.4.7a reveals if management practice of the University only allow lecturers to attend

international and national conferences as presenters not as participants. Most of the

respondents acknowledged positively to the statement. Nonetheless both EKSU and ENSU

respondents admitted favourably to the statement however respondents from other sampled

Universities slightly agreed. In addition, all the respondents agreed that management and

leadership style is sensitive and supportive of lecturer‘s work schedule.. The findings from the

table also indicated that Communication between management of the University at all levels

and lecturers are often friendly and efficient. As a result of that, respondents from the sampled

Universities also indicated that what keeps me with the institution is not the pay but rather the

quality of work life balance.

Table 4.4.7(b): Descriptive Statistics on Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity for

sampled Universities


University

A

University

B

University

C

University

D

University

E

University

F


JOBCONT 3.455 .430 3.276 .565 3.250 .406 3.309 .526 3.343 .405 3.269 .528

STAFFINVOLV 3.354 .555 2.800 .599 2.867 .511 2.669 .392 3.038 .539 2.876 .574


REWSYST = Reward System (Salary, Fringe benefits (allowances), Bonuses, Awards, Promotion, Recognition)

STAFFSATIS = Staff Satisfaction


140


Statement of Hypothesis

Hypothesis 5: Organisational climate does not contribute significantly to staff productivity in

state Universities



this present study correlated two variables: organisational climates and staff productivity in

testing hypothesis five. In testing the fifth hypothesis, the study employed the use of simple

regression analysis.

Decision Criteria




Table 4.4.7(c): Contributions of Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity using STATA

(S.E 10 and Regression)


-------------+------------------------------ F( 1, 382) = 21.85

Model | 4.9007683 1 4.9007683 Prob > F = 0.0000


-------------+------------------------------ Adj R-squared = 0.0516

Total | 90.585 383 .23651436 Root MSE = .47361

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

OrgClim | Coef. Std. Err. t P>|t| [95% Conf. Interval]

-------------+----------------------------------------------------------------

StaffProd | .1962761 .0419908 4.67 0.000 .1137141 .2788381

_cons | 2.7427 .1255861 21.84 0.000 2.495774 2.989627

------------------------------------------------------------------------------


141

Table 4.4.7(d): Correlation co-efficient of Organisational Climate and Staff Productivity

Coefficientsa


Coefficients

Standardised

Coefficients



1 (Constant) 2.020 .198 10.213 .000

OrgClim .276 .059 .233 4.674 .000 1.000 1.000

a. Dependent Variable: StaffProd

Interpretation

Table 4.4.7d shows a model summary. It reveals the extent to which the variance in the

dependent variable (staff productivity) is explained by the independent variables

(organisational climates) is 5.2% i.e (Adjusted R square = 0.052). The table shows the

assessment of the statistical significance of the result. The ANOVA table tests the null

hypothesis to determine if it is statistically significant. From the results, the model in this table

is statistically significant (sig = .000) and hence the null hypothesis should be rejected because

it is less than 0.05 significance level. Hence, organisational climate contribute significantly to

staff productivity in state Universities.

4.5 SUMMARY OF MULTIPLE REGRESSION FOR THE VARIABLES

Table 4.5.1(a) Contribution of physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job content,

job structure and organisational climate on staff commitment using multiple regression.

Coefficientsa


Coefficients

Standardised

Coefficients



1

(Constant) 1.555 .317 4.899 .000

PhyFac .174 .067 .141 2.600 .010 .290 3.454

PsyFac .111 .056 .058 1.981 .048 .993 1.007

JobCont 1.131 .092 .670 12.236 .000 .284 3.523

RewSyst .153 .058 .085 2.655 .008 .834 1.199

OrgClim .020 .070 .159 .285 .776 .889 1.125

a. Dependent Variable: StaffComm


142

Table 4.5.1(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Commitment

Model Summaryb

Model R R

Square

Adjusted

R Square

Std. Error of

the Estimate

Change Statistics Durbin-

Watson R Square

Change


Change

1 .823a .678 .674 .62556 .678 159.126 5 378 .000 .764

a. Predictors: (Constant), OrgClim, JobCont, PsyFac, RewSyst, PhyFac

b. Dependent Variable: StaffComm


Result in Tables 4.5.1(a) and 4.5.1(b)shows that physical setting, psychological well-being

milieu, job content, structure of rewards and organisational climate explained 68 percent of

the variation in staff commitment ( r- square = 0.68). The F-value of 159.13 is greater than

the critical F-value of 1.97 at the 0.05 level of significance. This means that the five predator

variables jointly predict staff commitment. For the individual effect, organisational climate (t

calculated = 0.776, p<0.05); psychological work milieu (t calculated = .048, p<0.05); physical

factors (t calculated = 0.776, p<0.05); have significant contributions to staff commitment. Thus

the result confirms that job contents and reward system are mostly associated with staff

commitment.

The use of Structural equation model was adopted to confirm the level of variability and fitness

of the model to explain the relationship between the dimensions of work environment and staff

commitment as presented in Table 4.5.1(c) and Figure 4.4.

Table 4.5.1(c): Test of Model Fitness for predicting Staff Commitment

Estimate S.E. C.R.

Physical_fac <--- Staff_Commitmt .381 .049 7.775

Psycho_fac <--- Staff_Commitmt .347 .040 8.675

Job_contents <--- Staff_Commitmt .559 .038 14.710

Reward_systems <--- Staff_Commitmt .378 .058 6.517

Organiznal_clim <--- Staff_Commitmt .498 .050 9.960

143

Figure 4.4: Structural Equation Model for predicting Staff Loyalty


The structural modelling indicates that when Physical_fac goes up by 1, Staff_Comm goes up

by 0.381. When Psycho_fac goes up by 1, Staff_Comm goes up by 0.347. When Job_contents

goes up by 1, Staff_Comm goes up by 0.559. When Reward_systems goes up by 1,

Staff_Comm goes up by 0.378. Finally, when Organiznal_clim goes up by 1, Staff_Comm

goes up by 0.498. This implies that the regression weight in the prediction of staff commitment

is significantly different from zero at the 0.001 level (two-tailed).

144

Table 4.5.2(a): Contribution of physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job content,

structure of the reward, and organisational climate on staff loyalty using multiple regression

Coefficientsa


Coefficients

Standardised

Coefficients



1

(Constant) 2.075 .268 7.736 .000

PhyFac .484 .057 .693 8.542 .000 .290 3.454

PsyFac .074 .047 .069 1.572 .117 .993 1.007

JobCont -.194 .078 -.203 -2.482 .014 .284 3.523

RewSyst .105 .049 .103 2.145 .033 .834 1.199

OrgClim .078 .059 .061 1.317 .189 .889 1.125

a. Dependent Variable: StaffLoy


Table 4.5.2(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Loyalty

Model Summaryb

Model R R Square Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of

the Estimate


Watson R Square

Change

F

Change

df1 df2 Sig. F

Change

1 .529a .280 .270 .52863 .280 9.359 5 378 .000 1.412


b. Dependent Variable: StaffLoy


Result in Tables 4.5.2(a) and 4.5.2(b) revealed that physical setting, psychological well-being

milieu, job content, structure of rewards and organisational climate accounted for 28% i.e

0.28 percent of the variation in staff loyalty ( r- square = 0.280). The F-value of 9.359 is greater

than the critical F-value of 1.97 at the 0.05 level of significance. This means that the five

predator variables did not jointly predict staff loyalty. Also, none of the explanatory variables

individually contribute significantly with staff loyalty (p>0.05). However, the result confirms

that physical settings, psychological well-being milieu and organisational climate are mostly

associated with staff loyalty.

145

The use of Structural equation model was also adopted to confirm the level of variability as

presented in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5: Structural Equation Model for predicting Staff Loyalty


Table 4.5.2(c): Model results & Regression Weights for predicting Staff Loyalty

Estimate S.E. C.R. P

StaffLoy <--- PhyFac .484 .056 8.599 ***

StaffLoy <--- PsyFac .074 .047 1.583 .114

StaffLoy <--- JobCont -.194 .078 -2.498 .012

StaffLoy <--- RewSyst .105 .048 2.159 .031

StaffLoy <--- OrgClim .078 .059 1.325 .185

RetOUTCMS <--- StaffLoy .435 .036 12.096 ***

As proposed by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007); Hu and Bentler (1999), the minimum

benchmark value for these indices is 0.9, however, results revealed that all the fit indices are

above the minimum value (NFI =.912; CFI = .952; IFI = .918). Therefore, the model can be

concluded to be a good fit. As presented in the table above, the strength of correlations that

exist between observed variables can be classified within low and strong.

146

The covariance between physical settings and staff loyalty is positive (moderate) and estimated

to be r=.435 (p<0.001). In addition, staff loyalty as a variable covaries positively with reward

system (r=.105, p<0.05); organisational climate (r=.078, p<0.01); psychological work_milieu

(r=.074, p<0.05); and negatively with job contents (r=- .018, p<0.05). However, job contents

should be seen as an important factor if only staff loyalty in to be achieve in the Public (state)

Universities. It is significant to note that increase in job contents (in terms of perception

towards equity, learning and motivation) can lead to decrease in staff loyalty.


structure of the reward, and organisational climate on staff involvement using

multiple regression

Coefficientsa


Coefficients

Standardised

Coefficients



1

(Constant) .216 .242 .892 .373

PhyFac .392 .051 .446 7.677 .000 .290 3.454

PsyFac .132 .043 .097 3.079 .002 .993 1.007

JobCont .410 .071 .341 5.811 .000 .284 3.523

RewSyst .120 .044 .093 2.727 .007 .834 1.199

OrgClim .015 .053 .009 .282 .778 .889 1.125

a. Dependent Variable: StaffInvolv


Table 4.5.3(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Involvement

Model Summaryb

Model R R

Square

Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of the

Estimate


Watson R Square

Change


Change

1 .794a .631 .626 .47719 .631 12.103 5 378 .000 1.451


b. Dependent Variable: StaffInvolv


147

Result in Tables 4.5.3(a) and 4.5.3(b) shows that physical setting, psychological well-being

milieu, job content, structure of rewards and organisational climate explained for 63.1% of

the variation in staff involvement ( r- square = 0.631). The F-value of 12.103 is greater than

the critical F-value of 1.97 at the 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the five predictor variables

did not jointly predict staff involvement. In terms of the individual contribution, the result

reveals that only physical settings and job contents showed significant contribution to staff

involvement (p<0.05).

The use of Structural equation model was also adopted to confirm the level of variability as

presented in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6: Structural equation model for predicting Staff Involvement






exist between observed variables can be classified within low and strong. The covariance

between physical settings and staff involvement is positive (high) and estimated to be r=.558

148

(p<0.001). In addition, staff involvement as a variable covaries positively with physical work

milieu (r=.389, p<0.05); psychological work milieu (r=.134, p<0.05); reward system (r=.122,

p<0.05); job contents and; organisational climate (r=- .411, r= .01, p<0.05). However, job

contents and physical settings milieu have the highest regression weight and can be seen as the

significant predictors of staff involvement. It is important to note that as the job content with

work related facilities are increasing, staff involvement will also increase.


structure of the reward, and organisational climate on staff satisfaction using multiple

regression

Coefficientsa


Coefficients

Standardised

Coefficients



1

(Constant) .314 .258 1.216 .225

PhyFac -.111 .055 -.152 -2.030 .043 .290 3.454

PsyFac .045 .046 .040 .990 .323 .993 1.007

JobCont .295 .075 .296 3.919 .000 .284 3.523

RewSyst .543 .047 .510 11.562 .000 .834 1.199

OrgClim .135 .057 .102 2.377 .018 .889 1.125

a. Dependent Variable: StaffSatisf


Table 4.5.4(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Satisfaction

Model Summaryb

Model R R Square Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of

the Estimate


Watson R Square

Change

F

Change

df1 df2 Sig.

F Change

1 .622a .386 .378 .50905 .386 47.616 5 378 .000 .877


b. Dependent Variable: StaffSatisf


149

Data in the 4.5.4(b) revealed that physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job

content, structure of rewards and organisational climate accounted for 38.6% of the variation

in staff satisfaction( r- square = .386). Also, F-value of 7.75 and p<0.05, this means that

physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job content, structure of rewards and

organisational climate jointly predict staff satisfaction. This result indicates that psychological

well-being milieu, job content, structure of rewards and organisational climate jointly predict

staff satisfaction except for physical setting. The result also shows that structure of rewards

and job contents are the major predictors or factors that contribute most significantly with staff

satisfaction. This can further be explained using structural equation modelling as presented in

Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7: Structural equation model for predicting Staff Satisfaction


Table 4.5.4(c): Model results and Regression Weights for predicting Staff satisfaction

Estimate S.E. C.R. P

Staff_Satisfaction <--- Physical_Setting -.111 .054 -2.043 .041

Staff_Satisfaction <--- Psychological_Work .045 .045 .997 .319

Staff_Satisfaction <--- Job_Content .295 .075 3.945 ***

Staff_Satisfaction <--- Structure_of_Reward .543 .047 11.638 ***

Staff_Satisfaction <--- Organisational_Climate .135 .056 2.392 .017

RetOUTCMS <--- StaffSatisf .411 .041 .041 .041


150





exist between observed variables can be classified to be moderate and strong. The covariance

between physical settings and staff satisfaction is positive (moderate) and estimated to be

r=.411 (p<0.001). In addition, staff satisfaction as a variable covaries positively with

psychological work milieu (r=.045, p<0.05); organisational climate (r=.135, p<0.05); reward

system (r=.543, p<0.05); job contents (r=.295, p<0.05); and negatively with physical setting

(r=- -.111, p<0.05). However, reward system, job content and organisational climate milieu

are seen as the major predictors of staff satisfaction with the highest regression weights. It is

important to note that as the reward system is equitable with favourable organisational climate,

staff satisfaction will also increase.


structure of the reward, and organisational climate on staff productivity using Regression

Coefficientsa

Model Unstandardised Coefficients Standardised

Coefficients



1

(Constant) 1.339 .279 4.795 .000

PhyFac .012 .059 .019 .205 .838 .290 3.454

PsyFac .032 .049 .031 .639 .523 .993 1.007

JobCont .084 .081 .095 1.037 .301 .284 3.523

RewSyst .149 .051 .157 2.936 .004 .834 1.199

OrgClim .218 .061 .184 3.556 .000 .889 1.125

a. Dependent Variable: StaffProd


151

Table 4.5.5(b): Model Summary for predicting Staff Productivity

Model R R

Square

Adjusted

R Square

Std. Error of

the Estimate


Watson R Square

Change

F

Change

df1 df2 Sig.

F Change

1 .315a .099 .087 .55057 .099 8.334 5 378 .000 .978


b. Dependent Variable: StaffProd


Result in Tables 4.5.5(a) and 4.5.5(b)1 revealed that physical setting, psychological well-being

milieu, job content, structure of rewards and organisational climate accounted for 9.9% of

the variation in staff satisfaction( r- square = 0.099). The F-calculated of 8.3 was obtained and

p<0.05, this implies that physical setting, psychological well-being milieu, job content,

structure of rewards and organisational climate jointly predict staff productivity. The result

also shows that structure of rewards and organisational climate individually contribute

significantly to staff productivity (p<0.05).

The use of structural equation modelling was also adopted to show the influence as presented

in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.8: Structural equation model for predicting Staff Productivity


152

Table 4.5.5(c): Model results and Regression Weights for predicting Staff Loyalty

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Label

Staff_Productivity <--- Physical_Setting .035 .036 .974 .330 Sig

Staff_Productivity <--- Psychological_Work .070 .033 2.113 .035 Sig

Staff_Productivity <--- Job_Content .056 .022 2.538 .011 Sig

Staff_Productivity <--- Structure_of_Reward .098 .038 -2.582 .010 Sig

Staff_Productivity <--- Organisational_Climate .269 .036 -7.442 *** Sig






exist between observed variables can be classified within low and strong. The covariance

between job contents and staff productivity is positive and estimated to be r=.056 (p<0.001).

Expectedly, staff productivity as a variable covaries positively with physical settings (r=-.350,

p<0.05); psychological work milieu (r=-.070, p<0.05); reward system and organisational

climate (r=- .098, r= .269, p<0.05) respectively. However, physical settings, psychological

work milieu, reward system and organisational climate positively covaries with staff

productivity which is an evident of variables that best predict the productivity of staff. The

implication is that increase in the variables identified predisposes staff productivity.

153

Final Structure of the Work Environments (WE) Scale

The hierarchical factor model is selected for the work environments (WE) scale. It consists of

5 dimensions or subscales and 25 items of questions. As mentioned previously, these items

have been examined using employees’ dataset in the target universities in southern Nigeria.

The structure of the measurement model for this scale is shown in Figure 4.9.

Figure 4.9: Hierarchical Factor Model of the Work Environments (WE) Scale


154

Table 4.5.5(d): Factor loadings of the hierarchical factor model of Work environments (WEs) scale

Second Order

Factor

(Second Layer)

First Order

Factors

(First Layer)

Loadings Indicators Loadings

Work

Environments

Physical_Factors 0.38 PJERGONOMICS1 0.20

PJLIGHTING2 0.48

PJVENTILATN3 0.11

PFSPATIALARRANGE4 0.01

PFNOISE5 -0.22

Psychological

Work Millieu

0.35 PSYMOTIVATN6 0.34

PSYATTITUDE7 0.45

PSYLEARNING8 0.26

PSYBELIEF9 0.37

PSYRELATNSHIP10 0.15

Job_Contents 0.56 JCSKILLVAR11 0.41

JCTASKSIG12 0.01

JCTASKIDENTITY13 0.03

JCAUTONOMY14 0.38

JCFEEDBACK15 0.38

Reward_Systems 0.38 RSSALARY16 0.29

RSBENEFITS17 0.19

RSRECOGNITION18 0.39

RSPROMOTION19 0.12

RSGRANTS20 0.21

Organisational

Climate

0.50 OCMENTORN21 0.39

OCPARTICIPATN22 0.36

OCLEADSTYLE23 0.10

OCPERSONELPOLICY24 -0.15

OCCOMMSTYLE25 0.11

Employing the hierarchical model as explained earlier, all the five latent variables are regarded

as first order factors (first layer) and loaded onto a single second order factor (second layer) in

the model. The results of the analysis using the CFA procedure simultaneously estimate

loadings of the first layer factors and the items in the model as listed in table 6.10. It revealed

that all the first layer factors loaded significantly on the common factor (WE). However, all

the items are still considered to meet the minimum level of 0.30 (Hair, et al, 2010). Overall,

the standardised item loadings support a conclusion that the items (physical factors,

psychological work milieu, job contents, rewards system, and organisational climate) are good

reflectors of the five first order factor. Though, job contents and organisational climate load

155

very moderate with the factor loadings between 0.50-0.59. Followed by the other two factors,

physical factors and rewards system which significantly loaded onto the common factor with

the values between 0.38-0.45 respectively. Finally, there is 1 item that had the lowest loading

with the corresponding values Psychological Work Millieu (0.35).

Based on the results above, the schematic model proposed earlier is modified:

Figure 4.10: Modification of the Schematic Model proposed earlier


WORK

ENVIRONMENTS

ORGANISATIONAL

CLIMATES STAFF

PRODUCTIVITY

PHYSICAL

SETTINGS

PSYCHOLOGICAL

WORK MILIEU

JOB CONTENTS

REWARD SYSTEM STAFF

SATISFACTION

STAFF

INVOLVEMENT

STAFF LOYALTY

STAFF

COMMITMENT

ASSESSING RETENTION

OUTCOMES

156

4.6 SUMMARY OF THE TESTED HYPOTHESES

The multiple regression shows the relationship between work environments and retention

outcomes of academic staff in southern Nigeria.

Table 4.6.1(a): Model Summary between work environments and retention outcomes

Model Summaryb

Model R R

Square

Adjusted

R Square

Std. Error of

the Estimate

Change Statistics

R Square

Change

F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change

1 .796a .634 .633 .30985 .634 661.899 1 382 .000

a. Predictors: (Constant), WorkENVs

b. Dependent Variable: RetOUTCMS

Table 4.6.1(b): Correlation co-efficient of work environments and retention outcomes


Coefficients

Standardised

Coefficients

t Sig. Correlations Collinearity Statistics

B Std. Error Beta Zero-order Partial Part Tolerance VIF

1

(Constant) .392 .145 2.701 .007

PhyFac** .190 .031 .330 6.221 .000 .744 .305 .178 .290 3.454

PsyFac .079 .026 .088 3.077 .002 .130 .156 .088 .993 1.007

JobCont* .345 .042 .438 8.179 .000 .770 .388 .233 .284 3.523

RewSyst*** .172 .026 .204 6.532 .000 .420 .318 .186 .834 1.199

OrgClim .093 .032 .088 2.924 .004 .139 .149 .083 .889 1.125


Table 4.6.1(b) indicated that physical work setting, job content and rewards are the significant

predictors of staff retention outcomes. The table below displays the model fit summary for the

survey.

Bentler and Wu (2002); Bentler and Bonett (1980); and Kaplan (2000) argued that different

indicators of goodness-of-fit are usually adopted in various research concepts. Further, the

higher the number of the indices of indicators, the acceptable of a good fit such as Normed Fit

Index (NFI) =>.90; and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) acceptable value =>.90. Other

157

informative indices that measure the close association between the model and the data include

Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA); Goodness of fit (GFI); etc. This is

shown in Table 4.6.1(c).

Table 4.6.1(c): Model fit index of work environments and retention outcomes

Model-Fit Index Score Recommended Cut-off

Values

Chi-square/Degree of Freedom

(CMIN/DF)

9.647 Accepts value limit of less

than 5

Normed Fit Index (NFI) .913 => .90

Comparative Fit Index (CFI) .932 = > .90

Root Mean Squared Error of

Approximation (RMSEA)

.043 .05 or less = good

Goodness of Fit (GFI) .957 = > .90

The goodness of fit explains the close association that exists between the observed and

expected values. Obtained scores are therefore compared with the cut-off values (Bentler and

Wu (2002); Bentler and Bonett (1980) in order to establish the degree of fit. The fit index

shows that NFI = .913; CFI = .932; GFI = .957; CMIN/df = 9.647 and minimum score as

indicated in the cutoff values was achieved as shown in Table 4.6.1 while the Standardised

Estimates of Structural Model for Work Environments and Retention Outcomes is presented

in Figure 4.9.

158

Figure 4.11: Structural Equation Model for Work Environments and Retention Outcomes


.

Figure 4.12: Standardised Estimates of Structural Model for Work Environments and Retention Outcomes


159

Figure 4.12 depicts Standardised estimates of the structural model outlining the path coefficient

scores of the observed variables in the study. It is evident in the coefficient scores obtained

that close association exists amongst the tested variables (physical settings, psychological

factors, job contents, reward system and organisational climate), while the regression weights

are depicted in Figure 4.12 indicates that when job contents, reward system and organisational

climate goes up by 1 standard deviation, retention outcomes goes up by 0.95 standard

deviations. It indicated that reward plays a vital role in determining the significant performance

and it is positively associated with the process of motivation. Effective reward system motivate

employee to give their maximum efforts towards assigned work. Similarly, Bergmann and

Scarpello (2001) had long posited that compensation design attracts, motivates, and retains

employee to increase effort and output towards the achievement of organisational goals.

Hence, effective and just compensation policy can help an organisation achieve and sustain

competitive advantage.

4.6.2: Variation in Perception of Staff on the Relationship between Work environments and

Retention outcomes across Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Testa,b

Gender

Marital

Status

Staff

Status

Educational

Status

Years of

Service

Chi-Square 7.638 5.537 10.644 5.622 5.108

df 4 4 4 4 4

Asymp. Sig. .821 .563 .036 .015 .022

a. Kruskal Wallis Test

b. Grouping Variable: Retention_outcomes

Using retention outcomes as the dependent variables and the demographical characteristics

of the respondents (gender, marital status, staff status, educational background, and years

of experience) as the independent variables. Kruskal Wallis Test was carried out. The test

showed that difference in the perception of academic staff on the relationship between work

environments and retention outcomes by gender (λ2 = 7.638, df=4, P>0.05) and marital

160

status (λ2 = 5.537, df=4, P>0.05) are not statistically significant. This means that the

difference in the perception of academic staff on the relationship between work

environments and retention outcomes are not due to gender and marital status. The result

also revealed that the difference in the perception of academic staff on the relationship

between work environments and retention outcomes by staff status (λ2 = 10.644, df=4,

P<0.05), educational status (λ2 = 5.622, df = 4, P<0.05) and years of experience (λ2 = 5.108,

df=4, P<0.05) are statistically significant. This implies that the differences in the perception

of academic staff on the relationship between work environments and retention outcomes

can be linked to the status, education and years of experience of the staff.

Responses to the Open Ended Questions

Respondents were asked to indicate three other problems affecting their work environments.

They indicated the problems in their own words what they felt and their responses were

categorised into themes. The number and percentage of people that mentioned any particular

theme is given in the table below. They were categorised according to the six sampled

institutions. It is important to note that percentages are based on the total sample for each

school and not only on those who answered the questions. The responses are presented in the

table and figure below.

161

Table 4.6.3: Responses to the open-ended Questions about the problems affecting staff work

environments and retention outcomes.

S/N THEMES EKSU OOU RIVERS AMBROSE ENUGU EBONYI

1 Academic Politics and Schisms 19 32 25 11 10 15

2 Favouritism in Promotion 28 22 26 23 18 23

3 Environmental challenges & overload - - - - 12 7

4 Overlapping Activities 5 12 - 17 8 -

5 Erratic Power Supply 22 30 30 34 23 33

6 Poor Internet Connectivity 18 25 9 12 21 19

7 Poor Remunerations/ Compensation 21 27 28 19 27 25

8 Inadequate Funds & Grants 14 22 14 21 11 13

9 Poor Spatial Arrangement 7 5 - 10 12 10

10 Rigid Organisational policies - - - - - -

11 Noise 19 10 14 18 10 12

12 Inadequate Teaching Aids 32 17 13 28 19 22

Total 185 202 159 193 171 179

162

Degree of Work Environment Factors in the Sampled Universities

0

5

10

15

20

25

30 28

22

2623

18

23

Fre

qu

ency

Sampled Universities

2. Favouritism in Promotion

0

5

10

15

20

5

12

17

8

Fre

qu

ency


3. Overlapping Activities

0

10

20

30

40

22

30 3034

23

33F

req

uen

cy


4. Erratic Power Supply

0

10

20

30

18

25

912

21 19

Fre

qu

ency


5. Poor Internet Connectivity

0

10

20

30

21

27 28

19

27 25

Fre

qu

ency


6. Poor Remunerations/Compensation

0

10

20

30

40

19

32

25

11 1015

Fre

qu

ency


1. Academic Politics and

Schisms

163

Figure 4.13: Degree of Work Environment Factors in the Sampled Universities


The table and bar chart in Table 4.6.3 and Figure 4.13 indicate the factors that militate

favourable work environments in the sampled Universities. Respondents indicated that though

the management and government are making effort but that a lot could still be done to improve

the degree of staff career development scheme compared to what is obtainable elsewhere.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

7

5

10

12

10

Fre

qu

ency


Poor Spatial Arrangement

0

5

10

15

20

25

14

22

14

21

1113

Fre

qu

ency


Inadequate Funds & Grants

0

5

10

15

20 19

10

14

18

10

12

Fre

qu

ency


Noise

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35 32

17

13

28

1922

Fre

qu

ency


Inadequate Teaching Aids

164

Table 4.6.4: Summary of Findings from Hypotheses Tested

Work Environments and Retention Outcomes among Academic Staff in Selected Public

Universities in Southern Nigeria

Hypotheses Variables Test Used Findings What literature Indicates

Hypothesis 1 Physical work setting does not

play any significant role in enhancing the commitment of Academic staff

For PhySET noise, ventilation, lightning, ergonomics equipment, workplace arrangement and moderate office/room

PPMC Coefficient was

used using 2 tail test

and 0.01 significant

level. The R-square

was at .716 which

indicated that physical

work milieu

contributes immensely

to staff commitment.

Noise and lighting

are predictors of

staff commitment

Literature indicates physical

condition of the institutions and

retention outcomes of their

staff vary together. That noise

and lighting had the greatest

impact on staff commitment.

This findings correlates with

studies by (Osibanjo &

Gberevbie, 2012;

Chandrasekar, 2011; Depedri,

Tortia and Carpita, 2010)

Research Hypothesis 2.

Psychological

work milieu does

not have

significant effects

on the loyalty of

academic staff

PSYWKMIL Motivation, Learning, Equity perception, Beliefs, Attitudes, Relationship.

Multiple Regression was adopted to assess the effect of psychological work milieu on staff commitment at r2=.825, df=383 at

0.000 significant level.

Results indicated

that 82.5% of the

variability in

psychological

factors were

described by

factors such as

equity perception

and attitudes.

Literature proposes that psychological work milieu dimensions are discreetly correlated with staff loyalty. The facets of psychological work milieu includes learning, equity perception, beliefs, attitudes, relationships. The management of the variables serve as a platform for motivating staff and influencing their loyalty. Relevant literature shows that absence of these facets may lead to some result effects like turnover and job dissatisfaction (Robbins and Judge, 2012).

Hypothesis 3

There is no

significant

relationship

between job

contents and

academic staff

involvement in

the performance

of state

Universities

The correlation

coefficient was

adopted

As presented in

Table, the

correlation

coefficient of 0.593

was obtained

between job

contents and

academic staff

involvement in the

performance of

state Universities.

The probability

value is less than

0.05(p<0.05).

This implies that there is a positive relationship between job contents and academic staff involvement in the performance of State Universities.

165

Research

Hypothesis 4

Reward system

does not

encourage the

satisfaction of

academic staff in

state Universities

Reward System (Salary,

Fringe benefits

(allowances), Bonuses,

Awards, Promotion,

Recognition)

STAFFSATIS

The result of regression shows that reward system include Salary, Fringe benefits (allowances), Bonuses, Awards, Promotion, Recognition. This is upheld at r2= .434, df= 383 at 0.000 significant level.

The F-value and t-

value of 18.81 and

4.34 were obtained

and p<0.05.

Pay and promotion

are seen as

predictors of staff

satisfaction.

This means that rewards system contribute to academic staff satisfaction in performance of state Universities. The findings supported the work of Siegel, Schraeder and Morrison, 2007; Kaufman, Chapman, and Allen, 2013. This was supported by Drive and reinforcement theories which argue that (Jerrell, Coggburn, Battaglio, and Bradbury, 2014) that retention can be achieved with equitable distribution of pay.

Research

Hypothesis 5

Organisational

climate does not

contribute

significantly to

staff productivity

in state

Universities

Management practices,

Employee relations,

Communication style,

Change orientation and

Culture

Multiple Regression

was used in analysing

This research

hypothesis is

upheld at r2=

.8364, df= 383 and

at 0.000

Literature indicates that

organisational climate

contributes to job satisfaction.

Thus, good organisational

climate will no doubt enhance

performance. This is also

logical that an environment

devoid of victimization is a

breeding ground for

progressive development.

(Manjunath and Rajesh, 2012;

Pearce, 2010; Rani and Mishra,

2012). In the same vein,

Halphin and Croft (1999)

asserted that the organisational

climate in enhances job

commitment. Source: Researcher‘s Field Survey Result (2016)

166

4.7 Qualitative Findings Based on Thematic Analysis

Themes associated with physical work environment, job contents, reward system and

organisational climate were captioned. The findings from these themes are discussed below.

4.7.1 Thematic Analysis of Physical Work Environment and Retention Outcomes

It should be mentioned that office management is part of the wider aspect of enterprise

management. The dimensions of office management are organisation (which is forming several

parts into an organised whole or to arrange); purpose (which assesses methods or procedure of

doing things in the office); personnel (the people who do the work in the office); means (which

relates to machines and equipment such as files, registers, furniture, etc. which are used in

carrying out the office tasks) and environment (which includes the physical environment of the

office such as lightning, ventilation and heating). Base on the aforementioned, the following

observations were made during the interview won physical work milieu:

I cannot seat longer than expected because my office chokes me as you have

observed. ASUU member

I feel the institution needs to expand the size of the institution to give room for fresh

air. ASUU member

Our major problem is erratic power supply ASUU member

I do most of my work at home because of the problem of electricity

ASUU member

The institution is trying but more efforts need to be exerted to assure academic

excellence through the provision of enabling environments. ASUU member

I feel consideration should be given to the factors relating to staff conveniences

such as proximity of postal services, transport, shops, restaurants and perhaps

recreation/sport facilities. ASUU member

There should be regularly reviewing of office machinery and equipment with a view

to their maintenance and replacement where necessary. ASUU member

We will try as much as possible to provide our staff with an enabling environment

to meet performance expectation Management staff

167

4.7.2 Thematic Analysis of Psychological Work Milieu and Retention Outcomes

Personally, I still feel social requirement of employees should consistently be catered for by

encouraging regular management-employee meetings and communication as well as informal

or unofficial work relationships and groupings. It is only by this that incessant strike can be

curbed. ASUU member

“The primacy for working is to improve my career. My job should develop a deep

psychological feeling related to self-esteem and achievement which in turn affect the level of

my motivation and performance. Hence, institution must give room for career development,

employee motivation and competitive learning environment. Where these are ignored, the

possibility to develop intention to level will be high” ASUU member

Sometimes, I feel dissatisfied with the routine jobs. Taking the same courses every time

with any opportunity for review. Management must note that challenging, interesting,

enlarged and enriched jobs should be assigned to workers and these should be

commensurate with their status along the ladder of responsibility. ASUU member

4.7.3 Thematic Analysis of Job Contents and Retention Outcomes

“The greatest emphasis for this institution should be training. Training is going to

make a lot of difference to our retention. Employees can only be comfortable in a

place where they know what is expected of them and how to do it…..”

ASUU member

Employees should be given adequate opportunity to use their own intuition, ideas

and initiatives while doing the job which should be done with appropriate degree

of autonomy. Work should be fairly allocated so that no worker would feel/think

that he is unduly overloaded. The implication of this is that benefits and hardships

must distributed among staff. Furthermore, workers should be encouraged and

assisted to build organisational loyalty. This will allow them to be more committed

to accomplishment of the corporate goals. ASUU member

4.7.4 Thematic Analysis of Reward System and Retention Outcomes

It has been made clear that what motivates a person may demotivate the other. This points to

the saying that to some people monetary incentive is the best form of motivation. To others,

work status, title or participation in decision making is the key motivation tool. Yet, others still

consider things like very large office space, security of employment, job enrichment,

168

appropriate health, safety and welfare facilities, etc as the best forms of motivation. But for

me, pay has become my driving force.

Employees should be well paid or compensated in some other ways in order to

enable them to satisfy their psychological, physiological and sociological needs.

It was found that reward system may lead to turnover. The strategic view of motivation from

time to time can be used to achieve corporate objectives by making sure that the pay practices

should be 'internal equitable and externally competitive'. This According to a respondent:

In my institution, rewards policies are formulated but not consistently

implemented in accordance with the changing needs. ASUU member

Though the level of turnover is gradually increasing as public institutions are

faced with non or delay in payment of salaries and other benefits but it is also

important for government to restructure the pay system and take account of the

competitive environment. ASUU member

As compensation (money) is the resource used to acquire the basic needs of man

(clothing, food, and shelter), it is therefore necessary that the employees shouldn’t

be deprived of this basic need as this can contribute to our emotional, and social

well-being in the institution. If the employees are adequately compensated it will

promote our relationship with other stakeholders. ASUU member

I strongly believe the institution still need to ensure a healthy relationship between

the employer and employees by creating conducive work environment and

encouraging productivity among academic staff. ASUU member

Management of the University system should therefore look into improving the

compensation package of the lecturers, as this we go a long way in boosting our

commitment. ASUU member

I have the intention to leave because I have been on the same position for years

(7 years to be precise). Now that responsibilities and expectations are increasing,

I also feel my career should also develop. ASUU member

169

Turnover in public institutions has increased due to the pressure of market forces

and economic recessions which has stunned internal equity considerations

especially when academic staff with rare talents have to be recruited. Am sure if

the situation continues, I would rather look for a greener pasture….

ASUU member

Some respondents believed that reward should be consistently given based on individual’s

dispositions, requirements and wants.

“For state Universities to retain quality staff, I feel there is need for them to review

the pay structure. More so, the institution ensures the development of new

approaches to satisfy competitive pay decisions”. Management staff

“We often try to give competitive reward to our staff to keep them on the job.

Though, some of them still perceive inequality in the pay, but we are doing

everything possible to retain them. Management staff

The major problem with state Universities is there inability to have sound personnel

policies. There should be effective delegation of authority and assignment of

responsibility with concomitant fair promotion and career advancement policies,

and programmes could be used to satisfy worker’s need for self-esteem, recognition

and respect. ASUU member

Well from the side of the management, we make sure that regular information on

management policies and decisions are circulated to workers so that they are

informed of major changes especially those that are likely to affect them in the

institution(s).

Yes, despite the financial turbulence in our institution, we still strive to an extent as

an institution to provide employees with good working conditions in order to

provide their aesthetic needs.

170

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSIONS

Manpower in the right quantity and quality, are sine qua non to a nation’s development.

Unfortunately, dearth of manpower, characterized public institutions in Nigeria, which is

worsened by the problem of staff retention. The issue of retention outcomes was examined,

with a focus on factors influencing it, such as poor conditions of service, poor infrastructural

facilities, limited research funding among others. Government has however over the years

been committing resources on manpower production with the hope that the manpower will

serve the country in one way or another. Exodus of lecturers from state Universities in Nigeria

constitutes loss of resources invested on their training. The cost of replacing the academic

staff is also heavy and serves as burden to Government as well as threat to the limited finance

flow to the education sector. At present, it is disturbing that Nigeria’s Universities are rated

low in world ranking. One of the conditions for ranking Universities is the quantity and quality

of academic staff in stock. Due to its consequences, strategies for curbing this menace in state

Universities, such as creation of enabling environment, adequate funding of tertiary

education, non-interference of government in institution’s affairs, effective administration

and motivation of staff of tertiary institutions, among others were also discussed. It is hopeful

that if the strategies are adopted and implemented by Government and institutions’

administrators, the menace will become a thing of the past while the state of public

Universities will improve from the status quo in Nigeria.

5.1 Roles of Physical work setting in enhancing the commitment of Academic staff

The study determined the role of physical work environment in enhancing commitment of

academic staff in state owned Universities. Availability of classrooms, laboratories,

workshops, office space, library and other specialized rooms are required for impartation of

knowledge to students while adequate hostel spaces are needed for their habitation. The

findings indicated that the issue of inadequate and decay infrastructural facilities have been a

concern to the sampled Universities. It is unfortunate that available classrooms in the sampled

171

Universities are inadequate for the population of students and for effective teaching and

learning. Staff office is germane in institutions because it serves as a place where a lecturer can

mark students‟ notes, assess their written works, prepare for the next day’s activities, as well

as rest after the day’s activities. In the sampled Universities, these are inadequate for the

available staff while those that are available are not spacious enough for comfort ability of staff

and even not adequately furnished. This situation, do discourage many academic staff

particularly when they compare themselves to their counterparts in the federal universities,

private universities and foreign countries.

The study found that many lecturers, including professors, shared offices that are dilapidated,

out of ventilation and poorly furnished. Lecture theatres were overcrowded and classrooms,

laboratories and workshops were shared by many programmes across different faculties. The

respondents also explained the deplorable state of most classrooms – the fundamental

teaching infrastructure of any learning institution. It was identified that fewer than one in the

six (6) sampled universities had video-conferencing facilities, less than 20% made use of

interactive boards, “and even the ones that are deployed are found in less than 10% of lecture

rooms and theatres”. Fewer than half of universities used public address systems in lecture

halls.

This findings corroborate with the works of Chandrasekar (2011) who indicated that

accessibility to infrastructure, equipment, and facilities impact on organisational performance.

Depedri, Tortia and Carpita, (2010) indicated that physical characteristics of an organisation

and job performance of their employees vary together. That noise and lightning had the

greatest impact on commitment with ventilation and appreciable spatial arrangement in the

organisation. Manjunath and Rajesh, (2012) studied 117 employees from two different

manufacturing sectors. They found physical characteristics to be moderately and strongly

related to job engagement.

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5.2: Contributions of Psychological work milieu does not have significant effects on the

loyalty of academic staff

This study investigate the effects of psychological work milieu on the loyalty of academic

staff in state Universities. The results of the four estimated coefficients include .274, .193,

.332 and .280, all of which have a significance level of 0.000. This means that all the

explanatory variables are statistically significant at 1% level. Therefore, it can be indicated

that psychological work milieu include career path, learning, equity perception, beliefs,

attitudes and relationships.

It is the desire of each academic staff of tertiary institution to rise to top position within

institution. Situation where there are too much senior staff in an institution will encourage

competitions where the junior Staff will not have better chances to rise to the top positions.

At present, there are many professors in many universities in Nigeria while there are those

already due for professorial position. Those with PhD and other lower qualifications might

thus not have the chance to grab any opportunity where these senior staff exists. Since the

junior staff wish to rise to the positions, many often leave for other tertiary institutions where

they have better opportunity/chances. What can be noticed is the rate in which lecturers are

leaving the state controlled institutions to private and federal universities in Nigeria because

of better opportunities to rise to top positions in such institutions. This implies that perception

of a staff towards the organisational characteristics will determine his/her strength and degree

of loyalty; i.e increase in equity perception will significantly lead to increase in loyalty. This

finding is supported by several studies. Studies conducted (Şenol, 2011; Zaman, Hafiza, Shah

& Jamsheed, 2011; Siegel, Schraeder & Morrison, 2007) also revealed that employees are

often affected by their perception on knowledge of results and equity. The knowledge of result

in this context means the degree to which employees know and understand how well they are

performing on the job. Studies (Galanou, Sotiropoulos, Georgakopoulos & Vasilopoulos,

2011; Abdulla, Djebarni & Mellahi, 2010; Abejirinde, 2009) have shown that workers have

been found to be happy when they perceive they are paid more than they are worth. Further,

when negative inequity (the person is under-rewarded) occurs, employees are generally

dissatisfied and de-motivated.

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5.3 The significant relationship between job contents and academic staff involvement in

the performance of state Universities

As presented in the analysis, the correlation coefficient of 0.744 was obtained between job

contents and academic staff involvement in the performance of state Universities. This implies

that there is a strong relationship between job contents and academic staff involvement in the

performance of State Universities. This means that increase in job contents (skill variety, task

significance and identity and autonomy) with availabilities of learning/teaching facilities, the

greater the level of staff involvement. Ordinarily, academic staff in the sampled universities

especially those in the area of science and technology requires adequate laboratory equipment

and other facilities to be able to achieve the goal of effective teaching of the students.

Unfortunately, the findings indicate that these are not readily available in many campuses and

where they are available, they are in state of disrepair. Such situation serves as discouragement,

which often encourage them to leave their place of work for another institution with better

equipment/facilities.

The perennial problem of having enough academics to teach an ever-growing student

population was closely examined. This was expected, because almost all the sampled

institutions have endured lecturer shortages. There is also a growing disparity in the ratio

between teaching staff and students. There were insufficient numbers of professors holding

PhDs, and a number of these sampled universities had become increasingly dependent on

visiting lecturers and ‘inbred’ academics, which the study observed was counter-productive.

Thus, it should be noted that when an individual does not have the right resources to meet up

with the demand of a job there will be a demand supply problem such as under performance,

job stress, absenteeism) which will affect the actualisation the organisational goal.

In the sum, learning and teaching in the sampled institutions require the ability to undertake a

focused review of: – student load, demand and student ‐staff ratios – student success &

retention (pass rates, completions & grade distributions) – current student satisfaction and

graduate destinations & satisfaction. Taking account of teaching in appointment and

promotion decisions – in contrast to research impact and quality, teaching effectiveness is not

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given a great deal of attention in appointment and promotion decisions. Hence, there is a

greater need to genuinely show that teaching excellence is taken into account and that there are

career trajectories in both the teaching and research space. Encouraging collaboration and

scholarship in teaching, evaluation of programmes, and experimentation with new methods –

in contrast, to research, teaching is often a solitary activity – until recently, lack of research

and scholarship on teaching and student outcomes. According to Bok (2006), need to provide

support for & build culture of inquiry and evidence to improve academic programmes can be

moved beyond the “extent of school/faculty engagement in the scholarship of teaching impacts

on subsequent student outcomes (Hashim & Mahmood, 2011). Offering training programmes

and empirical support linking better teaching skills to increased student achievement has also

become unabated.

Therefore, to succeed in a dynamic environment and reduce turnover intentions, institutions

need to develop an understanding of holistic learning (intellectual, social and emotional

components); Internationalisation of education; Greater emphasis on self-directed learning;

Greater understanding of diversity in HE and its impact on approaches to teaching/learning;

Focus on classroom research (action research) to gain a greater understanding of learning

strategies; More research needed on learning styles; Enhanced understanding of collaborative

learning; HE management must become more aware and accept the needs of enhanced learning

and teaching; Increased use of technology

The works of Ahmed, Usman and Rana (2011), Olajide (2010) and Bashir and Ramay (2010)

supported the findings that greater accomplishment, greater job satisfaction, less absenteeism,

fewer grievances and less attrition (turnover) rate can only be achieved by worker’s favourable

reaction to job design. Bentley, Coates, Dobson, Goedegebuure and Meek (2013) also

confirmed that organisational success can be determined by the impact the employees’ work

has on others within or outside the organisation (Olajide, 2010). Abiodun, Oyeniyi and

Osibanjo (2013) also pointed out that job satisfaction can be achieved based on the degree to

which employees are able to do a number of different tasks using many different skills, abilities

and talents.

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5.4 Contributions of Reward system on the satisfaction of academic staff in state

Universities

The analysis shows the extent at which the variance in the dependent variable (staff

satisfaction) is explained by the independent variables (salary, benefits & incentives,

promotion, grants/funds and recognition). The result indicate the simple model that expresses

the extent to which reward system impacts staff satisfaction and which of the variables included

in the model contributed to the prediction of the dependent variable. Therefore, we can also

rank the two significant impact on staff satisfaction i.e promotion and equitable salary have the

highest impact on staff satisfaction followed by recognition. The issue of research funding

leaves much to be desired. Though most of the respondents were not happy with the

compensation packages and promotional opportunities in the sampled Universities. It was

indicated that promotion opportunities are given on the basis of favouritism and godfatherism.

This is one of the factors that affect their retention outcomes. Many researches had been

abandoned due to inadequate funds which often demoralizes lecturers and forced them to leave

for foreign countries where opportunity for such, abound. In an ideal situation, staff of tertiary

institution who are qualified for promotion, supposes to be promoted and when due.

Surprisingly, the findings indicate the situations where staff of sampled institutions will not be

promoted due to one reason or the other, particularly when he/she is having an axe to grind

with management. These often lead to staff leaving their institutions for another where their

regular promotion can be guaranteed.

It was observed from the structured interview that many academic staff, who are due for

promotion in the sampled institutions are denied, are often wooed by private tertiary

institutions with shortage of staff. Such staff are often promised extra allowance and

opportunities apart from their regular promotion. It was indicated that the state Universities did

not consider the following benefits that are highly considered in the private Universities. This

deprivation includes free medical services for staff, spouse and four children, payment of end

of year bonus to staff, good and regular monthly salaries to staff, maternity leave with full pay

to female staff, interest-free housing and car loans to staff, outstanding performance award to

staff, provision of free meal to staff at work, robust outstation allowance, annual increment of

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staff salaries based on appraisal, clothing allowance, profit sharing, long service award to

deserving staff, provision of children education scholarship scheme to staff wards, health

insurance scheme to staff, and provision of staff buses free of charge.

The crisis facing the sampled universities can be solved if, among other things, the federal and

state governments increase considerably the funding of public universities. This is a

knowledge-driven century. Nigerian universities can help drive the Nigerian economy by

creating qualified manpower only if they are adequately funded. It can therefore be summarised

that government should be having upward review of the monthly salary of staff of tertiary

institutions in Nigeria in line with the situation in other developing and developed countries.

Research grant should be released promptly to the lecturers of tertiary institutions to be able to

carry out regular researches. Therefore, it can be concluded from the result that among the

variables of reward system, promotion and equitable salary are significant predictors of staff

satisfaction. This implies that increase in promotional opportunities and equitable salary will

ultimately lead to increase in staff satisfaction. This findings supported the works of many

scholars. Pfeifer (2012) and Abdulsalam and Mawoli (2012) adduced that the level of

compensation system determines the intention of employees to stay or leave the organisation.

To retain skilled staff, management/government must consider compensation equity within the

organisation (Depedri, Tortia & Carpita, 2010).

5.5 Contributions of Organisational climate on staff productivity in state Universities

The analysis indicated organisational climate contribute significantly to staff productivity in

state Universities. Organizational climate can be captured from the perspectives of university’s

characteristics, personnel policies, curriculum, facility, teaching content, interactions with

colleagues, and other collegiate experiences. This observation gave insight into management

practice that trust must be built among academic staff as it promotes acceptability of

institutional initiatives by academic staff who prove same through their organization-facilitated

development, work life balance, health and safety as well as through the degree of flexibility

management gives them. It was revealed from the sampled institutions that it is needful for

processes and procedures to be clearly set out and communicated to employees, avoiding

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ambiguity in order to satisfy the principles of informational justice. It is important for sampled

institutions to deliberately entrench fairness in the outcome allocation system and also work

out ways of improving and sustaining good manager-associate relationship as it promotes staff

commitment. Good horizontal relationship must be encouraged as it promotes cordiality and

mutual respect within a diverse and multi-cultural workforce as well as group cohesion; this

leads to commitment at the end.

The significance of organisational justice in fostering a mutually beneficial employer-

employee relationship through staff’ commitment and superior performance cannot be

overemphasized as it is a crucial factor that determines organisational success in an ever-

dynamic and competitive business environment. This means that uncommunicated or vaguely

communicated procedure is inimical to performance; thus managers must be able to

communicate effectively to enable academic staff perform optimally and by so doing produce

desire results. In essence properly communicated procedure will enhance employee

performance; while poorly communicated processes and procedures will result in poor

performance and increased turnover intentions. Chandranshu and Sinha (2012) carried out a

study that asserted that communication is a component of quality of work life which improves

work related outcomes that include performance (Wright and Bonett 2007; Warr 2005, and

Croppanzano, 2004).

5.6 Contributions of Work Environments on Retention Outcomes

The correlation that exists in this study between variables of work environments and retention

outcomes correspond with findings of Bashir and Ramay (2010) who reported that favourable

work environments improve the efficiency, performance and satisfaction of workers. The result

also agrees with Bloom and Van-Reenen (2011), who reported that certain motivational factors

like friendly management style, fair compensation packages, promotion, etc contribute to the

prediction of job commitment. Bloom and Van-Reenen (2011) report that a close association

exists between reward and organisational fulfilment, and Blau (1985) finds that the

commitment of staff to their job depends on the level of reward provided. The result obtained

in this study shows that junior and senior staff have the same perceived work environments if

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given the same opportunities and incentives required. Issue of appointment into positions

should be left for institution to handle and this should be done objectively to achieve the

expected results. Promotion of staff of institutions should be effected as at when due while the

welfare of staff should be accorded high priority. More staff quarters and offices should be

built in the sampled institutions while those available in the institutions should be renovated.

It can be established from the findings that work environments positively impact on the

retention outcomes of academic staff in Nigerian state Universities. Based on the variation

perception, it was revealed that the difference in the perception of academic staff on the

relationship between work environments and retention outcomes are not due to gender and

marital status. The result also revealed that the difference in the perception of academic staff

on the relationship between work environments and retention outcomes by staff status,

educational status and years of experience are statistically significant. This implies that the

differences in the perception of academic staff on the relationship between work environments

and retention outcomes can be linked to the status, education and years of experience of the

staff.

5.7 Summary

The research has shown that work environments significantly contribute to retention outcomes

of academic staff in Nigerian State Universities. On the other hand, it was indicated that job

contents, rewards and organisational climate are the significant predictors of staff retention

outcomes. It is evident from this study that provision of enabling work environment will

eventually lead to staff satisfaction, loyalty, productivity, commitment and involvement in the

educational sector. The structural equation model was also obtain to confirm the results from

multiple regression, it. The parameter estimate as depicted in Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.13

indicates that when job contents, reward system and organisational climate goes up by 1

standard deviation, retention outcomes goes up by 0.95 standard deviations. It indicated that

reward plays a vital role in determining the significant performance and it is positively

associated with the process of motivation. Effective reward system motivate employee to give

their maximum efforts towards assigned work. Similarly, Bashir and Ramay (2010) had long

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posited that compensation design attracts, motivates, and retains employee to increase effort

and output towards the achievement of organisational goals. Hence, effective and just

compensation policy can help an organisation achieve and sustain competitive advantage.

From the open ended questions, the study identified the causes of industrial conflict between

Academic Staffs Union of Universities and the Government. Findings revealed that the causes

of industrial conflict includes wages and salaries issues, working condition issues, non-

implementation of Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) made before, depletion of

educational facilities, nonstandard nature of Universities and lack of respect between parties.

This was similar to the findings of Hashim and Mahmood (2011) who opined that wage

disputes are the catalyst of almost all worker strikes and wage negotiations are pivotal when

it comes to speedy resolution. These findings also corroborate the argument of Ajayi and

Ekundayo (2010) who was of the opinion that unions in Nigerian Universities often embark

on industrial strike because of their perception on poor working conditions such as obsolete

laboratory equipment, inadequate offices, and lack of research grants and shortage of power

supply. These findings also corroborate the assertions of Gberevbie (2010) who opined that

the factor is failure on the part of the government to implement agreement signed with ASUU.

Some labour agitations also involve allegations regarding the refusal of one of the parties

involved to stick to the terms of the agreement reached by the parties. The allowances were

part of the agreement which the union had with the Federal Government in 2009. Therefore,

inability of the federal and state government to implement the collective agreement ultimately

influences staff retention outcomes.

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CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The primary objective of this study was to examine the roles of customer experience

management and loyalty in healthcare sector: a study of selected private hospitals in Lagos

State. However, this chapter is concerned about the summary of findings, conclusion and the

recommendations of the research study. The summary of findings include that theoretical and

the empirical framework. The hypotheses formulated for the study guided the procedure of the

discussions. Afterward, conclusions were drawn from findings of the research study,

appropriate recommendations, research limitation, suggestions for further study and

contribution to knowledge.

6.1 Summary of the Thesis

This thesis is divided into five chapters. It begins with chapter one comprising background to

the study through to the definition of terms. The general objective of this study focused on the

contributions of work environments and retention outcomes among academic staff of state

Universities, Southern Nigeria. The specific objectives were to determine the role of physical

work environment in facilitating commitment of academic staff in state owned Universities;

investigate the effects of psychological work milieu on the loyalty of academic staff in state

Universities; ascertain the relationship between job contents and staff involvement in academic

excellence of state owned Universities; examine the effect of reward system on the satisfaction

of academic staff in state owned Universities; assess how organisational climate facilitates staff

productivity in state owned Universities. determine the roles of functional clues in eliciting

repeat purchase actions from consumers of Aside from the research objectives, chapter one

includes the research problem, research questions, research hypotheses, significance of the

study, scope of the study and definitions of operational terms.

Chapter two contains a comprehensive review of relevant literature on the variables and also

provide conceptual clarifications, theoretical underpinnings and empirical clarifications for the

study. This study provides a background to the state of University system in Nigeria and

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particularly in Nigeria and Africa as a whole. For the purpose of understanding, several theories

have been propounded about human motivation and work environments. These theories have

been used to explain the relationships between the variables examined for this study.

The chapter three presents the methodology which centers on the research design, instruments

and strategies to be adopted in carrying out the research. A mixed method was adopted for this

study. This approach combines the use of quantitative and qualitative approach to allow

extraction of analytic, narrative and descriptive data to explain the variations between work

environment and retention outcomes. Specifically, the use of Sequential Explanatory Approach

was used. This approach allowed the researcher to use the quantitative (questionnaire) data to

validate the qualitative (in-depth interview and observation) data. The adoption of both

methods enabled the researcher tap the advantages of both and to use the strength of one to

support the weakness of the other. Again, the questionnaire was employed in order to gather

the necessary data for the study. The questionnaires were administered to academic staff in the

sampled institutions. A total of four hundred (400) copies of questionnaire were randomly

administered to the academic staff of selected Universities in Southern Nigeria. Three hundred

and eighty four (384) copies of the questionnaire were retrieved, which amounted to 96%

response rate (see Table 4.3). Three hundred and eighty four (384) copies of the retrieved

copies of the questionnaire were found useable. Sixteen copies of the questionnaire

representing 4% were unusable because they were badly completed. This response rate is

considered reasonably high and better than the response rates in previous studies.

The chapter four presents the analysis of data collected and test of hypotheses, tables and charts

were employed to illustrate the data gathered for this study, the data were analyzed using the

descriptive statistics based on the research objectives and the hypotheses formulated for the

study. The stated hypotheses and literature review guided the presentation of the findings

discussed in this chapter. The hypotheses formulated were tested through the use of multiple

regression (categorical regression) and the hierarchical multiple regression.

Chapter five discusses the results of the analysis and chapter six focuses on the summary of

findings, conclusions, recommendations limitation of the study, suggestions for further studies

and contributions to knowledge are presented.

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6.2 Summary of Research Findings

The research findings of this research study were presented in two folds namely: (i)

Theoretical findings and (ii) Empirical findings

6.2.1 Summary of Theoretical Findings

Review of extant literature revealed that enabling work environment is a retention strategy

mostly targeted at curbing brain drain and absenteeism among staff of Universities. Therefore

various determinants of work environments such as; physical and psychological work milieu,

reward system, job characteristics as well as organisational climate may have implications for

behavioural and affective outcomes such as staff loyalty, productivity, commitment,

satisfaction and performance. Modern day organisations place the work at utmost importance

and build the basis on which corporate objectives are met, as well the success of the

organisation as a whole.

The expectancy and equity theories explained the relationship between jobs related attitude as

a result of the satisfaction derived from the work itself and job performance. The theories

supported the findings in some areas: First, employee has an expected end, which they look

forward to be met by the institution they work for. They believe therefore, that sufficient efforts

have to be put into their work for those expectations to be achieved, and this

expectations/rewards received are intrinsic in terms of the satisfaction derived from their work,

and also extrinsic in relation to the monetary pay received. The individual employee has an

inherent expectation, which he/she believes should be received on putting in some efforts or

rendering by certain services. These rewards provided by the institution is in exchange of the

performance and productivity of the employees. Second, Fredrick Herzberg’s to-factor theory

affirmed that working environment creates a platform and an opportunity for socialization

between different people. Socialisation is one integral part of the worker’s life and it represents

a major factor that keeps the employees to feel the spirit of teamwork in the organisation, which

increases their performance, as they work in teams. In Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,

the social need which represents the third level of needs, explains the need of employees to be

affiliated; i.e. to be loved and accepted by people (Galanou, et al, 2011).

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The application of the theories was premised on the four (4) basic assumptions about human

behaviour, which includes;

i. As stated about, this expectancy model is a Multivariate one; meaning it is made up of

two or more variables. It deduces that, human behaviour is as a result of a combination

of factors, both in the individual and in the environment in which the individual is

situated.

ii. Individuals are rational beings, who consciously make decisions about their behaviour

in the organisation.

iii. As various individuals in the organisation differ, so are their individual goals desires,

needs and goals different from each other.

iv. Individuals in the organisation choose between alternate behaviours, based on their

individual expectations, and the behaviour decided on, brings about a desired outcome.

Institutions in an attempt to meet this need, encourage their employees to participate in the

formulation and implementation of policies and strategies. The theories indicate that job itself

as an individual meaning for each employee and has helped to provide the necessary skills

needed to perform effectively; once workers know that they have these skills required, they

could be internally motivated to do their jobs which could later lead them to be committed to

their job. Hence, the usage of strikes has been rampant in the Nigerian education system which

is usually viewed by workers as a means to get the attention of the government and other

relevant bodies to ensure that they are adequately compensated for work done, thus, it becomes

important for the management of these tertiary schools either private or public to take the issue

of compensation seriously, and also other aspects of compensation aside salaries. By

implications, employees who perceive they are being treated inequitable may try to address the

issue by exhibiting some of the following behaviours: putting in less efforts to their jobs,

reporting to management concerning dissatisfaction with pay, and quitting their jobs.

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6.2.2 Summary of Empirical Findings

6.2.2.1 Summary of Quantitative Findings

This study has revealed that every organization or institution faces some kind of challenges (be

it major, average or minor). Universities are not an exemption to challenges or problems.

Although Nigerian universities have recorded success stories and breakthroughs, but they have

their teething problems or challenges which tend to impede their position on the world

education league table. Since the universities in Nigeria has to act fast with a view to come up

on the same development and education wavelength with other countries of the world, six

pressing challenges have been identified and discussed on. In addressing these challenges, four

management competency areas have been advocated. Moreover, Nigerian government and

university management must strongly reaffirm their commitment to the growth and

development of university education in Nigeria. This reaffirmation should be accompanied by

policies aimed at refocusing, re-engineering and redynamizing university education in Nigeria.

A collaborative effort of school management, parents, private individuals, and government will

facilitate the identification of the real problems that challenges the sustenance of the school, as

well as a better way of addressing the problems. Through a framework of proactive policies,

originating from a round-table discussion among stakeholders, nurtured through improved

school-community relations, the universities can be helped to come out of the blues from their

many challenging problems. Improved accountability in university management. School

managements have lost their credibility in the eyes of the society due largely to corrupt

practices. They are no longer accountable to the society and thus, compelling the society to

stay aloof and unconcerned about the situation in the universities. There is high level corruption

in Nigeria. Presently, the federal government of Nigeria under the leadership of President

Buhari is concentrating on the fight against corruption which have bastardised the Nigerian

economy. Employment of lecturers are done strictly on favouratism and “god-fatherism” .

The consequence of this in the educational industry is that unqualified lecturers are given

opportunities at the expense of qualified hands. Funds are stolen by corrupt leaders in the

higher institutions, leaving the schools in shamble of poor infrastructure and equipment. Little

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provisions are made towards research and staff development. The situations in the sampled

Nigerian universities have compelled many academics to leave the country and seek

employment in foreign countries in what is termed “brain-drain”. Galanou, et al, (2011) opined

that the practice of accountability which is a result-oriented strategy will check any drop in the

quality of education and enhances the attainment of educational goals of any given country.

Again, improved accountability will further boost the confidence of the society in the provision

of funds for university development, teaching and learning. Improved financial management.

University education requires high level of funding. It calls for heavy supply of money to

administer each university effectively.

Much as the National budget provides statutory revenue for university administration,

universities management should develop the competencies necessary to seek alternative

sources of revenue generation to supplement government allocations. Universities must tap

additional funds from the private sector, technical aids from foreign countries, parents,

business ventures, payment for university services, consultancy services, endowment funds,

alumni associations, and many others. The funds generated from these sources should be

prudently used to service the needs of the institution.

Improved enabling environment for teaching and research, learning and community service.

The triple mandates of tertiary institutions are teaching, learning and research. The quality of

teaching-learning in any society is a determinant of success in the educational goal and

objectives of that society. The major actors in the teaching-learning process are the teachers

and students. While the teachers are expected to have the competences and skills in curriculum

delivery, the students are expected to show high level commitment to learning. Culpepper

(2011) lamented on the dearth of competent and qualified teachers in Nigerian schools and

recommended the need to formally instil the principles of teaching in all academics. The

success of every school programme, especially teaching-learning, is dependent on the

availability of the right type of physical facilities, including the right quality and caliber of

teachers (Hafiza, et al, 2012). Research is knowledge-oriented and knowledge-bound.

Osaigbovo (2000) remarked that research is central to academic concerns and that the value of

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a university is measured interms of the quantity and quality of research carried out by the

university. University management therefore requires competences in the management of

funds, facilities, staff and student personnel. This should include building the capacity for

research and teaching activities at an international standard.

6.2.2.2 Summary of Qualitative Findings

Based on the interview conducted, the following findings were reached. It was evident that

work environments of the selected six (6) tertiary institutions in Southern Nigeria had not been

evaluated since the inception of the public schools in Nigeria. The results disclosed the degree

of inestimable efforts by the state government in ensuring employment continuity among the

academic staff of their various Universities. The findings gave an impression that University

academic staff were dissatisfied with the employment conditions and relationships which

ranges from ethnic chauvinism and favouritism, incessant industrial action, under-funding and

shortage of facilities and equipment and most especially crises of conditions of service which

had led to multiple industrial unrest, brain-drain and turnover of highly skilled academics from

one University to another. The findings, for example, showed that: (1) The lecturers

complained that the criteria for promotion in their institution is based on other factors than

merit and this adversely affect their dispositions to increasing commitment (2) The lightning

in the office did not attract staff to stay long on the job. (3) The physical condition under which

staff operates do not satisfactorily promote their commitments especially the problem of noise.

(4) lecturers complained that their workload is often increased but their rewards remain de-

stimulating (5) The work schedules in the institution have not provided opportunity for

developing and improving technology skills; (6) The degree of influence on the job as lecturers

give opportunity for career development and enrichment (7) As lecturers, what keeps them

with the institution is not the pay but rather the quality of work life balance and finally (6) The

University unlike other organisations do not have any formal orientation programme for their

new lecturers.

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6.3 Conclusion

The relationships found between work environments and retention outcomes correspond with

what is reported in literature. The current research study reveals that work environments and

employee satisfaction can affect their retention outcomes. For developing and maximising staff

competencies and abilities, schools/institutions and organisations can use the provision of

conducive and favourable work environments as a method for enhancing staff commitment

and satisfaction with the institutions/organisations. Findings of the study also indicated that

public institutions can increase the degree staff loyalty and productivity by enhancing job

satisfaction with compensation and work conditions. It is important to reiterate that this staff

commitment can be enhanced through favourable physical settings like working in a noise free

environment, uninterrupted supply of power, provision of ergonomic resources and spatial

arrangement; maintenance of equity perception, clear understanding of the institution’s

mission and vision statement. Facilitation of consistent promotional opportunities, equitable

and competitive salary structure, staff participation in decision making, implementation of

collective agreement and favourable work environment can be adopted to improve staff

performance and reduce attrition. Also, it was found out from the study that adequate reward

systems are a sine-qua-non for job satisfaction on the part of employees whether in public or

private sector. Establishment of new universities without adequate funding would be fruitless

and argued that current universities can be expanded with necessary resources to realise the

same corporate objective. Without exclusion, all the established public universities controlled

by the state and federal governments are extremely in terrible financial distress.

Government needs to fund education adequately. The 26 % of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

recommended by United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisations

(UNESCO) by every country in the world should be allocated to education in Nigeria to enable

the educational institutions get substantial fund that can enable them to provide the needed

infrastructures and facilities for effective teaching of students. Government should also reach

out to International Organisations to continue to support it in one way or the other in the

funding of tertiary education in Nigeria In view of the fact that researches could proffer

solutions to most of the problems of the country, there is need for government to allocate

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substantial fund for researches in the tertiary institutions while National Universities

Commission (NUC) and tertiary institutions administrators should ensure that fund allocated

for researches in their institutions, ate judiciously utilized for the purpose. This finding

reinforces the outcome of the study by Heneman and Judge (2000) in which they posited that

for organisation to have attraction and retention power, its reward systems must be unique and

unlikely to be provided by competitors or else the organisation will find it difficult to retain its

staff in the long run, particularly in a competitive business environment.

6.4 Recommendations of the Study

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were proffered:

1. Institutions should endeavor to invest more in creating physical work environment. The

problem of erratic power supply should be looked into with a stimulating spatial

arrangement. Attention must also be given to the provision of basic infrastructures such

as buildings, classrooms, laboratories, workshops, administrative blocks, furniture and

work benches.

2. Institutions should integrate staff behaviours and attitude by building psychological

links between organisational and staff goals. In other words, focus must be on

increasing committed staff who are efficient and effective in using discretionary and

creative skills in performing assigned tasks.

3. On promotional system, the study recommends that management of University

education should consistently show greater concern for academic career advancement

programmes as observed by the junior staff. All academic staff irrespective of their

size, tribe, education and experience should be given a fair opportunity to develop.

Management of the Universities should wholly avoid the use of mediocrity and

favouritism for promotion and career advancement. The institutions can adopt an

objective performance appraisal as a basis for granting merit, increasing pay of

employee as well as promoting employee with the view to increasing their level of

productivity.

189

4. Management team should often inform, educate and communicate policies and

opportunities regarding career development to all the staff through various programmes

and communication channel such as circular/memos and meetings. The management

should continually organise workshops, or seminars with work-related facilities to

update their staff skills, knowledge, abilities and competencies.

5. The management team of the organisation should strive to introduce a satisfactory

motivational package that will stimulate commitment and performance of academic

staff. Government should allocate sufficient fund to education, at least to meet up to

26% recommended by UNESCO.

6. Finally, the Ministry of Labour, Employment and Productivity should device various

alternatives to resolve pressing issues between the unions (ASUU) in the Universities

and governments in order to prevent recurring labour unrest. The management team

should endeavour to adopt a participative governance in order to promote peaceful co-

existence and industrial harmony.

7. Management should make certain that compensation packages for University lecturers

are equitable, impartial and competitive. Management of these tertiary institutions

should consistently take the issue of compensation totally and other aspects of

compensation aside salaries, for example other aspects such as benefits and incentives

should be implemented by the management of tertiary schools to foster the retention

outcome.

6.5 Contributions to Knowledge

This research study adds up a new dimension for the researchers in the area of human resource

management and organisational behaviour to investigate how different work environment

variables can influence retention outcomes like job commitment, staff loyalty, staff

involvement, staff satisfaction to staff productivity within the sampled institutions. In specific

terms, the thesis has contributed to academic and professional knowledge in the following

areas/respects, to mention just a few:

190

a) The study offers valuable context of ideas, facts and figures that can be adopted by

researchers, practitioners, government, NUC, and other stakeholders in

management education in exploring the dynamics and resultant-effects of work

environments on retention outcomes.

b) This thesis stands out as one of the rather few, original, empirical and latest

accounts of the practical correlation between work-environments (or employment

contingencies) and employee retention, especially within the context of a

developing society/economy - Nigeria. This type of rigorous and robust research

output is highly desirable and required or needed for the continuous, necessary

propagation of the school of thought and practice of strategic human resource

management (SHRM), also particularly in a developing country and emerging

market like Nigeria.

c) This thesis output has appreciably and commendably contributed to the expansion

of frontiers of existing academic and professional knowledge on the direct work-

organizational interface between structural factors and staff (human capital)

retention as well as its utilization for the logical fulfillment of founding goals and

the achievement of sustainable organizational development.

d) The findings of candidate’s research/thesis have added valuable tool and

professional knowledge that is practically indispensable for the strategic

management of tertiary educational institutions in Nigeria – especially, also, given

the primacy of education as one of the critical drivers of national economic

development.

e) The study also offered differences in the perceptions of work environments among

academic staff ranging from Professors, Associate Professors, Senior lecturers,

Lecturers 1, Lecturers 2, Assistant lecturers and Graduate Assistants in the

University.

f) Above all, adoptable policies, practices and strategies for modifying organisational

correlates of staff turnover and attrition were recommended/ preferred.

191

6.6 Policy and Managerial Implications

The major policy implications of the findings for institutions in this study are

identified as follow:

A. Institutional policies tailored towards ensuring proper reward systems could

bring about higher satisfaction and productivity of the tertiary institutions.

Particularly because provision of adequate reward systems serve as stimulating

factor and predictor for staff commitment, satisfaction and productivity.

B. Policies on infrastructural should be targeted at enhancing favourable physical

work settings facilitate commitment of competent staff. However, if it is not

taken into consideration, it could lead to job dissatisfaction and low

productivity.

6.7 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies

(i) The sample from which the population was drawn comprised nineteen public (state)

Universities in southern Nigeria (NUC, September 2015). Because this population

study was restricted to southern Nigeria, it can be suggested that other public (state

Universities) institutions in Northern Nigeria, etc can further be studied.

(ii) Studies can also be conducted using the federal Universities within southern or northern

Nigeria. Future research can explore the relationship between work environments and

retention outcomes using private and federal Universities in Nigeria. This will also help

to compare the perceptions of the University lecturers in the two categories of schools.

(iii) This study employed mixed methods for data collection and semi structured interviews

were used as qualitative data collection approach. Further studies could employ in-

depth interviews as qualitative data collection process to enrich the data collection

process.

192

(iv) Further research can carry out a similar study in foreign and private tertiary institutions

to determine the degree of reward system on retention outcomes. Finally, future

researchers can attempts to explore the causal-effects of variables (work environments

and retention outcomes) using all the geopolitical zones in Nigeria.

(v) Finally, the quantitative aspect of this research adopted survey method of data

collection other studies could consider carrying a study involving a longitudinal data

collection process to provide a reliable confirmation of the relationships identified in

this thesis.

193

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218

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

Department of Business Management

Industrial Relations and Human Resource Management Programme

Covenant University, P.M.B. 1023, Ota, Ogun State.

Dear Respondent,

I am a Doctoral candidate from the above named institution conducting a research on “Work

Environments and Retention Outcomes of state Universities in Southern Nigeria. Kindly

respond appropriately to each section of the questionnaire. Feel free to give your sincere

opinion and feelings as demanded by each question. Your response will be kept in absolute

confidence. It is purely for academic purpose.

Thank you.

Signed

SECTION A: SOCIO DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

Instruction: Kindly tick ( ) and fill where applicable.

1. Name of Institution: ______________________________________________________

2. Gender: Male ( ) Female ( )

3. Status of Staff: Ass. Prof & Professor ( ) Senior lecturer ( ) Lecturer 1 ( ) Lecturer 2 ( )

Graduate & Asst. Lecturer ( )

4. Years of Service: 0 – 10 ( ), 11 – 20 ( ), 21years and above ( )

5. Highest Educational Qualification: Bachelor’s Degree ( ) Master’s Degree ( ) Ph.D ( )

6. Department/College/Faculty: ______________________________________________

7. Gross Annual Income/Pay: =N= 2,000,000 and below ( ), =N= 2,001,000 and above ( )

219

SECTION A: ROLE OF PHYSICAL SETTING IN ENHANCING STAFF COMMITMENT

Instruction: Please indicate on a scale of 1 to 5; If you Strongly Agree (SA), for instance, tick

5, or if you Strongly Disagree (SD), please tick 1. We are interested in the number that best

shows your views.

Items SA A U D SD

Q1 Working in noise free environment increases my job performance 5 4 3 2 1

Q2 The size of my office does not provide me enough space to achieve

performance expectation

5 4 3 2 1

Q3 The classrooms and offices are well ventilated for service

improvement

5 4 3 2 1

Q4 The lightning in the office attracts me to stay long on the job 5 4 3 2 1

Q5 Provision of ergonomic tool/furniture improves my workplace health

promotion

5 4 3 2 1

Q6 The office space arrangement induces my work engagement 5 4 3 2 1

Q7 The physical condition under which staff operates promote workplace

safety

5 4 3 2 1

Q8 The size of my office does not provide me enough space to work

comfortably

5 4 3 2 1

This section focuses on the characteristics of physical work environment in your

institution. To the best of your knowledge. Please circle the number or point that

represents your view on the physical factors.

S/N ITEMS Lowest

1-20%

Lower

21-40%

Middle

41-60%

Close

61-80%

Top

81-100%

1 Noise

2 Ventilation

3 Lightning

4 Ergonomics equipment

5 Workspace Arrangement

6 Moderate office/room

220

PSYCHOLOGICAL WORK MILIEU AND STAFF LOYALTY SA A U D SD

Q1 The University motivate lecturers by providing job-related

training with opportunity for growth

5 4 3 2 1

Q2 The degree of influence on the job as a lecturer gives

opportunity for career development and enrichment

5 4 3 2 1

Q3 The strategies put in place to motivate staff such as career

development and opportunity to earn promotion have helped to

retain competent staff for the realisation of organisational

fulfillment

5 4 3 2 1

Q4 Attitude toward relationships in the institution has put lecturers

in emotionally disturbing situations

5 4 3 2 1

Q5 My beliefs towards the institution’s mission and values do not

give room for personal growth

5 4 3 2 1

Q6 The University’s use of recognition and appreciation has

enhanced my stay and bond with them

5 4 3 2 1

Q7 My institution gives the possibility of learning new things

through the work and gives high priority to job satisfaction

5 4 3 2 1

Q8 Management support for workplace health promotion is not

closely associated with employees’ perceptions of their work

environment as healthy and safe.

5 4 3 2 1

Q9 The University gives lecturers the opportunity to creatively

develop their own abilities

5 4 3 2 1

ASSESSMENT OF JOB CONTENTS AND STAFF

INVOLVEMENT

SA A U D SD

Q1 The job requires using variety of skills and talents which gives

personal satisfaction

5 4 3 2 1

Q2 Lecturers have pretty opportunities to learn new things from

their work and ensure a sense of worthwhile accomplishment.

5 4 3 2 1

Q3 The job gives me considerable opportunity for independence

and quick

5 4 3 2 1

Q4 My workload is often increased because my colleagues are not

doing their jobs properly

5 4 3 2 1

Q5 The job denies me any chance to use my personal initiative and

this affects my employment continuity

5 4 3 2 1

Q6 The institution provides job where there is constant opportunity

to be creative and innovative

5 4 3 2 1

221

Q7 The management provides job with a supervisor/HOD who is

very critical of you and your work in front of other people.

5 4 3 2 1

Q8 The University provides the equipment and resources necessary

for me to execute my responsibilities.

5 4 3 2 1

Q9 The University provided work related facilities to enhance

effective teaching

5 4 3 2 1

THE STRUCTURE OF REWARD SYSTEM AND

STAFF SATISFACTION

SA A U D SD

Q1 The University’s reward system has increased my opportunities

for personal development satisfaction

5 4 3 2 1

Q2 The salary structure commensurate with lecturers current status

and thereby facilitate continuous employment relationship

5 4 3 2 1

Q3 Outstanding efforts are recognised and appreciated with

remunerations that stimulates job quality

5 4 3 2 1

Q4 Opportunities for advancement or promotion exist within the

University

5 4 3 2 1

Q5 Adequate provision of grants and funds increased my pay

satisfaction.

5 4 3 2 1

SA A U D SD

Q6 The benefit package is a significant factor in my decision to stay

with the University

5 4 3 2 1

Q7 Compared with other related industries, the University salary

package is fair

5 4 3 2 1

Q8 The criteria for promotion in my institution is based on other

factors than merit and this adversely affect my dispositions to

increasing commitment

5 4 3 2 1

Q9 The institution’s strategies for staff promotion are based on

‘whom you know’ and this result in poor career satisfaction

5 4 3 2 1

Q10 I will continue to work for my institution to achieve its goals

because of the rewards and supervisory supports am currently

enjoying.

5 4 3 2 1

222

ORGANISATIONAL CLIMATE AND STAFF PRODUCTIVITY SA A U D SD

Q1 Management practice of the University only allow lecturers to

attend international and national conferences as presenters not as

participants.

5 4 3 2 1

Q2 Management and leadership style is sensitive and supportive of

lecturer‘s work schedule.

5 4 3 2 1

Q3 Management style does not allow for academic input in the

decision making process.

5 4 3 2 1

Q4 Management style encourages junior academic career path and

growth.

5 4 3 2 1

Q5 My participation in decision making enhance my ability to

provide organisational supports

5 4 3 2 1

Q6 The work schedules in the institution have not provided

opportunity for developing and improving technology skills

5 4 3 2 1

Q7 Communication between management of the University at all

levels and lecturers are often friendly and efficient

5 4 3 2 1

Q8 The institution devoid friendliness, warmth, empathy and sense

of respect for its academic staff

5 4 3 2 1

Q9 As a lecturer, what keeps me with the institution is not the pay

but rather the quality of work life balance

5 4 3 2 1

Q10 The University unlike other organisations do not have any formal

orientation programme for their new lecturers

5 4 3 2 1

SECTION C

OPEN-ENDED QUESTION

Instruction: Please give precise answer to the following questions. You may give practical

examples where possible.

1. Please indicate three (3) other problems affecting your work environment.

a. ………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

b. ………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

c. …………………………………………………………………………….………

…………………………………………………………………………………….

223

2. Please to the three (3) problems above, kindly indicate how management could resolve them.

a. ………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

b. ………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

c. …………………………………………………………………………….………

…………………………………………………………………………………….

224

APPENDIX II

IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ASUU EXECUTIVES/MEMBERS

COVENANT UNIVERSITY, CANAAN LAND, KM.10 IDIROKO ROAD, P.M.B.1023,

OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

WORK ENVIRONMENTS AND RETENTION OUTCOMES OF ACADEMIC STAFF

I thank you very much for accepting to participate in this study. I want to crave your indulgence

to record our session today. This will enable me to analyse this session for the purpose of

generalising the results.

There are few questions I would like to ask and I will be happy if you can be as open as possible

and be confident that your responses shall be kept confidential.

1. How do you feel with workplace environment the institution provides?

2. How would you rate the physical work setting of the institution?

3. How would you rate the compensation and benefit of the institution?

4. How would you rate the promotional system of the institution?

5. How would you describe the level of research support/grants and teaching facilities in

your institution?

6. Identify specific aspects in this institution that your Union would like to change in order

to improve the working conditions?

7. Can you identify the barriers that affect your working conditions?

8. What has been the role of the union in finding solutions to problems which will satisfy

members’ expectations

9. Can you tell me the retentions strategy put in place by your institution?

225

APPENDIX III

IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR MANAGEMENT

COVENANT UNIVERSITY, CANAAN LAND, KM.10 IDIROKO ROAD, P.M.B.1023,

OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

WORK ENVIRONMENTS AND RETENTION OUTCOMES OF ACADEMIC STAFF

I thank you very much for accepting to participate in this study. I want to crave your indulgence

to record our session today. This will enable me to analyse this session for the purpose of

generalising the results.

There are few questions I would like to ask and I will be happy if you can be as open as possible

and be confident that your responses shall be kept confidential.

1. How would you describe the work environment provided for the staff in the institution?

2. In what ways have you tried to satisfy the needs of the staff?

3. How would you rate the compensation and benefit of the academic staff?

4. How would you rate the promotional system of the institution?

5. How would you describe the level of research support/grants and teaching facilities

made available for staff in your institution?

6. Can you identify the major barriers affecting the retention outcomes in your institution?

7. What has been the role of management in finding solutions to problems which will

satisfy members’ expectations

8. Can you tell me the retentions strategy put in place to retain talent in your institution?

226

APPENDIX IV

Find below the list of State Universities in Nigeria

University Name City State Website

Abia State University Uturu Abia State http://www.absuu.net

Adamawa State University Mubi Adamawa

State

http://www.adamawastateuni.com

Adekunle Ajasin

University, Akungba

Akungba Ondo State http://www.ajasin.edu.ng

Ambrose Alli University,

Ekpoma

Ekpoma Edo State http://www.aauekpoma.edu.ng

Anambra State University

of Science & Technology

Uli Anambara

State

http://www.ansu-edu.net

Bauchi State University,

Gadau

Gadau Bauchi

State

Offline

Benue State University,

Makurdi

Makurdi Benue

State

Offline

Bukar Abba Ibrahim

University, Damaturu

Damaturu Yobe State http://www.baiu.edu.ng

Cross River State

University of Science &

Technology

Calabar Cross

River State

Offline

Delta State University

Abraka

Abraka Delta State Offline


Abakaliki

Abakaliki Ebonyi

State

http://www.ebsu-edu.net

Ekiti State University Ado Ekiti Ekiti State http://eksu.edu.ng

Ekiti State University of

Science and Technology

Ado Ekiti Ekiti State Offline


Science and Technology

Enugu Enugu

State

http://www.esut.edu.ng

Evan Enwerem University,

Owerri

Owerri Imo State http://www.imsu.edu.ng

Gombe State Univeristy,

Gombe

Gombe Gombe

State

http://gombestateuniversity.academ

ia.edu

Ibrahim Badamasi

Babangida University,

Lapai

Lapai Niger

State

http://www.ibbuniversity.com/

Kaduna State University,

Kaduna

Kaduna Kaduna

State

http://www.kasuportal.net

Kano University of Science

& Technology, Wudil

Wudil Kano State http://kustportal.edu.ng

227

Kebbi State University,

Kebbi

Kebbi Kebbi

State

http://www.ksusta.edu.ng

Kogi State University

Anyigba

Anyigba Kogi State http://myksuportal.com

Kwara State University,

Ilorin

Ilorin Kwara

State

http://www.kwasu.edu.ng

Ladoke Akintola

University of Technology,

Ogbomoso Osun State http://www.lautech.edu.ng

Lagos State University Ojo Ojo Lagos

State

http://www.lasunigeria.org

Nasarawa State University,

Keffi

Keffi Nasarawa

State

http://www.nsukonline.net

Niger Delta Unversity,

Yenagoa

Yenagoa Bayelsa

State

http://ndu.edu.ng.tripod.com

Olabisi Onabanjo

University Ago-Iwoye

Ago-Iwoye Ogun State http://www.oou-ng.com

Ondo State University of


Okitipupa Ondo State http://www.osustech.edu.ng

Osun State University,

Oshogbo

Oshogbo Osun State http://uniosun.edu.ng

Plateau State University,

Bokkos

Bokkos Plateau

State

http://www.plasu.edu.ng

Rivers State University of


Oroworuk

wo

Rivers

State

http://www.ust.edu.ng/

Sokoto State University,

Sokoto

Sokoto Sokoto

State

Offine

Tai Solarin Univ. of

Education, Ijebu-Ode

Ijebu-Ode Ogun State http://www.tasu.edu.ng

Taraba State University,

Jalingo

Jalingo Taraba

State

Offline

Umaru Musa Yar'Adua

University, Katsina

Katsina Katsina

State

http://www.umyu.edu.ng/

University of Education,

Ikere Ekiti

Ikere Ekiti Ekiti State Offline

228

APPENDIX V

CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University A

Residuals

229

CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University B

Residuals

230

CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University C

Residuals

231

CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University D

Residuals

232

CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University E

Residuals

233

CATREG Quantifications/Plot/Transformation for University F

Residuals

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