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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA: A

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

THE NATURE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

If we go to the roots of the term, „Science‟ derives from the Latin scientia

meaning „knowledge‟. Over time, however, the term has become more restricted in

its use to refer to the natural and physical sciences, excluding metaphysics and

theology which were once part of it. Broadly, it is the study, description,

experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of the nature and behaviour

of phenomena in the physical and natural world. Indeed, today, when the term

„science‟ is used, it excludes even technology. Technology uses science for human

purposes, but science is an unbiased study of the real world—the inherent

properties of space, matter, energy and their interaction. Technology is the

concomitant of the free and fearless enquiring mind. Science usually proceeds by

inventing hypotheses and systematically testing them against observation and

experiment.

As for technology, the term derives from the Greek technologia meaning

systematic treatment of an art. It now implies the totality of the means and

knowledge used to provide objects needed by humans for their sustenance and

comfort. Technology is the application of science, usually for industrial processes;

it is the system of knowledge and action applicable to any recurrent activity. The

term covers the practice, description and terminology of any or all of the applied

sciences which have practical value and/or industrial use. It is closely related to

engineering. If engineering is the application of objective knowledge to the

creation of plans, designs, and means for achieving desired objectives, technology

deals with the tools and techniques for carrying out the plans. Many adjectives are

appended to the term „technology‟ these days—‟low‟, „high‟, „appropriate‟ and so

on. Low technology generally refers to the application of scientific devices for

different aspects of production. It does not displace labour. Intermediate

technology refers to the production of finished goods and intermediary products.

High technology refers to the use of sophisticated and complex processes and

machinery, and is made use of in the capital goods industries like steel,

communications equipment, space and nuclear installations, etc. Appropriate

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technology, as the name suggests, is suitable for given conditions of production—

available resources, technical know-how, needs, etc.

Science and technology have always been part of the development process

that is inherent to civilisation. One of the activities through which culture broadly

expresses itself is intellectual, and scientific advancement is an aspect of

intellectual activity. In the modern world, science and technology have become

indispensable. Science generates information, change in attitudes, and new values;

technology is a major instrument of social and economic change. Promotion of

science should lead to the breaking down of irrational and superstitious beliefs, and

ideas that so often hamper human progress. The role of science and technology in

the development of a country is at times so obvious that one tends to ignore it.

Apart from the large-scale applications in industry, scientific principles have been

profitably applied in the field of agriculture to increase yield and improve crops.

Health is directly and indirectly influenced by the discoveries of science and

technology. Communications plays an important part in disseminating information

and knitting diverse peoples together. New ways of adapting Nature to human

needs are constantly being developed. The role of science and technology is of

special importance in a developing country like India, in the economic as well as

the social aspects. Intelligent use of science and technology can increase

production and productivity, reduce drudgery and generate employment; it can also

be instrumental in reducing and eradicating disease and thus ensuring a healthy

population. Science and technology go a long way in ensuring optimum use of

resources—economic and human.

Science and technology are among the basic factors in the dividing wall

between poverty and prosperity. There is no doubt that science and technology

have shaped and reshaped India over the years. The result research and

experimentation is seen in the transformation of a subsistence agriculture into

commercial agriculture; control and eradication of diseases like plague and

smallpox; establishment and rapid development of an industrial base; development

of electronics, nuclear energy capability, space exploration, oceanography, all

being dovetailed meet socio-economic needs.

There are some shortcomings: the dangerous side effects of rapid

technological development have to be seriously and earnestly faced and checked:

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environmental degradation, for instance, has to be prevented with the very help of

the science and technology whose careless application can cause irreversible

damage. Interaction between the scientific community and the rest of the society

must be encouraged so to avoid misdirected research and suboptimal use of

investment. A better management of resources is called for so that science and

technology can be used constructively and to the best effect in the development of

the country.

The impact of scientific and technological endeavour is more obvious in

some areas than in others. Industrial advancement, noteworthy achievements in

space applications, defence, advance materials and nuclear research do not quite

mitigate the misery of a large section of our population which exists in unsanitary

conditions, without safe drinking water, with little or no medical facilities to help

them overcome health hazards. A large number of our villages are steeped in

poverty, still unlit, and lacking in schools and easy means of communication.

Unless rural India at large is positively benefited by science and technology, the

impact of research will be of negligible value. Efforts have been made and some

results achieved but, considering the vastness of area and differences in

geographical features, much remains to be done.

THE ROOTS

An ancient civilisation going back to more than 5000 years, which has

evolved with an amazing continuity, could not have been uninfluenced by science

and technology. Indeed, as early as 2500 BC an advanced people inhabited this

country. The Indus Valley Civilisation was socially and technically well

developed. The Indus people knew the use of the wheel and the plough, smelted

and forged metal, and were capable of designing protection measures against fire

and flood. They possessed high technical skill in construction. They not only used

standardised burnt brick for their buildings, but planned their cities with

symmetrically arranged streets and an elaborate drainage system that speaks of

their sophisticated awareness of sanitation and hygiene. However, we do not have

much information about their intellectual efforts. There is no decipherable record

of their thoughts and ideas.

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The Vedic Age marked a new era of intellectual inquiry and technological

endeavour. Religion played an important role in the field of scientific

achievements. Ancient mathematical works such as the Sulva-Sutras show the use

of geometry for designing and constructing altars. Mathematics was an important

field of knowledge, and the ancient Indians made valuable contributions to it. Most

historians agree that the use of zero originated in India, and spread to other

cultures. Indians also invented the so-called Arabic numerals (called Hindsa by the

Arabs themselves) the knowledge of which reached the West through the Arabs.

Mathematicians like Aryabhata and Bhaskara I, Brahmagupta, Mahavira,

Aryabhata II and Shrihari used and developed most of the mathematical formulae

that we know today. As early as the 5th century AD, Aryabhata I gave the

approximate value of n as 3.1416—a value which is used to this day. Bhaskara ii is

well known for his work in algebra and his Siddhanta-siromani. Indeed, the trails

blazed in algebra, trigonometry and geometry ante-dated similar developments in

Europe by several centuries.

Astronomy, essential for religious as well as practical purposes, was another

field of inquiry which achieved remarkable heights in the ancient times. Aryabhata

propounded that the earth rotated about its own axis and calculated the sidereal

period of earth‟s rotation with fair accuracy. Many later scientific works owe their

origins to the Panchasiddhanta, of which the Suryasiddhanta greatly influenced

astronomical research in India. In the medieval period with the advent of Islamic

influence, instruments such as the astrolabe, quadrants and armillary spheres caine

to the used in astronomical research. Later, in the eighteenth century, Raja Sawai

Jai Singh II of Jaipur got built observatories at Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura, Jaipur

and Delhi, of which the last two are intact to the present. He also produced an

elaborate set of astronomical tables, the Zij Mohammad Shahi based on extensive

research and astronomical knowledge.

Medicine was yet another field for original research and the ancient Indians

made notable advances in it. The Atharvaveda is perhaps the original repository of

India‟s medical knowledge. Study was made of symptoms and causes of diseases,

and curative means were researched. Herbs, fruits, flowers and minerals were

studied and experimented upon to evolve medical cur Susruta and Caraka

Samhitas, the two great classics of Ayurveda (the science of life), give a clear

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picture of the medical and surgical practices in use more than 2000 years ago in

India. Several surgical instruments, including scalpels, catheters, syringes and

forceps, were developed by the early surgeons who could conduct operations for

cataracts and laparotomy. Surgical knowledge spread from India to the Arabs,

Greeks and Egyptians. Persian influence gave rise to Unani medicine in India in

the thirteenth-fourteenth centuries. Plant genetics was also a field of research.

Allied to the medical field was the development of chemistry, natural fallout

of the resea1ch in drugs. Chemical knowledge was put to good use in the

technological processes of dyeing, and in the production of paper, perfume, and

sugar. Experiments were also conducted in the use of new minerals, ores and

alloys. Coating copper vessels with tin, creating a new alloy ware, bidri, and

extracting and using zinc were some of the new developments which were known

in India many years before they were used in Europe. From the sixth century BC

onwards, Indian technical skills were perfected in iron metallurgy, and in steel,

copper, and bronze work, in ceramics, craftsmanship in precious stones and metals,

avid in cosmetics. Several centres for iron forging and copper smelting existed.

Construction engineers in the 12th century were using iron girders and beams on a

large scale. What is more, they were 99 per cent iron and produced in the same

manner as the famous Delhi iron pillar, more than 1,500 years old. This pillar at

Mehrauli appears to have been made rust-proof by the application of a thin coat of

manganese oxide. Unfortunately, no record of the forging technique is available.

The ancient Indians developed a variety of technological skills and technical

equipment which survive, with slight modifications, to this day. They were able to

devise suitable equipment for the methods of agriculture. They were familiar with

the growing methods of various crops, treatment of seeds, preparation of soil, crop

rotation, and irrigation methods. Dykes were built to create reservoirs, and

irrigation canals were used. Climatic conditions prompted the people to devise

means of food preservation in the form of pickles, chutneys, murabbas, etc. Ghee

was extracted from butter.

In the field of construction, the Indus Valley Civilization displayed advanced

skills. The Vedic Civilization did not show advanced constructional techniques

but, in time, the people developed the skill. Cutting arid building in stone has

always been well developed in India. Stone temples were often constructed on the

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ground, the stones fitted and marked, then dismantled and reconstructed in the

proper setting; the method anticipated the modern technique of reconstructing

ruined monuments whose elements can be found and identified. Indian technology

developed several very hard cements, e.g., vajralepa. The lacquer technique is said

to have originated in India.

Constructional engineering reached high levels in the medieval age as

reflected in the wide range of monuments, both Hindu and Indo-Islamic.

Hydraulics appears to have been well developed. Many a palace and fort enjoyed

the facility of running water, often hot and cold.

It was war, as is so often the case that led to the development of industrial

technology in the 16th and 17th centuries. Cannons and guns of considerable

mechanical sophistication began to be made.

Navigation too underwent changes. Indian sailors used a magnetic needle

floating on water (shades of the compass?) in the 13th century itself. Significantly,

many of the European countries had their ships made in India.

However, somewhere along the way, Indians lost or suppressed the inquiring

spirit, closed their minds to the free flow of thought; there was stagnation instead

of experimentation with new ideas, a preference for a rigid tradition over

innovation. Historical and socio-economic factors may have caused this

fossilisation: traditional compulsions, instability resulting from frequent political

upheavals, lack of a middle class to encourage and support innovative thinkers, a

rigid caste-riven social structure, a separation between the thinker and craftsman.

Whatever the reasons, it was only with the colonisation of India by the British that

a new phase in scientific and technological progress began.

The British brought to India contemporary science and technology— what is

often termed „modem‟ science and technology. However, the educational/research

developments in this period were directed to meet the British Government‟s needs,

and not primarily meant for India‟s socioeconomic betterment. But, unwittingly

perhaps, these activities promoted indigenous efforts to develop scientific thought.

The foundation of the Asiatic Society in 1784 by Sir William Jones marks

the beginning of public interest in scientific research. The Society helped the

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founding of the Indian Museum of Calcutta in 1866. The Asiatic Society published

papers in physics, chemistry, geology and medical sciences, and thus played an

important role in the advancement of sciences in India.

The Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, founded in 1876 by

Dr. Mahendra LaL Sircar, provided laboratory facilities and became a prominent

scientific research centre in the country. One may also recall the Bombay Natural

History Society, founded in 1883, and the Indian Mathematical Society, which was

started in 1907 mainly through the efforts of V. Rangaswami Iyer under the name

of Analytical Club with its headquarters at Fergusson College, Poona. The Calcutta

Mathematical Society was established in 1908 with Sir Ashutosh Mukhopadhya as

its first president, with the objects of fostering and encouraging the study of

mathematics in all its branches, promoting the spirit of original research, and

publishing a periodical. The efforts of Prof. P.S. MacMahon of Lucknow and Prof.

Simon of Madras led to the formation of the Indian Science Congress Association

in 1914. The establishment of these societies played a major role in creating a

scientific consciousness, bringing scientists together and enabling them to make

the government give support to scientific research.

The main scientific activities in the government sector were largely carried

out by the medical and the engineering corps of the army and civil officers

interested in science, as a spare time activity. These men, trained in European

institutions and laboratories, left a record of their work and made a mark in various

branches of sciences through original contributions. They brought out considerable

literature on science and technology built up a sizeable store of scientific

apparatus, chemicals and research tools, and founded a few of the important

scientific institutions in the country. They created a tradition of dedicated scientific

research, and the Indians who worked under them carried this forward.

Geologists had been employed since 1818 for survey work. In 1851 the

Geological Survey of India was organised, under the efforts of Thomas Oldham,

the then Professor of Geology in Dublin. The beginning of geological studies may

be traced to the last quarter of the 18th century. A series of discoveries of Siwalik

fossils, and research on these, were made by H. Falconer and P.T. Cautlay. The

Trigonometrical Survey of the Peninsula of India was established in 1800 and was

expanded as Great Trigonometrical Survey of India in 1818. The Topographical

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and Revenue Surveys grouped together under the Surveyor General of India in

1817 and a School of Surveying established in Madras, after several

transformations, were consolidated with Trigonometrical Survey in 1878 as the

Survey of India.

The Botanical Gardens was established in 1788. Dr William Roxbery was

the first to start research on Indian plants in the Botanical Gardens. The Botanical

Survey of India was established in 1890. Zoological research in India dates back to

the appointment of Edward Blyth as the Curator of the Museum of the Asiatic

Society in 1841. His successor, John Anderson, became in 1866 the first

Superintendent of the Indian Museum with the zoological and anthropological

collections under his direct charge. In 1916, the zoological and anthropological

sections of the Indian Museum were converted into the Zoological Survey of India.

Significantly enough, while those areas of science and technology which

served British industrial interests were developed early, industrial research and

needs of industry were not given much attention by the British, as they wished to

keep India as a supplier of raw material to British industries and a market for

British manufactures. The requirements of the First World War and the political

pressure of the national movement, however, led to the appointment of the Holland

Commission in 1918 for appraising, amongst other things, the status of the then

existing industrial research facilities, and to make recommendations for its

improvement. Nothing much was done till 1935 when the government established

an Industrial Intelligence and Research Bureau with the object of “making a

beginning and to lay the foundation on which a research organisation suitable for

the needs of the country could later be constructed”. An Industrial Research

Council was set up to advise on measures for the coordination and development of

industrial research.

Once again, the Second World War forced the then government to establish

units to serve the needs of a besieged Britain. The Board of Scientific and

Industrial Research was established to advise the government on research for

development of Indian industries, particularly those connected with the war. The

Board emphasised the need and provided the basis for a central organisation to

plan research, to bring about effective coordination to their search activities in the

country, and to promote the application of research for national development.

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In 1942, an Industrial Research Fund was created by the government for the

purposes of fostering industrial development in the country, and the Council of

Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) was constituted as an autonomous body

to administer the fund. The proposals for the establishment of a National Physical

Laboratory and a National Chemical Laboratory were accepted, and plans for other

laboratories for food technology, building, road, leather, electro-chemicals and

others were later formulated. These plans were taken up after Independence and

research institutes established for these areas, incidentally on the lines of the

institutes established in the United Kingdom, under the Department of Scientific

and Industrial Research.

It was the high incidence of diseases unknown to the West, the cost of their

treatment, and their impact on army and administration that necessitated research

in British-ruled India relating to diseases like cholera, plague, malaria, beri-beri,

kala azar, etc. In 1892, the Bacteriological Laboratory at Agra was established with

Mr. P.H. Hankin as its head. The spread of plague in Bombay in 1896 led to the

deputation of Mr. WM. Haffkine to work on this problem. In 1899, Haflkine

developed a plague vaccine and established a small laboratory, called Plague

Research Laboratory, in Bombay, (renamed in 1926 as Hafikine Institute). The

Pasteur Institute was established at Kasauli in 1900. Three years later, the King

Institute was established at Guindy for the manufacture of calf- lymph and‟ for

general bacteriological work. In 1907, another Pasteur

Major Historical Scientific Achievements in India

Iron and Steel

Iron was known in the Ganga Valley in the second millennium

Rust-free steel was an Indian invention, the production of remained

an Indian skill for centuries.

Zinc

Important Indian contribution to metallurgy came with the discovery

use of zinc. India‟s discovery of zinc distillation whereby the metal

vapourised and then condensed back into pure metal S considered a

major breakthrough.

Engineering

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India‟s indigenous technologies are very sophisticated and intriguing

to the world. The Harappan civilisation was one of the world‟s and

most advanced. Among the many Pioneering items of engineering are

the drainage systems for water—open as well clod, irrigation

systems, water storage tanks, and dams. History traces the use of

stairs for multiple-storied buildings.

Water Management

Scientists estimate that in the ancient and medieval times, there more

than a million man-made water lakes and ponds across which enabled

rain water to be harvested and used for irrigation, drinking, etc.

Textiles

The Indian textiles are known for their quality since ancient times,

these were exported to many foreign countries. The Roman archives

even have record of official complaints about massive cash drainage

due to the imports of textiles from India. One of the earliest industries

relocated from India to Britain was textiles.

Shipping

The earliest-known ocean-based trading system has been traced India.

The compass and other navigation equipments were already use in the

Indian Ocean much earlier than in Europe.

Farming

Historically, India‟s agricultural production was large and sustained

huge population compared to other regions in the world.

Indian farmers are credited for developing non-chemical eco-friendly

pesticides and fertilisers that have modern applications.

Surpluses from farming were stored properly for use in a drought

year even in ancient times.

Crop rotation and soil technology that have been passed down for

more than a thousand years are considered as traditional practices in

which India pioneered.

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Traditional Medicines

„Ayurveda‟, developed during the Vedic times, emerged as a full-

fledged medical science by the fifth century BC.

Traditional medicines over the period have become well known and

many multinationals have been trying to secure patents on Indian

medicine.

Astronomy and Mathematics

Astronomical science and mathematics in India is known to have

preceded developments in these fields in Europe by several centuries.

Indian mathematics had its origin in Vedic practices.

Important concepts like the discovery of zero, decimal system were

developed in India.

Institute was set up at Coonoor. In 1910, Sit Leonard Rogers proposed the

establishment of the School of Tropical Medicine in Calcutta. Thus a chain of

institutes with facilities for medical research was established and a cadre of

scientific workers in this field created. Sir Harcourt Butler first Member of the

Department of Education, Health and Lands, of the Viceroy‟s Executive Council,

and Sir Pardy Lukis, the Director-General of Indian Medical Service, worked

towards the establishment of an India Research Fund Association in 1911, its

primary objectives being research propagation of knowledge and experimental

measures generally ii connection with the causation, mode of spread and

prevention of communicable diseases.

Agricultural research began with the establishment of the Agricultural

Research Station and Experimental Farm (later called the Imperial Institute of

Agricultural Research) at Pusa in Bihar with the help of donation made by an

American philanthropist, Mr. Henry Phipps Chicago. Subsequently, separate

departments of agriculture were constituted in different provinces. Agricultural

colleges were established Ponna, Kanpur, Nagpur, Layallpur (now in Pakistan),

Coimbatore and Sabour. In 1921, agriculture, which had so far been a central

subject, w transferred to provinces, which were to deal with policy, administration,

coordination of agricultural research and education.

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A Royal Commission on Agriculture was appointed in 1926 examine and

report on conditions of agriculture and the rural economy of India with particular

reference to the measures being taken for the promotion of agricultural and

veterinary research and education recommendations led to the establishment of the

Imperial Council Agricultural Research in 1929 with the primary object of

promoting, guiding and coordinating agricultural research and education in India.

The Council was also to serve as a link between agricultural institutions India and

in foreign countries. A number of central commodity committees dealing with

research in particular crops, namely cotton (192 jute (1936), sugarcane (1944),

tobacco (1945), coconut (1945), and oilseeds (1947), were also set up as semi-

autonomous bodies. A bacteriological laboratory was established in 1889 in Pune,

subsequently transferred Mukteshwar in 1893. The branch at Izatnagar, Bareilly,

was opened 1913 and the name changed to Imperial Veterinary Institute (now

know as Indian Veterinary Research Institute).

Not much research activity was carried on in private institutes. A few

institutes were established by scientists or public men, some of them being the

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru (1911); the Bose Institute, Calcutta (1917);

the indian Academy of Science, Bengaluru (1934) of which the Raman Research

Institute is a part; Sheila Dhar Institute of Soil Sciences, Allahabad (1936); the

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Bombay (1945); Shri Ram Institute for

Industrial Research, Delhi (1947). Institutes like the Indian Institute of Science,

Bengaluru established by the Tatas played a notable role as a centre of research at a

time when India possessed few research facilities. Their development was

accelerated only after Independence, and they are now centres of higher studies

research in their respective fields.

Though the policy of promotion of science and technology and their use for

developing agriculture, health and industry was guided by political considerations,

a number of dedicated British scientists found in India Unlimited possibilities for

contributing to knowledge. Their research collection of valuable data did much for

building a modem scientific base for the country.

Their deliberations, new standards of objectivity, and respect for facts as a

part of discussions created a new awareness amongst the people, made them realise

the importance of science and technology and possibilities of development through

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their use. Scientific and technological infrastructure, once created, begins to

interact with situations and opportunities and „le1ps in promoting a self-generating

scientific and technological tradition. The political leadership of the Independence

movement continuously brought pressure on the then government for greater

educational facilities and creation of industries. As a result, when India became

free it had, in contrast to many other colonies, a scientific and technological

foundation which would support the future needs newly independent country,

provided the political leadership was visionary enough to utilise it.

S&T POLICIES AFTER INDEPENDENCE

There can be little doubt that Jawaharlal Nehru, India‟s first prime minister,

was fully cognizant of the indispen-sability of science and technology in the

economic and social development of the country. Considering planning to be

science in action, and the scientific method be the very essence of planning, he

moved in Parliament the Scientific Policy Resolution of 1958.

Science Policy Resolutions

The Science Policy 1958 stated that the aim was to foster, promote and

sustain the cultivation of the sciences and scientific research in the country and to

encourage individual initiative for dissemination of scientific knowledge, recognise

the work of research scientists, and ensure that the creative talent of men and

women was encouraged to find full scope in scientific activity; above all, to secure

for the people of the country all benefits that can accrue from the acquisition and

application of scientific knowledge.

The Resolution of 1958 enunciated the principles on which the growth of

science and technology in India has been based over the past several decades. The

policy emphasised self-reliance, as also sustainable equitable development. The

Science Policy Resolution of 2004 takes into account changes in the nature and

organisation of scientific efforts primarily due to economic changes in

liberalisation phase of the 1990s. The policy seeks to integrate the activities of

science and technology with education and research based on the demands of

industry, service, agricultural sector and other societal requirements.

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The highlights of the policy include the following: (i) to link research and

development to the broader national and global economy through proper

investments by the private sector; (ii) to promote traditional technologies,

especially those of the grass-root innovators; (iii) to encourage and recognise

scientific merit, talent and innovation; (iv) to attract Indian scientific diaspora to

contribute to critical R&D and national development; and (v) to focus on quality

science education.

Technology Policy

As Indian scientific endeavour progressed, it was felt that newer indigenous

technologies needed to be developed even as imported technologies were to be

efficiently absorbed and adapted.

The Technology Policy Statement of 1983 grew out of the felt need for

guidelines to cover a wide-ranging and complex set of related areas keeping in

mind the capital-scarce character of a developing economy. It aims at ensuring that

the country‟s available natural endowments, especially human resources, are

optimally utilised for continued increase in the well-being of all sections of people.

Techno logical advancement is sought to solve the country‟s multifarious problems

and safeguard its independence and unity. Among its objectives are attainment of

technological competence and self-reliance, provision of gainful employment,

making traditional skills commercially competitive, ensuring maximum

development with minimum capital, modemisation of equipment and technology,

conservation of energy, ensuring harmony with environment, etc.

To evolve instruments for implementation of the Technology Policy, the

government set up inJune, 1983, a Technology Policy Implementation Committee.

On completion of its tenure in mid-1987, it gave way to a new autonomous body,

Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC), which was

constituted for strengthening national capabilities in technology forecasting and

assessment and to provide government with independent policy options and advice.

Working under the Department of Science and Technology, it monitors

technological developments in India and abroad. TIFAC has undertaken an

important project for integrated, computerised, interactive and decentralised

nationally accessible technology information system called TIFACLINE.

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The draft for the 1993 Technology Policy Statement was released with the

aim of giving a renewed sense of purpose to indigenous technology for its

accelerated development and use in the context of the Industrial Policy Statement

of 1991 and keeping in view the need to adhere to international quality systems as

well as preserve the environment.

In order to enable large sections of our society to derive the benefits from

science and technology, this policy was to be directed to:

achieve a greater spread in the use of technological developments;

ensure accessibility of technological devices to all segments of

society with special emphasis on remote and rural communities in

order to improve their quality of life;

enhance infrastructural facilities;

upgrade traditional skills and reduce drudgery keeping in view the

special needs of women and the weaker sections of society; and

encourage industries for enhancing human skills to upgrade existing

technologies to comparable international levels as well as to attain

such levels for newer and emerging technologies.

This policy, also aimed at:

adoption, adaptation and promotion of state-of-the-art technologies for

waste prevention and reduction by lesser consumption of raw

materials with special emphasis on indigenous efforts;

modification and upgradation of the process technologies for optimal

utilisation of natural resources;

adoption of preventive approach for pollution control;

promotion and use of cleaner technologies; and

ensuring access to cleaner technologies available abroad.

Deliberate steps were to be initiated to continuously augment the number of

scientific and technical personnel in relation to the country‟s population.

Improvement of the quality of management of R&D institutions was to

receive special attention. Pursuit of R&D as a career prospect was to be

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deliberately encouraged through further concrete measures so as to attract

scientists and technologists to the challenges of creative science and innovative

development with a target of doubling their number in R&D by 2000 AD.

The thrust areas for technology development were to be related to:

a) critical technologies regardless of whether they are currently available

from abroad; and

b) those aimed at new products and services and technological

refinements over currently available technologies.

Recognising the critical importance of innovative research, a far more

prominent role for research, development and engineering (R&DE) was envisaged

for the decade ahead, such as:

(i) predominant role for R&DE teams in corporate and Government

sectors;

(ii) association of the relevant R&DE laboratory systems(s) for

technology acquisition particularly when these are imported since

absorption, adaptation and upgradation are inescapable to obviate

repetitive import of technologies;

(iii) institution of measures to upgrade the efficiency and productivity of

the technologies for ensuring quality and enhancing competitiveness;

(iv) enlarged role of R&DE in our economy so that by the turn of the

century the share of the right type of indigenous technology in total

industrial production would rise markedly, targets being set by the

Government;

(v) providing technology support and services for major export- oriented

areas like leather, textiles, jute, jewellery, handicrafts and agro

products;

(vi) providing support for substantive value addition for export in areas

which may emerge due to rapidly changing global mix of

technologies; and

(vii) development of indigenous clean technologies which are urgently

needed to preserve the environment and ensure the health and safety

of our people.

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Noting that the government directly invests in R&DE as well as stimulates

industrial investments by both the public and private sector industries and the total

R&DE expenditure was currently about 0.9 per cent only of the gross national

product (GNP), the aim of this policy was to enhance and to encourage

investments in R&DE, especially by industry, so that the target for R&DE by 2000

could be set to reach two per cent of the GNP. It was also recognised that the

quality of results from R&DE and their applications are equally important.

The private sector R&DE contributions were to be significantly enhanced.

Towards achieving the target for R&DE, the government was to provide for

incentives and other measures to stimulate contributions from the industry based

on the annual turnover.

As there was an urgent need to shift from localised excellence to integrated

excellence, R&DE collaborations were to be deliberately and actively encouraged.

In order to achieve the goals set forth in this Policy Statement, an integrated

set of measures needed to be taken. To ensure this, appropirate executive actions or

legislative measures were to be taken.

Methodologies were to be evolved for a comprehensive watch on the

generation of R&DE results and their application in manufacturing and service

industries. It was to be further ensured that a feedback would be available to

government and corporate sector for taking timely and appropirate corrective

measures.

The government announced yet another Science and Technology Policy in

2003. The policy, among other things, highlights the following objectives:

to mount a direct and sustained effort on the issues of national concern by

using scientific and technological capabilities along with our traditional

knowledge pool;

to vigorously foster scientific research in universities and other academic,

scientific and engineering institutions; and attract the brightest young

persons to careers in science and technology, by conveying a sense of

excitement concerning the advancing frontiers, and by creating suitable

employment opportunities for them; also to build and maintain centres of

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excellence, which will raise the level of work in selected areas to the highest

international standards;

to promote the empowerment of women in all science and technology

activities and ensure their full and equal participation;

to provide necessary autonomy and freedom of functioning for all academic

and R&D institutions so that an ambience for truly creative work is

encouraged, while ensuring at the same time that the science and technology

enterprise in the country is fully committed to its social responsibilities and

commitments;

to ensure that the message of science reaches the common man, so that we

advance scientific temper, emerge as a progressive and enlightened society,

and make it possible for all our people to participate fully in the

development of science and technology and its application for human

welfare;

to encourage research and innovation in areas of relevance for the economy

and society, particularly by promoting close and productive interaction

between private and public institutions in science and technology; and key

leverage technologies such as biotechnology, drugs and pharmaceuticals and

materials science and technology would be given special importance;

to establish an Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) regime which maximises

the incentives for the generation and protection of intellectual property by all

types of inventors;

to encourage research and application for forecasting, prevention and

mitigation of natural hazards, particularly, floods, cyclones, earthquakes,

drought and landslides; and

to promote international science and technology cooperation towards

achieving the goals of national development and security, and make it a key

element of our international relations.

Science and Planning

India has developed its own model of R&D planning. The planning process

adopted over the years is a two-way process involving broad policy guidelines

from the Planning Commission, and ensuring interaction with scientists at national,

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agency, laboratory, and university levels. This ensures the effective participation of

the scientific community in decision making.

The process involves the following steps:

1. The government declares its policy guidelines and thrust areas, which

are communicated to research agencies and institutions.

2. Specialised panels covering different branches of science and areas of

R&D are asked to prepare plans in respective areas.

3. The heads of agencies and directors are advised to prepare plans, who,

in turn, ask the working scientists/specialists to prepare the plan of

work.

4. The plans are coordinated at laboratory level and discussed by

Scientific Advisory Panels of the respective laboratories.

5. The plans submitted at laboratory level are coordinated at agency

level, and subject to the scrutiny of experts, while the agency level

plans are scrutinised at the Planning Commission level, then finalised,

and resources allocated.

The First Ten Plans

The First Plan (1951-56) aimed at the setting up of new national

laboratories and research institutes; translating results of scientific research into

commercial production, and training of personnel for manning the research

institutes and running industries. The exploration and survey of resources was also

emphasised.

During the Second Plan period (1956-61) efforts were made to strengthen

research facilities; coordinate research programmes in various national laboratories

and institutions with the requirement of national planning; link up research work at

the national level with the work carried out at the regional and state levels; and

train and generate scientific manpower in sufficient numbers and ensure its proper

utilisation, and link research and industrial needs.

The Third Plan (1961-66) aimed to strengthen the existing research

institutes and expand facilities for research; encourage basic research, and research

in engineering and technology with a view to developing and manufacturing

scientific and industrial instruments; train scientific manpower and expand the

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programme of research fellowship and scholarship; coordinate research work

carried out by various national laboratories, universities, technical institutions,

laboratories of scientific associations and research wings of government

departments; and utilise the results of research, after establishing its validity,

through pilot plant production and f4ll-scale field experiments.

The Fourth Plan (1969-71) emphasised on purposeful research and

development programmes. Priority areas identified under the plan were steel,

chemicals and instruments. While laboratories were to provide experimental and

pilot plant data to entrepreneurs, engineering consultancy firms were to be engaged

in design engineering and presenting feasibility reports. Cooperation of outside

agencies other than the laboratories of the CSIR was also sought in the preparation

of such reports. The plan aimed at avoiding duplication in the research work of

different laboratories, and stressed the desirability of increasing the utilisation of

indigenous expertise and materials in the nuclear power projects. Space sciences

also received the specific attention of the government.

The Fifth Plan (1974-79) attempted to restructure the research programmes

as far as practicable into projects with predetermined time- spans, costs and

expected benefits. In agriculture, special emphasis was to be placed on

programmes to control crop diseases, encourage dry- farming and develop

agricultural implements. Special emphasis was also laid on the surveying of and

research on natural resources. Space programmes and electronics received

attention as well. Plans were also finalised to make a beginning in the field of

dissemination of scientific information by the setting up of the National

Information System on Science and Technology (NISSAT) under the Department

of Science and Technology.

The Sixth Plan (1980-85) regarded science both as an outlook and as a

value system and, therefore, it was felt that the “task of creating a scientific temper

is a vital necessity for the growth of science and its utilisation in the development

process.” A close nexus between science and technology and education was

envisaged. The Plan also aimed at creating new research institutions with a strong

mandate for theoretical and pure research and to conduct research in such frontier

fields as plasma physics, immunology and applied microbiology; creating

instruments relating to policy formulation and implementation of science and

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technology; and creating necessary structures to transfer the benefits of science and

technology to rural areas. The Technology Policy Statement (1983) was a major

enunciation of government policy during the Sixth Plan period.

The Seventh Plan (1985-90) continued to emphasise on growth, equity and

social justice, self-reliance, improved efficiency and productivity”. In addition it

also emphasised on policies and programmes to accelerate growth in food

production, increase employment opportunities, and raise productivity. It was

against this broad conceptual framework that the strategies for the science and

technology sector were formulated. It recognised new areas in science and

technology emerging on the world scene, such as microelectronics, informatics and

telematics, robotics, biotechnology, material science, oceanography,

instrumentation, several areas in chemistry, modern biology and earth sciences and

space technologies, and wanted them to be thrust areas to receive significant

support.

Technology missions were set up to tackle specific issues in a concentrated

manner.

The formation of the Council for Advancement of People‟s Action and Rural

Technology (CAPART) in 1986 was given a formal recognition in the Seventh

Plan. It serves as a nodal agency for catalysing and coordinating the emerging

partnership between voluntary organisations and the government for sustainable

development of rural areas. Formed by amalgamating two agencies—the Council

for Advancement of Rural Technology (CART) and People‟s Action for

Development India (PADI), CAPART is an autonomous body registered under the

Societies Registration Act 1860 under the aegis of the Ministry of Rural

Development. The agency is now a major promoter of rural development in India,

assisting over 12,000 voluntary organisations across India in implementing a wide

range of development initiatives. It acts as a data bank and clearing house for

information on the voluntary sector, rural technologies and rural development. It

will also provide financial and resource support to voluntary organisations in

conceptualising, developing and implementing a wide range of projects and

development interventions.

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The Eighth Plan (1992-97) sought to integrate science and technology with

the socio-economic sectors. It specified four thrust areas for prioritisation, namely,

basic research in frontline areas; innovative research with emphasis on research

and development activities in emerging technologies which provide India with an

opportunity for securing a position of leadership and self-reliance; diffusion of

appropriate technology and technology support to ancillaries for large units; and

using science and technology in socio-economic and rural sectors to meet the basic

needs of water, nutrition, health and sanitation, shelter, energy, education and

employment.

The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) during the Eighth

Plan was to implement four categories of programmes: industry and economy-

oriented programmes, societal programmes, basic research programmes and

research support activities, and technical services programmes.

A self-reliant and integrated programme, with indigenous building and

launching of satellites with maximal utilisation of Indian industry, was envisaged

in the space profile for the decade for providing and sustaining the space systems

of INSAT and IRS.

During the Eighth Plan period, the draft of a new Technology Policy was

devised and circulated (in 1993).

The Ninth Plan (l9972002) emphasised on self-reliance in the context of

growing global restrictions on high-technology movement, and on the need to

make science and the practitioners of science central to all planning and operations

in the country. The mission mode was projected as necessary if excellence in the

chosen fields was to be achieved. It was pointed out that the administrators and

government officials should act as facilitators of science and not as masters of

scientists. The major focus of the S&T programmes should be to encourage and

strengthen interaction among R&D institutions and the users, said the Plan

document. Considering the limited resources available, the proposal was to

develop the core strengths and concentrate on areas where competitive strengths

could be built so that technological skills could be converted into commercial

strength.

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Environment consciousness needed to be worked into scientific processes so

that clean and eco-friendly technologies could be built. The educational

institutions, it was felt, should create an atmosphere conducive for developing

creative skills and innovative capabilities.

Considering the global restrictions on so-called „dual-use‟ technologies, it

was necessary to invest in and further develop strategic sectors, such as atomic

energy and space science. The Intellectual Property Regime and its restriction1s

would have to be faced, and the challenge of foreign countries patenting life forms

needed to be met with suitable legislation to protect indigenous efforts.

Biotechnology and ocean research were to be seen as other thrust areas. Above all,

the Ninth Plan said, it was necessary to attract creative talent to the scientific field,

especially to frontier areas of research.

The plan document called for greater autonomy in S&T with flexibility as

well as accountability; a story monitoring system to assess research output; a peer

review system; support to basic research on a long-term basis; human resource

development in specialised areas; spinoffs from hi-tech/strategic areas (Space,

Defence, Atomic Energy) for use in civilian sectors; and bringing in professionals

to the S&T system! services through the creation of a pool of science and

technology managers for efficient management and administration of scientific

activities.

The Tenth Plan (2002-2007) document once again observed that, in the

context of the global economic order, the focus of the plan in the S&T sector was

to strengthen application-oriented R&D for technology generation; promote human

resource development, especially in terms of encouraging bright students to take

up science as a career; encourage research in and application of S&T for

forecasting, prevention and mitigation of natural hazards; integrate the

developments in science and technology with all spheres of national activities; and

harness S&T for improving livelihood, employment generation, environment

protection and ecological security.

The approach in the Tenth Plan was to lay greater emphasis on the

development of indigenous technologies and focus on latest technologies available

elsewhere. Significant efforts were made in those areas where India had a

24

competitive edge globally and where the benefits of S&T could percolate to people

who had been denied these benefits so far. This required emphasis on the

development of innovative technologies to meet the country‟s needs and to

preserve, protect and add value to indigenous resources and biodiversity, and

protect and preserve the country‟s rich traditional knowledge. It was thought that

harnessing the full range of technologies (traditional, conventional and modern)

would go a long way in national development.

It was pointed out that Indian exports derived their competitive advantage on

the basis of cheap labour and abundance of natural resources, and that the Indian

export basket did not have a significant amount of technologically-intensive

products. Emphasis was, therefore, to be on the export of high-tech, products and

export of technology.

Priority was accorded to technologies oriented towards human welfare—

technologies that could provide creative and cost-effective solutions in health

services, population management, mitigating the effects of natural hazards,

conservation of land, water and energy resources, and their integrated management

for sustainable development.

The plan document expressed some worry about the declining popularity of

science and the unwillingness of the youth to adopt scientific fields as a career.

Imaginative and innovative programmes needed to be undertaken to attract

the students to science and technology and enhance the number of young scientists.

During the Tenth Plan, massive support was provided to basic research,

especially in universities, so that India could contribute significantly towards

advancing that frontier.

While building on the comparative advantage that India possesses in the

emerging areas of information technology (IT) and biotechnology, special attention

was given to agriculture and agro-based industries and infrastructure sectors like

energy, transportation, communication and housing. S&T concerns were to be

integrated into various policies and programmes covering the economic, energy,

environmental and other socio-economic sectors. This integration was to be

reflected in the identification of technological choices, the investments, and the

25

S&T interventions in the individual sectors. The approach was to make S&T an

essential component in the plans and programmes of development sectors.

Focus areas during the Tenth Plan were the following:

(i) in an increasingly competitive world, Indian industry needed the

support of indigenous S&T in a big way.

At the macro level, S&T management should focus on meeting the needs of

the nation (including industry), and encompass a wide spectrum of activities,

namely basic research, applied research, technology transfer, design, development,

fabrication, tests and trials, manufacturing, marketing, maintenance and product

support during the life cycle. At the micro level, R&D institutions and the

academia must move from R&D to R&D and Engineering so that the indigenous

technology could meet the specific requirements of the Indian industry.

Industry should pay much more attention to the external sources of

technology, and upgrade its technology through quantum leaps in technological

inputs. It should anticipate and take advantage of technological changes to develop

new products.

In order to strengthen the industry-R&D academia interface, and enhance the

level of industry participation, appropriate steps needed be taken at various levels

by all concerned—government, industry associations, R&D institutions and

universities.

Measures included: joint workshops/seminars and exhibitions; promotion of

sandwich programmes involving attachment of students to industry during their

academic stints; establishment of sustained one- to-one linkages between R&D/

academic institutions and the industries located in a particular region; and setting

up of accurate, up-to-date, reliable, realistic and user-friendly database on

indigenous technological expertise/ infrastructure, S&T personnel, R&D

programmes, technological breakthroughs and innovations, etc. Encouraging the

mobility of S&T personnel between industry and R&D/academic institutions was

also a thrust area.

Policy, procedures and systems should be reformed to encourage the

academic faculty to accept contract/collaborative research for industry.

26

Technology transfer to industry was to be another thrust area. R&D!

academic institutions should give appropriate importance to design and product

engineering aspects, and to the application, and constant upgrading of the

technology to be transferred.

Government and industry associations should work together for the

establishment of independent test facilities for reliable quality-checks, calibration

and also for technology validation. Establishment of Industry S&T Interface

Institutions (ISTI), with technology management centres manned by qualified

personnel, could also be considered, besides the establishment of S&T

entrepreneurship parks, Technology Business Incubators, and upgrading R&D

infrastructure of the industry through consortiums of i1ustry associations.

(ii) It was essential to evolve a mechanism and identify programmes for

application of S&T for improving the quality of the life of the people, particularly

the weaker sections and women, for the development of rural areas to reduce

regional imbalances, and for inculcating scientific awareness among the masses.

During the Tenth Plan, a mechanism was envisaged through which the scientific

institutions/departments took stock each year of the industrial products developed

and the impact of these on improvement in the quality of life in the rural areas, in

terms of health and nutritional status, purchasing power potential and increasing

knowledge and empowerment.

The S&T interventions must aim at providing simple, affordable scientific

solutions, which help the individual to save time and energy, and augment income.

Technologies that aim at value addition in the products of cottage small

scale industry could play a vital role in improving their competitiveness. Broadly

speaking, S&T could play an important role in reaching IT to the remotest parts of

the country by emphasising on computer literacy, making it accessible even to

those not having formal education. The „problem population‟ could thus be

converted into a valuable „human resource‟ through activity-oriented training and

skill improvement, helping to develop entrepreneurship and facilitating self-

employment by using new technologies.

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It was also important to find ways of making people cultivate the habit of

using natural resources like wood, bamboo, medicinal plants, etc., more judiciously

through the application of environmentally-clean technologies.

Information dissemination on useful technologies needed to be strengthened

and the concept of Common Facility Centres needed to be introduced for

motivating people to use various technologies for their benefit and to provide

necessary assistance to the user groups on new technologies.

Special emphasis was to be given to identifying, promoting and supporting

grassroot innovations, adding value to them and disseminating them to ensure that

the impact of such innovations is reflected in improvec prospects of livelihood for

a large number of people.

(iii) International cooperation in science and technology was seen as

essentially a mechanism to enable interaction between scientific researchers to

update and refine the knowledge base, develop advanced technology, and to take

mutual advantage of complementary scientific and technological capabilities. This

would help in the creation of national science and technology assets through

optimum utilisation of available resources. The emphasis was on building

capability in terms of upgrading skills, modernisation of facilities, and exchange of

information. The thrust during the Tenth Plan was on: participation in major

international programmes; establishment of centres of excellence/international

quality facilities by wooing non-resident Indians as well as foreign scientists to

work in these institutions; intensification of cooperation with developing countries

by offering fellowships to science and technology personnel from those countries

to work and be trained in India; programmes for attracting talented young Indian

researchers working abroad to work in Indian institutions on Swarnajayanti

Fellowship; and also inviting foreign scientists to undertake research in Indian

institutions and utilise international class facilities like the Giant Meter Radio

Telescope in Pune, telescope facilities in Hanle in Ladakh, etc.

The Tenth Plan also emphasised catalysing technology development by

establishing joint R&D centres for pre-commercial technology development;

showcasing Indian expertise/technologies through exhibitions; integration of the

S&T International Cooperation Programme with major national programmes like

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natural disaster mitigation, AIDS/cancer research, alternate energy sources, clean

technologies; protection of intellectual property rights arising from joint

research/cooperative projects; coordination of international S&T cooperation and

management of the database information system; enhancing S&T representation in

Indian missions abroad, etc. Some of the science and technology areas identified

for international cooperation included: basic sciences, high performance ceramics,

high performance polymers, nano-materials, nano-technology and nano-

electronics, sensors, manufacturing technology, bionics, development of coupled

atmosphere-ocean models for extended range prediction/climate prediction, global

networking for natural disaster management, functional genomics and proteomics,

diagnostics and vaccine research, plant and agricultural biotechnology,

technologies for exploration and exploitation of ocean resources, training of

scientists/technologists from developing countries in coastal zone studies, research

in the ocean atmosphere coupled models with advanced countries, science

popularisation/communication (like the establishment of a chair) etc.

(iv) It was noted that although there has been a phenomenal growth in the

number of universities and colleges imparting science education, there has been a

consistent decline in the percentage of school students opting for science after

passing the higher secondary examinations, from 32 per cent in 1950 to 15 per cent

now. Human resource/manpower development assumes a special significance in

the process of developing technological innovations as well as implementation of

new technologies and finding solutions to problems arising during the process of

modernisation. It is also a measure of the strength of the country as it contributes to

socio-economic development. Development of S&T manpower depends on the

quality of higher education in science and technology. It was noted that

considerable strengthening of the scientific and technical manpower would be

needed with the liberalisation of the economy and the thrust on science and

technology programmes. This was to be done by selectively nurturing excellence

in S&T education; identifying talented students and motivating them to take up

science and technology as a career providing avenues and opportunities for those

engaged in the science and technology field to update and enhance their knowledge

and skills; devising strategies to retain the best talents in active scientific work and

involving the corporate sector in science education and R&D.

29

Mi this was to be achieved through setting up of specialised science

institutes as centres of excellence on par with the Indian Institutes of Technology

(IITs) and Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs); adoption of at least one school

and one undergraduate college by each national laboratory; attracting talented

students to R&D through an assured career opportunity scheme; and upgrading the

knowledge base of teachers through the concept of floating academics on a

regional basis in new emerging areas like genomics, bio-informatics, conducting

polymers, etc. Other measures included; liberalisation of travel grants for attending

conferences/seminars abroad, co-joint appointments with universities abroad;

getting the corporate sector to sponsor chairs in specialised institutes and to adopt a

school or college; providing graduate-level and postgraduate-level merit

scholarships/fellowships from a central fund for netting young talented scientists,

etc.

Eleventh Plan Initiatives

The Department of Science and Technology (DST) has developed some

carefully planned interventions to be implemented during the Eleventh Five-Year

Plan period. The planned interventions are; (a) attraction of talents to study and

careers with science; (b) attraction of larger outlay for science; (c) programmes for

rejuvenation of research in Indian universities and expansion of base for research

and development; (d) increasing the efficiencies of delivery of research funds; (e)

development of measurement and parameters for accountability. DST has

developed its plan and programmes of the eleventh plan with a focus on long term

impacts and on strengthening of the foundation of science and technology base of

India.

It was reported in the media in December 2007 that, realising the need to

invest heavily in innovation and technology to meet the goals set under Vision

2025, the Eleventh Five-Year Plan—endorsed by National Development

Council—has more than tripled the proposed allocation for scientific research and

development initiatives to be undertaken by the concerned government

departments.

The draft plan admits that “the scientific and technological output is not

commensurate with the potential of the country because of low investments in

30

science and technology”. The Eleventh Plan is reported to have projected an outlay

of P.s 73,304 crore for the period 2007-2012.

It envisages the formulation of a National Innovation Policy to encourage

competition among enterprises, greater diffusion of knowledge and increased

support to early stage technology development initiatives and grassroots level

innovations. In addition, it also talks of putting in place a legislative framework for

providing incentives to innovators.

Emphasising on the need to spruce up, the draft draws comparisons with

other nations, stating that “the comparative strength of India in knowledge sectors

would be seriously disadvantaged in competition to other nations with similar or

even smaller sizes of economy relative to India if adequate investments are not

made in this domain”. Listing the research and development (R&D) statistics

2004-05, it says the country invests a meagre 0.8 per cent of gross national produce

in R&D compared to more than 2 per cent by developed nations.

It proposes the establishment of Centres of Relevance and Excellence

(CORE) in academic and R&D institutions in select areas that are relevant to

industries. Other proposals include the Council for Advancement of People‟s

Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) to become an effective link between

technology generation centres and various ministries for dissemination and

propagation of technology packages through employment generation and capacity

building schemes.

To provide a boost to biotech clusters, creation of such clusters would be

considered. It also proposes a National Biotechnology Regulatory Authority to

provide effective single window clearance mechanism for all biotechnology

products.

In short the Plan proposes—

Outlay of Ps 73,304 crore for science and technology for 2007- 2012

Formulation of a National Innovation Policy to encourage competition

among enterprises.

Establishment of industry relevant Centres of Relevance and

Excellence in academic and R&D institutions

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Creation of biotech clusters in Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Orissa, Punjab

and West Bengal

National Biotechnology Regulatory Authority for single window

clearance for all biotechnology products.