Selection

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Selection

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Introduction

Selection is the process by which an organization chooses the person(s) who best meets the selection criteria for the position available Decisions must be made efficiently

and within the boundaries of EEO lawsSelection programs try to identify applicants with the

best chance of meeting or exceeding the organization’s standards of performance

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Introduction

Performance refers to more than quantity of output It can also mean quality of output, good attendance,

and honesty

Successful selection doesn’t always mean finding someone with the most of a given qualityThe goal is an optimal match between the job and

the characteristics an applicant possessesIdentify which characteristics are the most important

for the circumstances

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Internal Environmental Influences

Organizational characteristics can influence the selection process: SizeComplexityTechnological volatility

An organization’s attitude abouthiring from within is also a determinant

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Internal Environmental Influences

Development and implementation of large-scale selection efforts can be costlyComplex systems are found at larger organizations To recover the development costs, there must be a

sufficient number of jobs to be filled

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External Environmental Influences

Employment laws/regulations affect what an organization can do in its selection system Federal and state laws both have an impactSome states have tighter limits on drug testing Others offer protection to employers who provide

feedback during reference checks

When unemployment rates are low, it may be hard to attract and hire the number of people needed When there is an oversupply of qualified applicants,

selection strategies differ

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External Environmental Influences

Human resource specialists evaluate the effects of the labor market on selection by using a selection ratio: Selection ratio =

Number of applicants hired ·\· Total applicants

When the selection ratio is close to 1:1, it is a high selection ratioThe lower the selection ratio, the more detailed the

selection processThe organization can be more selective, but the

selection decision will require more time and money

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Selection Criteria

Understanding the characteristics essential for high performance The characteristics are identified during job analysis They must be reflected in the job specification

The goal of any selection system is to:Determine which applicants possess the knowledge,

skills, abilities, and KSAOs dictated by the job

The system must distinguish between characteristics that are: Needed at the time of hiring, acquired during

training, and developed on the job

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Categories of Criteria

Criteria for making selection decisions fall into these broad categories: EducationExperiencePhysical characteristicsOther personal characteristics

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Formal Education

Many cognitive, motor, physical, and interpersonal attributes are present because of:Genetic predispositions and learning

Educational accomplishment is a common, cost-effective way to screen for these abilities Education may be required in a particular area of

expertise To be legal, educational standards must be related to

successful performance of the job Do not set standards higher than required by the job

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Experience and Past Performance

Many believe that past performance on a similar job is the best indicator of future performance Employers also consider experience a good indicator

of ability and work-related attitudes

Studies prove that experience is related to job performanceHowever, the organization must have a rational basis

for defining what “relevant experience” means

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Physical Characteristics

In the past, many employers used physical characteristics as a criterionEmployers were more likely to hire

and pay better wages to taller menFlight attendants and receptionists

were hired on the basis of beauty Such practices discriminated against

ethnic groups, women, and the handicapped

These practices are now illegal unless a physical characteristic is directly related to work effectiveness

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Personal Characteristics and Personality

The personal characteristics and personality types category includes marital status, sex, age, and so onSome employers prefer married employees because

they are assumed to be “stable” and have a lower turnover rate

Other employers prefer single employees, who may be more open to a transfer or lengthy overseas assignment

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Age has also been used as a criterionIt is illegal to discriminate against those over 40No law addresses this for younger people Age restrictions can only be used if job-related

This issue will become more important by 2010, when the median age in the U.S. will be 40.6 years

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Certain aptitudes and skills can also be included in this category Example: The military uses spatial-relations aptitude

as one criterion for selecting potential pilots

Many employers prefer employees with certain personality types Example: Having an outgoing personality may be

useful to salespeople

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Personality tests have been more positive since validation of the Big Five personality factors: Emotional stability ExtroversionOpenness to experienceAgreeablenessConscientiousness

The Big Five traits explain up to 75 percent of an individual’s personality Conscientiousness and emotional stability predict

performance across most occupations

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Selection using personality should be based on whether it is necessary for high performance Personality measures run a greater risk of being

legally challenged as an invasion of privacy You must be certain that successful and unsuccessful

employees can be distinguished by personality

It is unwise to use personality as a general criterion for screening out “undesirable” applicantsThe personality characteristic that leads to failure in

one job might lead to success in another

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Reliability & Validity of Selection Criteria

Once a set of criteria has been decided on, a technique for assessing them must be chosen Application blanks and biodata forms Interviews Psychological tests of aptitude and personality Work sample tests Physical and medical testing Reference checks

Regardless of the method chosen, be certain that the information is both reliable and valid

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Reliability

The main goal of selection is to make accurate predictions about people Selection techniques must yield reliable information

Reliability refers to how stable or repeatable a measurement is over a variety of testing conditions A somewhat unreliable tool can still be useful Measurements that are too inconsistent are useless

Test-retest is a common way to assess reliability Reliability is also determined by using interrater

reliability

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Validity

To be useful, measures must also be valid Validity addresses what a test measures and

how well it has measured it The primary concern is whether the assessment

results in accurate predictions about the future success or failure of an applicant

Three types of validity HR specialists should be familiar with: Content Construct Criterion-related

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Content Validity

Content validity is the degree to which a test, interview, or performance evaluation measures skill, knowledge, or ability to perform a job Content validity is not appropriate for abstract job

behaviors

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Construct Validity

Construct validity is a trait that is not typically observable, such as leadership A test has construct validity when it actually

measures the unobservable trait that it claims to measure

Construct validity can be assumed to exist if a large body of empirical work yields consistent results

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Construct Validity

The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures established three requirements for construct validity: A job analysis must systematically define:

The work behaviors involved in the job The constructs that are important to job

performance The test must measure one of those constructs The construct must be related to the performance of a

critical work behavior

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Criterion-related Validity

Criterion-related validity is the extent to which a selection technique can accurately predict one or more important elements of job behavior Scores on a test or performance in a simulated

exercise are correlated with measures of actual on-the-job performance The test is a predictorThe performance score is a criterion

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Criterion-related Validity

Criteria relevant to personnel selection include measures such as: Quality or quantity Supervisory ratings Absenteeism Accidents Sales

The criterion determines if a selection system is legal Choose a measure that reflects the contributions of

employees to the effectiveness of the organization

Two popular types of criterion-related validity are predictive and concurrent

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Predictive Validity

Predictive validity is determined by using the scores from a sample of applicants for a job Administer the test to a large sample of applicants Select individuals for the job Wait an appropriate amount of time and then collect

measures of job performance Assess the strength of the predictor-criterion

relationship

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Predictive Validity

The drawback of predictive validity: The employer must wait until it has hired a large

number of people for whom it has predictor scoresIt must then wait until it can measure the job

performance of the people hired

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Concurrent Validity

Concurrent validity is also used to determine whether a selection test can predict job performance The test is administered to present employees

performing the job At the same time, performance measures for these

employees are collected Test scores are then correlated with the performance

measures

The biggest advantage of concurrent validation:It can be conducted relatively quickly, which makes it

less expensive than predictive validation

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Validity Problems

Potential problems with predictive validation: Uses experienced employees, which can bias

validation in favor of applicants with experience Present employees often balk at completing tests There is a self-selection bias that restricts the range of

test scores (the least skilled workers have been terminated, demoted, or transferred)

Concurrent validation should not be used as an alternative to predictive validation simply because it can be done more quickly

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The Selection Process

In the past, hiring decisions were based on the subjective likes and dislikes of the boss Selection tools were designed to aid this gut reaction Today, selection is viewed as more than intuition

The selection decision is a series of steps through which applicants pass At each step, more applicants

are screened out

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The Selection Process

Insert Exhibit 8-1

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Step 1: Preliminary Screening

The first step in most selection processes involves completing an application form Application blanks vary in length and sophisticationNearly all ask for enough information to determine

minimal qualifications The application eliminates the need for interviewers

to gather basic information Application blanks are subject to the same legal

standards as any other selection method They generally limit questions that imply something

about the applicant’s physical health

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Many organizations add clauses at the beginning or end of their application blanks that help to: Protect the organization against unjustified lawsuits Ensure that applicants and employees understand the

terms of their employment

Three of the more common clauses cover: Applicant’s rights as they relate to the organization The scope of the employment contract Grievances

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The biographical information blank (BIB):Contains more items than typical application blanksAsks for information related to a wider array of

attitudes and experiences

BIB items are based on an assumption that prior experiences are related to future behaviorExample: People who preferred English in school

will perform differently on a given job than people who preferred science or math

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The weighted application blank is designed to be scored more systematically and is more like the BIB Current high and low performers are compared on a

variety of characteristics that were known at the time they applied for the job

Weights are then assigned to the degree of difference on each characteristic

The weights are totaled for each applicant, and the one with the highest score is the preferred choice

Applicants who are judged minimally qualified proceed to the next phase of the selection process

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Step 2: Employment Interview

The interview is the selection technique most often encountered by persons applying for jobs in the U.S. Structure the interview to be reliable and valid Train managers to use good interviewing

techniques

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Types of Interviews

Interviews vary along two important dimensions: How structured it is Whether it focuses on historical information or

hypothetical situations

An unstructured interview has no predetermined script or protocol Structured interviews are more reliable and valid than

unstructured interviews Standardization lowers the possibility that biases

have been introduced by the interviewer

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Types of Interviews

Two types of structured interviews have gained popularity in the U.S.: Behavioral interview—applicants are asked to relate

actual incidents from their past work experience to the job for which they are applying

Situational interview—seeks to identify whether an applicant possesses relevant job knowledge and motivation by asking hypothetical questions

Questions about past experience have higher validity than future-oriented hypothetical questions

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Training for Interviewing

Training programs can reduce many of the errors found in traditional, unstructured interviews This is especially true when the training is used in

conjunction with a structured interview format Validity is enhanced when a trained interviewer takes

behaviorally oriented notes during the interview

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Step 3: Employment Tests

An employment test attempts to measure certain characteristics, such as: Aptitudes Manual dexterity IntelligencePersonality

It can be expensive to develop an employment test, so many employers purchase existing tests Some tests cost as little as $1 per applicant The Mental Measurements Yearbook summarizes

many of the tests and their effectiveness

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Step 3: Employment Tests

Any testing device should be validated before it is used to make hiring decisions Validation studies are expensive; even more so if

questions of discrimination arise Despite the cost, tests can more than pay for

themselves through increased efficiency in selection

The type of test ultimately used depends on: Budgetary constraints The complexity and difficulty of the job The size and quality of applicant populations The KSOAs required by the job

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Job Sample Performance Tests

This test requires the applicant to do a sample of the work that the job involves in a controlled situation Programming for computer programmers Driving course for delivery persons Auditions at an orchestra or ballet company

Applicants are often asked to run the machines they would run on the job The quantity and quality of their

work is compared with the work of other applicants

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Job Sample Performance Tests

Job sample performance tests have some of the highest validities of all selection tests Their superiority lies in the direct relationship with

performance on the job

Face validity should not be confused with actual validity Face validity is how good a test looks for a given

situation Many tests that are valid also look valid, but that is

not always the case

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Cognitive Ability Tests

The best known cognitive abilities are math and verbal These form the basis the Scholastic Aptitude Test

(SAT) and the Graduate Record Examination (GRE)

Verbal and math abilities are also measured by tests developed specifically human resource use: Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale Wonderlic Personnel Test California Test of Mental Maturity (adult level)

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Cognitive Ability Tests

The Minnesota Paper Form Board Test (MPFB) measures spatial relations Clerical aptitude can be determined with the

Minnesota Clerical Test

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Psychomotor Ability Simulations

Psychomotor ability tests are not as popular as they once were; they include:

Choice reaction time Speed of limb movement Finger dexterity

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Personality Inventories & Temperament

The least reliable of the employment tests attempt to measure personality or temperament Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory California Psychological InventoryEdwards Personal Preference Schedule

Some disappointing results are due to a mismatch between the test and the situation in which it was used

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Personality Inventories & Temperament

A different approach utilizes projective techniques to vague stimuli Reactions provide data on which psychologists base

assumptions and interpretations of personality The stimuli are purposely vague to reach unconscious

aspects of the personality The most common are the

Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test

Insert Exhibit 8-8 here

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Polygraph and Honesty Tests

The polygraph is erroneously called a lie detector It records changes in breathing, blood pressure, pulse,

and skin response, then plots the reactions on paper It was a popular selection tool by the mid-1980s

because on-the-job crime had increased tremendously

In recent years, objections have been raised May be an invasion of privacyCan lead to self-incrimination May not be reliable and valid

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The Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 made it illegal for most private organizations to use the polygraph as a selection device

Exemptions:Government agenciesCertain Dept. of Defense and Dept. of Energy

contractorsPrivate employers whose business involves security

and controlled substances

It is legal to use the polygraph during an ongoing investigation of dishonesty if the employee’s rights are safe-guarded

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Organizations searching for an alternative to the polygraph are turning to paper-and-pencil tests Overt integrity tests ask direct questions and gather a

history of theft and other illegal activities Personality-based integrity tests assess a

predisposition toward deviant and disruptive behavior

Honesty tests have acceptable levels of validity and reliabilityThey can also be used to predict future job

performance

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Step 4: Reference Checks

When applying for a job, you may be asked for a list of references Rarely does someone knowingly include the name of

a reference who will give a negative impressionThis built-in bias is why references are criticized

Equally important are concerns over the legality of asking for, and providing, such informationGiving out confidential information could be a

violation of the employee’s right to privacyGiving a negative recommendation opens the

reference up to a defamation lawsuit

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Fears of being sued have led many managers to refuse to provide references for former employees Many organizations include statements in employee

handbooks about reference checking policiesManagers often give out only verifiable kinds of

information, such as date of employment and job title

Organizations must also be wary of any policy which suggests that all references should be neutral They could be sued for a “negligent referral”

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At present, the legal status surrounding reference-checking and providing recommendations is unclearAt least 32 states have passed laws giving managers

some immunity for providing good-faith, job-related information about their employees

Most laws are too new to determine if they will be effective

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Step 5: Physical Examinations

The Americans with Disabilities Act indicates that:Physical examinations can be used to screen out

unqualified individuals, but only after a conditional offer of employment is made

If an organization uses such examinations, everyone who is conditionally offered employment should be required to have one

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A Note on Drug Testing

No other selection practice elicits a more emotional reaction than a drug-testing program About 62 percent of U.S/ corporations use drug tests The Dept. of Transportation mandates drug and

alcohol testing for all employers who have truck/delivery drivers with commercial licenses

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Statistics compiled by the U.S. Dept. of Labor: There are 14.8 million illicit drug users in the U.S.

and three-quarters of them are employed More than 14 percent of employed Americans report

being heavy drinkers More than 1 in 3 workers between 18 and 25 are

binge drinkers Alcohol abuse costs U.S. corporations 500 million

lost work days each year Losses of $120 billion annually are due to drug abuse

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The reliability of drug tests is a major concern: The tests can yield a high number of false positives The personal consequences of being falsely labeled a

drug user are severe

The legality of drug-testing programs has not been establishedHowever, many have withstood challenges in court

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Most good-faith drug testing programs will be legally acceptable if the organization has: Informed all job applicants of the drug-testing

screening program Established a high-quality testing procedure with a

reliable testing laboratory Performed tests in a professional,

non-threatening wayKept results confidential

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Selection of Managers

The employment tests used vary with the type of employee being hired Organizations frequently spend more time, effort,

and money hiring middle- to upper-level executives

One of the best-known multiple selection methods used for this purpose is the assessment centerFirst used by the German military in World War II Used by the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) in the

U.S. in the 1940s Introduced to the business world in the 1950s by

AT&T

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An assessment center uses a variety of testing methods, including: Interviews Work samples and simulations Paper-and-pencil tests of abilities and attitudes

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Assessment centers are similar in a number of areas: Groups of approx. 12 individuals are evaluated Individual and group activities are observed and

evaluated Multiple methods of assessment are used Assessors are usually a panel of line managers for the

organization, consultants, or outsiders trained to conduct assessments

Assessment centers are relevant to the job

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Assessors then evaluate each individual on a number of dimensions, such as: Organizational and planning ability DecisivenessFlexibilityResistance to stressPoisePersonal style

Rater’s judgments are consolidated and developed into a final report

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Assessment center reports permit the organization to determine: Qualifications for particular positions PromotabilityHow individuals function in a group Type of training/development needed How good assessors are at observing, evaluating, and

reporting on the performance of others

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Assessment centers are a valid way to select managers, but they are not without disadvantages Relatively expensive Not a reasonable alternative for smaller organizations Less costly and administratively complicated

techniques may be just as effective

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Selection Cost-Benefit Analysis

Utility: the degree to which using a selection system improves the quality of the individuals being selected Statistical utility: the extent to which a selection

technique allows a company to predict who will be successful

Organizational utility: a matter of costs and benefits

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Whether a selection system should be developed and used depends on whether it saves more money than it costs A cost-vs-benefits analysis requires estimates of the

direct and indirect costs associated with the system Direct costs: the price of the tests, the salary paid

to an interviewer, the equipment used, and so on Indirect costs: such things as changes in public

image associated with implementing drug testing

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An organization must also estimate how much money it saves by hiring more qualified employees Higher levels of quality or quantity Reduced absenteeism Lower accident rates Less turnover

Valid selection procedures can yield huge benefitsThis is especially true where the

costs of hiring a poor performer are high

Putting more money into selection can reduce the amount that must be spent on training

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