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Semantics A World of · PDF fileWhyismeaningimportant? * SemanMcs%is%the%study%of%meaning% %...

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Semantics A World of Meaning plus a li(le test of colors and tools
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Page 1: Semantics A World of · PDF fileWhyismeaningimportant? * SemanMcs%is%the%study%of%meaning% % A%tradiMonal%definiMon%of%meaning:% % the%relaonship%between% referents%and%referends;%%

Semantics A World of Meaning plus  a  li(le  test  of  colors  and  tools  

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Seman&cs:  How  do  we  know  the  meaning  of  words?    Made-­‐up  words  in  Lewis  Carroll’s  Jabberwocky:    

He  chortled  in  his  joy.  .  .    What  does  chortle  mean?      What  about  this:    

‘Twas  brillig,  and  the  slithy  toves  Did  gyre  and  gimble  in  the  wabe:  All  mimsy  were  the  borogoves  And  the  mome  raths  outgrabe.      

‘twas  ADJ,  and  the  ADJ  N+pl  did  V  and  V  in  the  N:  all  ADJ  were  the  N+pl  and  the  adj  n  v.  

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Why  is  meaning  important?    SemanMcs  is  the  study  of  meaning    A  tradiMonal  definiMon  of  meaning:    

the  relaMonship  between  referents  and  referends;    linguisMc  symbols  and  the  objects  or  concepts  they  refer  to    

 

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Reference:  

•  when  we  use  words  in  u(erances,  to  what  do  they  refer?  •  what  is  a  dog?    

Dr.  Johnson,  1755:    

               According  to  Noah  Webster,  1828:  ‘A  species  of  quadrupeds,  belonging  to  the  genus  Canis,  of  many  varieMes,  as  the  masMff,  the  hound,  the  spaniel,  the  shepherds  dog  the  terrier,  the  harrier,  the  bloodhound,  etc.’  

   

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American  Heritage  DicMonary  definiMon:  dog    (dôg,  dŏg)    dog  n.    1.  A  domesMcated  carnivorous  mammal  (Canis  familiaris  syn.  Canis  lupus  subsp.  familiaris)  occurring  as  a  wide  variety  of  breeds,  many  of  which  are  tradiMonally  used  for  hunMng,  herding,  drawing  sleds,  and  other  tasks,  and  are  kept  as  pets.  2.  Any  of  various  carnivorous  mammals  of  the  family  Canidae,  such  as  the  dingo.  3.  A  male  animal  of  the  family  Canidae,  especially  of  a  fox  or  a  domesMcated  breed.  4.  Any  of  various  other  animals,  such  as  the  prairie  dog.  5.  Informal  a.  A  person:  You  won,  you  lucky  dog.  b.  A  person  regarded  as  contempMble:  You  stole  my  watch,  you  dog.  6.  Slang  a.  A  person  regarded  as  una(racMve  or  uninteresMng.  b.  Something  of  inferior  or  low  quality:  "The  President  had  read  the  speech  to  some  of  his  friends  and  they  told  him  it  was  a  dog"  (John  P.  Roche).  c.  An  investment  that  produces  a  low  return  or  a  loss.  7.  dogs  Slang  The  feet.  8.  See  andiron.  9.  Slang  A  hot  dog;  a  wiener.  10.  Any  of  various  hooked  or  U-­‐shaped  metallic  devices  used  for  gripping  or  holding  heavy  objects.  11.  Astronomy  A  sundog.  

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Merriam-­‐Webster,  dog,  n.    1a  :  canid;  especially  :  a  highly  variable  domesMc  mammal  (Canis  familiaris)  closely  related  to  the  gray  wolf  b  :  a  male  dog;  also  :  a  male  usually  carnivorous  mammal  2a  :  a  worthless  or  contempMble  person  b  :  fellow,  chap  <a  lazy  dog>  <you  lucky  dog>  3a  :  any  of  various  usually  simple  mechanical  devices  for  holding,  gripping,  or  fastening  that  consist  of  a  spike,  bar,  or  hook  b  :  andiron  4:  uncharacterisMc  or  affected  stylishness  or  dignity  <put  on  the  dog>  5  capitalized  :  either  of  the  constellaMons  Canis  Major  or  Canis  Minor  6  plural  :  feet  7  plural  :  ruin  <going  to  the  dogs>  8:  one  inferior  of  its  kind  <the  movie  was  a  dog>:  as  a  :  an  investment  not  worth  its  price  b  :  an  undesirable  piece  of  merchandise  9:  an  una(racMve  person;  especially  :  an  una(racMve  girl  or  woman  10:  hot  dog  1  

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is  there  a  quality  of  dogness  that  you  can  disMll?    What  about  chair?    What  about  man?  

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From  the  Oxford  English  Dic@onary:    man.      I.  A  human  being  (irrespecMve  of  sex  or  age).  

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from  Samuel  Johnson’s  DicMonary  (1755):    MAN  1  n.s.    [man,  mon,  Saxon.]    1.  Human  being.  2.  Not  a  woman.  3.  Not  a  boy.  4.  A  servant.  5.  A  word  of  familiarity  bordering  on  contempt.  6.  It  is  used  in  a  loose  significaMon  like  the  French  on,  one,  any  one.  7.  One  of  uncommon  qualificaMons.  8.  A  human  being  qualified  in  any  parMcular  manner.  9.  Individual.  10. Not  a  beast.  11. Wealthy  or  independent  person.  12. A  moveable  piece  at  chess  or  draughts.  13. Man  of  War.  A  ship  of  war.     .

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Noah  Webster,  1828:    MAN,  n.  plu.  men.  [Heb.species,  kind,  image,  similitude.]    1.  Mankind;  the  human  race;  the  whole  species  of  human  beings;    beings  disMnguished  from  all  other  animals  by  the  powers    of  reason  and  speech,  as  well  as  by  their  shape  and  dignified  aspect.    

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 From  the  Century  Dic@onary  (1890):  

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From  Merriam-­‐Webster’s  Collegiate  DicMonary:    1  a  (1)  :  an  individual  human;  especially  :  an  adult  male  human  

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The  problem  of  reference-­‐-­‐    Does  this  sentence  refer?  -­‐-­‐  

The  present  king  of  France  is  bald.    

What  about  this  one:    I  am  a  Cretan;  all  Cretans  are  liars.  

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the  limits  of  reference:      

•  lexical  meaning  is  mediated  by  our  experience  of  the  world  

•  words  don’t  mean  in  isolaMon  from  sentences  

•  words  mean  in  a  physical  and  a  cultural  context  

•  when  we  isolate  words  from  their  context,  we  limit/change  the  way  they  ‘mean’  

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To  interpret  a  word  in  context,  we  sort  through  the  various  meanings  we  know  unMl  we  find  one  that  suits  the  context:    

Would  you  like  to  adopt  a  dog?    We  use  not  just  references  or  dicMonary  definiMons,  but  also  the  cogniMve  skills  we  have  developed  for  navigaMng  the  world  to  interpret  the  meaning.  

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Jessie  doesn’t  like  beer.    Beer  doesn’t  like  Jesse.    There  are  two  disMnct  linguisMc  contexts  at  work  here.  

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Physical  and  cultural  context  play  a  role  in  interpretaMon:    Hey,  dog,  how’re  ya  doin’?    I  wanna’  dog.    My  dogs  are  barking.        Do  you  “share”  the  context  of  this  last  sentence?  

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What  do  you  know  that  a  MarMan  doesn’t?    

Lather,  rinse,  repeat.  

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The  problem  of  shared  meaning:    What’s  at  issue  in  this  Nancy  cartoon  in  terms  of  meaning?  

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What  are  the  presupposi&ons  that  underlie  this  statement:    

I’ll  have  a  cheeseburger.  

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Grover  the  waiter  

Presupposi&on  

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Semantic relationships:

hyponomy: from general to specific; dog, spaniel meronymy: relationship of whoe to part: dog, tail/paw

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synonymy: differences in denotation and connotation: what’s up dawg? / what’s up? / *what’s up, my friend? (is it really unlikely, as the authors claim?) the thesaurus: part of the problem or part of the solution? denotation : reference; connotation: implication few cases of true synonymy (cemetery/graveyard [cf. litchfield]; others differ regionally (pop/soda) or by some other variable)

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antonymy    

gradable:  fat/thin,  hot/cold,  good/bad,  slow/fast    nongradable:  (complementary):  single/married    (what  about,  it’s  complicated?]      male/female  [are  there  other  categories  of  gender?]      dead/alive  [and  yet  we  can  say,  he  was  more  dead  than  alive;  and  what  about  the  undead?]    converseness  

parent/child    [a  person  with  a  child/a  person  with  a  parent]  

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homonymy:  different  words  in  the  same  form:  sink  (plumbing  fixture,  verb)    

homonyms:  radically  different  meaning/sharing  same  form    

homophone:  share  pronunciaMon  homograph:  share  spelling    someMmes  they  are  both:  rose;  someMmes  not:  sink/sync  

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processes  of  seman&c  change:      

the  word  wit    in  IE,  ‘to  see’  in  OE:  ‘mind,  understanding,  intelligence’    (other  words  for  mind:  mod,  >  MnE  ‘mood’)    the  5  senses    sanity:  out  of  one’s  wits  mental  talent,  genius  pracMcal  ability  (mother  wit)  talent  for  saying  sparking  things,  bons  mots  cleverness,  intellectuality  

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generaliza&on:      

lovely,  ‘capable  of  being  loved’  >  general  posiMve  term,  ‘very  nice’  awful:  ‘inspiring  awe’  >  general  negaMve  term  

 specializa&on:      

meat  ‘food’  >  animal  flesh  >  red  meat;    liquor  ‘liquid’  >  potable  liquid  >  alcoholic  beverage  (not  beer  or  wine)  

 metaphorical  extension:    

crane  bird  >  construcMon  equipment    

on  board  from  ships  to  trains  to  planes  to  rockets  to  ideas  

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Descrip&ve  rule  (cons&tu&ve  rule):    

You  have  to  win  at  least  270  electoral  votes  to  become  president.    Prescrip&ve  rule:    

You  can’t  be  re-­‐elected  president  if  the  unemployment  rate  is  over  7.2%    What’s  the  difference?  

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taboo:      

the  n-­‐word;  the  c-­‐word;  the  s-­‐word  (socialism)  everybody  has  words  they  can’t  say  

 euphemism:      

words  for  dying,  being  drunk,  body  parts,  sex,  excrement    dysphemism:      

insult  terms  (racial,  ethnic  and  religious)    

pejora&on:      

a  word  develops  a  negaMve  quality:  the  1980s    

ameliora&on:      

a  word  develops  a  posiMve  quality:  gay,  bitch,  ho  (reappropriaMon)

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linguis&c  rela&vity    

does  language  determine  thought?  Humboldt:  language  >  worldview  (Weltansicht)    

Sapir-­‐Whorf  hypothesis  and  linguisMc  relaMvity:  does  language  limit  or  constrain  cogniMon?    

“We  dissect  nature  along  the  lines  laid  down  by  our  language”    

objecMvism:  we  can  access  reality,  bypassing  language    linguisMc  relaMvity:  differences  in  language  create  differences  in  thought  

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linguis&c  determinism:  thought  is  determined  by  the  categories  available  in  language    -­‐-­‐  ie,  we  can’t  think  outside  the  box    

argument  for:  desensiMzaMon  argument  against:  creaMvity    

all  languages  are  capable  of  expressing  what  their  speakers  need  to  express    we  cannot  assume  world  view  based  on  language  –    

English  has  no  future  tense,  but  that  doesn’t  mean  we  can’t  or  don’t  think  about  the  future    

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Poli&cally  correct  language      

original  meaning:  used  by  the  lew  to  mean  a  dogmaMc  and  mindless  liberality    revived  by  the  right  in  the  1980s  to  mean  knee-­‐jerk  liberalism    it’s  generally  a  dysphemism  but  can  be  used  neutrally    PC  language  reform  assumes  a  Whorfean  view:  language  encodes  meanings  that  channel  our  thinking  about  people  –  but  words  do  have  connotaMons:    

waitress,  stewardess,  lady  doctor,  lady  lawyer,  male  nurse  girl  /  woman  /  lady  Miss/  Mrs.  /  Ms.    

Examples  of  poliMcally  correct  language?  

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Naming  rights:    Geneva  Smitherman  on  sociolinguisMc  determinism:  

 African  American,  black,  colored,  Negro    

other  ethnic  and  racial  terms/preferences?        

responses  to  Asian  as  a  category?    

LGBTQ,  gay,  queer,  lesbian,  homosexual  .  .  .    

trans  pronouns:    

Chelsea  Manning  and  she  the  case  for  they  or  an  invented  pronoun  like  xie,  jie  

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Catalogs  give  creaMve  names  to  colors,  but  what  in  the  spectrum  do  these  represent?  

capri  glacier  storm  light  ginger  seedling  waterfall  brook  autumn  berry  

cadet  mist  safari  vine  endive  heather  smoke  geranium  

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capri  

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glacier

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storm    

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light ginger

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waterfall  

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brook  

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autumn  berry  

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cadet  

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mist  

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safari  

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vine  

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endive  

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heather  smoke  

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geranium  

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A  world  of  color  balanced  by  a  world  of  tools:  

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