Server Primer 2012

8/10/2019 Server Primer 2012

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2012

Server

Primer

Understandingthecurrentstateofthe

industry

GolisanoInstituteforSustainability

DATE:10/10/2012


RochesterInstituteofTechnology

111LombMemorialDrive

Rochester,NY14623

www.sustainability.rit.edu


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October10,2012

2 ServerPrimer

Acknowledgements

The primary authors of this report are Brian Hilton, Senior Research Engineer,

andMichaelWelch,Masters Student,Golisano Institute forSustainability (GIS)

atRochester Institute ofTechnology (RIT).Questions,commentsand feedback

onthisreportshouldbedirectedto:

BrianHilton,Sr.ResearchEngineer



133LombMemorialDrive,Building78,Room1220

Rochester,NewYork146235608

Tel:5854755379

Email:[email protected]

We gratefully acknowledge and thank the primary sponsor, the International

SustainableDevelopment

Foundation,

for

providing

the

resources

and

support

tomakethisreportpossible.Wewouldalsoliketoacknowledgethefacultyand

staffattheGolisanoInstituteforSustainabilityforprovidingresearchdataand

advice on the report focus and content. Additionally, we would also like to

acknowledgetheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyforprovidingthe initial

ecolabel comparison document Server ecolabel comparison 8 15 2011.xls

whichwasusedasthefoundationforthecompaniondocumentforthisreport

Master listofserverstandardsJune2012.xlsx.Wealsosendaspecialthank

you to Pamela BrodyHeine and Patty Dillon who served as an advisors and

reviewersofthisreport.

We believe this report provides useful data, information, findings and

recommendations

for

positioning

the

industry

for

the

future,

including

key

considerationsonenergy,environmentandsustainability.


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October10,2012

3 ServerPrimer

TableofContents

Acknowledgements............................................................................................... 2

1. Introduction................................................................................................... 5

2.

Backgroundand

Purpose

of

the

Study

..........................................................

6

3. ServerIntroduction........................................................................................ 7

3.1. ServerHardware.................................................................................... 7

3.1.1. BladeServerHardware................................................................ 11

3.2. ServerPriceandPerformance............................................................. 12

3.3. ServerMarket&Sales.......................................................................... 12

3.4. ENERGYSTARandExclusionofServerswithMorethanFourProcessor

Sockets............................................................................................................. 15

4.

Server

Industry

Trends

.................................................................................

16

4.1. HighDensityComputing...................................................................... 16

4.2. ServerInternalWasteHeatManagement........................................... 18

4.3. ServerUtilizationandConnectivity..................................................... 20

4.3.1. ServerVirtualization.................................................................... 21

4.3.2. ServerConsolidation.................................................................... 22

4.3.3. CloudComputing......................................................................... 23

5. ServerImpactonOverallDataCenterEnergyUse...................................... 24

6. ServerEnvironmentalAssessments............................................................. 27

6.1. CarbonFootprintofaTypicalDellRackServer................................... 27

6.2. CarbonFootprintofFujitsuPrimergyRXandTX300S5Servers.........29

6.3. CaseStudyofanIBMRackmountedServer....................................... 30

7. ServerStandardScopeTopics..................................................................... 31

7.1. ServerMaterialSelection..................................................................... 31

7.1.1. ServerDemanufacturing:GIS....................................................... 31

7.1.2. ServerDemanufacturing:Cascade............................................... 33

7.2. EnvironmentallySensitiveMaterials................................................... 34

7.2.1.

RoHSDirective

.............................................................................

35

7.3. ProductLongevity................................................................................ 36

7.4. DesignforEndofLife........................................................................... 37

7.5. EndofLifeManagement...................................................................... 37

7.5.1. ServerEndofLife........................................................................ 37

7.5.2. EndofLifeManagement.............................................................. 40


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4 ServerPrimer

7.6. EnergyConservation............................................................................ 42

7.6.1. PSUEfficiencyStandards............................................................. 43

7.6.2. ProcessorEnergyUse................................................................... 44

7.7.

Packaging.............................................................................................

46

8. ServerEnvironmentalStandardsandLabels............................................... 47

8.1. KeyAcronyms...................................................................................... 50


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5 ServerPrimer

1.

Introduction

The computer server industry is in the midst of major change stimulated by

increasingdemandfordataprocessingandstorageasaresultofoureconomys

shiftfrompaperbasedtodigitalinformationmanagement.

The Golisano Institute for Sustainability (GIS) at Rochester Institute of

Technology (RIT), was commissioned by the International Sustainable

DevelopmentFoundation(ISDF)tobetterunderstandthestateofthecomputer

serverindustryandtowhatextenttheindustryhasfacedorisfacingchallenges

associatedwithenergy,environmentandsustainability.

A threemonth research effort was conducted to collect, identify, assess, and

understand the industry trends and environmental impacts associated with

computerservers.ResearchconductedbyRITsoughttobalancetheacquisition

ofdataandinformationthroughquantitativeandqualitativeresearchmethods

tosupporttheserverstandarddevelopmentworkby:

Assessingandunderstandingenvironmentalimpactsonalifecyclebasis

Assessingandunderstandingenergyuseinthecomputerserver

industry

Reviewingcurrentenvironmentalpurchasingstandardsforcomputer

serversandothercomputerequipment

Broadlyunderstandingthebusiness,technology,regulatoryandmarket

challengesofthecomputerserverindustry

DistillingthecommentsanddataprovidedbytheTechnicalCommittee

Theremainderofthisreportpresentsdataand informationknownatthetime

ofpublicationontheenvironmentalimpactoftheserverindustry.Thepurpose

is

to

document

the

current

state

of

the

industry

to

inform

the

TechnicalCommittee charged with drafting a framework of environmental performance

criteriaforthedevelopmentofaproductstandardforservers.Accordingtothe

IEEEProjectAuthorizationRequest,1theproductstandardisintendedtodefine

a measure of environmental leadership in: the design and manufacture of

servers;thedeliveryofspecifiedservicesthatareassociatedwiththesaleofthe

product;andassociatedcorporateperformancecharacteristics.Thisstandardis

defined with the intention that the criteria are technically feasible to achieve,

but that only products demonstrating the leading environmental performance

currently available in the marketplace would meet them at the time of their

adoption.

1P1680.4StandardforEnvironmentalAssessmentofServers,ProjectAuthorization

Request(PAR),https://development.standards.ieee.org/get

file/P1680.4.pdf?t=11051900003


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October10,2012

6 ServerPrimer

2.

Background

and

Purpose

of

the

Study

The International Sustainable Development Foundation (ISDF) requested the

GolisanoInstituteforSustainability(GIS)toconductbackgroundresearchonthe

technical and sustainability issues surrounding the development of computer

serverhardware (server).Research resultsare intended to inform aTechnical

Committeeestablishedby the ISDFwhichwillhelpdrafta framework for the

developmentofaproductstandardforservers.

Thisstudyprovidesaliteraturereviewoftechnicalandscientificstudies,aswell

aspubliclyavailable lifecycleassessmentsperformedon servers.Thiswork is

compiledandsummarizedandisintendedtoprovideacommonfoundationand

referencematerials for participants in the Technical Committee andWorking

Group.

This report includesbackground informationon serverssuchasdescriptionof

servers, server functions, server components, typical server performance

characteristics,analysis

of

market

and

market

size

and

key

players,

and

key

market and performance trends. The report also highlights data within

environmental performance categories ofmaterial selection, environmentally

sensitive materials, product longevity, design for end of life, end of life

management,energyconservation,corporateperformanceandpackaging.

This studywas conductedwith financial support from ISDF anddata support

fromGIS.

AbouttheGolisanoInstituteforSustainability

The Golisano Institute for Sustainability is a multidisciplinary academic and

appliedresearch

unit

of

Rochester

Institute

of

Technology,

Rochester,

NY,

USA.

ThemissionofGISistoundertakeworldclasseducationandresearchmissions

insustainability.

GIS academic and research programs focus on sustainable production,

sustainable energy, sustainablemobility, and ecologically friendly information

technology systems. These programs are led by a multidisciplinary team of

faculty and researcherswho collaboratewithorganizations locally,nationally,

andinternationallytocreateimplementablesolutionstocomplexsustainability

problems.

TheacademiccomponentofGISwasfounded in2007witha$10Mgrantfrom

B.Thomas

Golisano.

The

GIS

Ph.D.

program

started

in

2008

offering

the

world's first doctorate in sustainable production. An M.S. Program in

SustainableSystemswasapprovedandbegun in2010.The firstGISgraduates

receivedtheirdiplomasin2011.

Thisacademicprogramisbuilt,inpart,uponthestrongtrackrecordofthefive

(5)applied researchcenterswithinGIS thataddressproblems facing industry,

government, andnongovernmentalpartners as they regulate,design,deploy,

maintain, and recycleproducts.TheCenter forRemanufacturing,Reuse, and

GolisanoInstitutefor

Sustainabilitynew

75,000sqftacademic

researchbuilding

includingaresearch

datacenterfor

sustainable

computingis

opening

fallof2012.


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7 ServerPrimer

ResourceRecovery (C3R),established in1992,hasplayedamajor role in this

regard,aswill theNewYorkStatePollutionPrevention Institute (NYSP2I).The

applied research centers missions are accomplished through a dynamic

collaboration of nearly 100 fulltime inhouse technical experts, support

professionals,faculty,

and

students.

The

Centers

170,000

square

foot

facility

supports research and development through applied technology laboratories

anda stateofthearteducation center.Additional informationonGIS canbe

foundat:http://www.rit.edu/gis/about/

3. ServerIntroduction

Acomputerserverisahardwaredeviceconnectedtoanetworkwhosepurpose

is tomanage networked resources. The term server can also refer to the

softwareused tomanage thenetworked resources;however, this reportonly

addressestheenvironmentalimpactoftheserverhardware.

Computerserverhardwarehashistoricallybeendedicatedtomanagingasingle

functional purpose; therefore, the server hardware can rangewidely in size,performance, cost, capability, and environmental impact. Dedicated server

functions include:application servers, file servers,game servers,mail servers,

printservers,databaseservers,andmanymore.

Severalserversaretypicallyrequiredtoenableacomputertoproperlyinteract

withothernetworkclientsduetothisdedicatednatureofaserver.Acollection

ofserversisreferredtoasaserverfarmorserverclusterandthefacilityusedto

house the server farm and associated components is referred to as a data

center.Datacentershave increased inpopularityover thepastdecadeas the

number of servers required by businesses has increased to compensate for

increasedinternettrafficinallfacetsoflife.Tokeeppacewithincreasedserver

space, the traditional data center has evolved to include cooling equipment,

networkequipment,andstorageequipment.

The following subsections discuss both the server hardware and the server

market.

3.1. ServerHardware

Aserver,as referenced in thisdocument, iscomputerhardware thatprovides

services andmanages networked resources for client devices. Servers range

widely in size and performance; however, generally, theywill contain similar

hardwarecomponents.Oneservermodel, the IBMSystemx3650M4 (X3650),

wastherefore

chosen

to

illustrate

the

hardware

components

that

are

in

a

server.

TheX3650serverperformance(Table1)iswithinthelikelytargetmarketforthe

proposed purchasing standard as its scope is within what is described by

ENERGYSTAR(describedinmoredetailinSection3.4).

Serversanddata

centersconsumedan

estimated238billion

kWhworldwidein

2010,or1.3%ofthe

worldwideelectricity

consumption.


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8 ServerPrimer

Figure1:IBMSystemX3650M4Server

Source:[IBM2012]

IBM has published images and specification for the IBM System x3650 M4

server.

2

These

images

and

specifications

are

reproduced

here

to

describe

in

generalserverhardwarecomponents.TheX3650suggestedusesare:database,

virtualization, enterprise applications, collaboration/email, streaming media,

web,andcloudapplications.

The IBM System X3650 M4 server supports two processors in a scalable 2U

package. Rack servers such as the X3650 are designed to mount in steel racks

thatare19incheswide.Rackserversarethereforedescribedwithaformfactor

thatindicatestheserverheightinmultiplesofrackunits(U),whichisaheightof

1.75 inches. The IBM X3650 is 3.4 inches high, thus 2U. Note that a standard

serverrackis42Uhigh.

Typically,servercomponents include:anexternalenclosure,centralprocessing

unit(CPU),

1

4

CPU

sockets,

main

mother

board,

memory,

storage

(hard

drives,

solidstatedrive(SSD)),Input/Outputadaptors,fans,powersupplies,andmay

includeasmallscreen.3Figure2andFigure3showtheX3650serverfrontand

backviewrespectivelywhichshowmanyavailableconnections.Figure4shows

theinternalcomponents.Notethatmanyofthecomponentsareredundantand

hotswappable4 including fans, disks and power supplies making it easy to

replacefailureswithouttakingthesystemdown.

2[IBM2012]IBMSystemx3650M4IBMRedbooksProductGuide,

http://www.redbooks.ibm.com/technotes/tips0850.pdf3Source:ServerTechnicalCommitteemeeting,Houston,Texas,July31,2012.

4Componentsarehotswappableiftheycanbeinstalledorremovedwithoutpoweringdownthe

system.


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9 ServerPrimer

Figure

2:

IBM

System

X3650

Front

View

Source:[IBM2012]

Figure3:IBMSystemX3650M4BackView

Source:[IBM2012]


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10 ServerPrimer

Figure4:IBMSystemX3650M4InternalComponents

Source:[IBM2012]

Table1:IBMSystemX3650M4ProductSpecifications

Source:[IBM2012]

Components Specification

Formfactor 2URack.

Processor

UptotwoIntelXeonprocessorE52600productfamilyCPUswitheightcores

(upto

2.9

GHz)

or

six

cores

(up

to

2.9

GHz)

or

quad

cores

(up

to

3.3

GHz).

Two

QPIlinksupto8.0GT/seach.Upto1600MHzmemoryspeed.Upto20MBL3

cache.

Chipset IntelC602J

Memory

Upto24DIMMsockets(12DIMMsperprocessor).RDIMMs,UDIMMs,

HyperCloudDIMMs,andLRDIMMs(LoadReducedDIMMs)supported,but

memorytypescannotbeintermixed.Memoryspeedupto1600MHz.

Memory

maximums

WithRDIMMs:Upto384GBwith24x16GBRDIMMsandtwoprocessors

WithUDIMMs:Upto64GBwith16x4GBUDIMMsandtwoprocessors

WithHyperCloudDIMMs:Upto768GBwith24x32GBHyperCloudDIMMsand

twoprocessors

WithLRDIMMs:Upto768GBwith24x32GBLRDIMMsandtwoprocessors

Memory

protectionECC,Chipkill,memorymirroring,andmemoryranksparing.

Diskdrive

bays

Upto

32

1.8"

SSD

bays,

or

16

2.5"

hot

swap

SAS/SATA

bays,

or

up

to

six

3.5"

hotswapSAS/SATAbays,oruptoeight2.5"SimpleSwapSATAbays,orupto

six3.5"SimpleSwapSATAbays.

Maximum

internal

storage

Upto14.4TBwith900GB2.5"SASHDDs,upto16TBwith1TB2.5"NL

SAS/SATAHDDs,orupto18TBwith3TB3.5"NLSAS/SATAHDDs.Intermixof

SAS/SATAissupported.

RAIDsupport

RAID0,1,10withintegratedServeRAIDM5110e;optionalupgradestoRAID5,

50areavailable(zerocache;512MBbatterybackedcache;512MBor1GB

flashbackedcache).OptionalupgradetoRAID6,60isavailablefor512MBor1


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12 ServerPrimer

Figure5:

IBM

BladeCenter

HS22

Server

(service

cover

removed)

Source:[IBM2011]

3.2. ServerPriceandPerformance

InternationalDataCorporation(IDC)isaproviderofmarketintelligenceforthe

information technology (IT), telecommunications and consumer technology

markets.IDChasmapped11pricebandswithintheservermarketintothree(3)

price ranges: volume servers, midrange servers and highend servers. By IDCs

definition,volumeservers cost less than $25,000 per server, midrangeservers

cost $25,000$250,000, and highend servers cost more than $250,000. These

three price ranges are commonly used to define market trends and are used

throughoutthis

report.

3.3. ServerMarket&Sales

Volume servers are currently the most common type of server with 4Q 2011

factoryrevenueof$8.8billion.Forthesametimeframe,midrangeservershad

factoryrevenueof$1.8billion,andhighendservershadfactoryrevenueof$3.7

billion.7

TheIDCreportedthattheserverindustrygenerated$52.3billioninrevenueand

shipped 8.3 million servers worldwide during 2011. Despite these strong sales

the market growth was reported to be decelerating in 3Q11 as demand

stabilizedfor

many

system

categories

8

.This

prediction

was

accurate

as

all

three

price bands showed a decrease in revenue during 4Q11. This trend continued

7Morgan,T.P.WhereDidtheMidrangeGo?ITJungle,12Mar2012.Web.12Jun2012.

http://www.itjungle.com/tfh/tfh031212story03.html

8IDCPressRelease.WorldwideServerMarketRevenuesIncrease4.2%inThirdQuarteras

MarketStabilizes,AccordingtoIDC.Nov2011.Web.June12,2012.

http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS23179011


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October10,2012

13 ServerPrimer

into 1Q12 for midrange and highend servers as both experienced over 10%

yearoveryear revenue declines; however, volume servers experienced 2%

yearoveryeargrowth.MattEastwood,an IDC analyst,statesthatTheserver

market worked through a transitional period in the first quarter of 2012 as

suppliers

prepared

to

introduce

numerous

critically

important

x86

serverofferings,andthatlowerrevenueintheAsia/Pacificregioncriticallyaffectsthe

marketbecauseChinaisoneofonlythreecountriesthatregularlyspendmore

than$1billionquarterlyonservers.9

Publicallyavailabledata fromthe IDCpressreleaseswascollectedtogenerate

thefollowingrevenuestreamforthepastdecade.Notethatthenumberslisted

include revenue from server peripherals suchas the frame or cabinet and all

cables, processors, memory, communications boards, operating system

software, other bundled software and initial internal and external disk

shipments,andsoarenotpurelyindicativeoftheservermarketitself.

Figure6 AnnualServerMarketRevenue(IDC&GartnerEstimates)

Information from this section was combined from a number of different

sources.10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19

9 IDC Press Release. Worldwide Server Market Revenues Decline 2.4% in First Quarter as

Market Growth Slows in Face of Market Transitions, According to IDC, 30 May 2012,


10Koomey,J.EstimatingTotalPowerConsumptionbyServersintheU.S.andtheWorld.2007.

http://sites.amd.com/us/Documents/svrpwrusecompletefinal.pdf

112006PressReleases.GartnerSaysWorldwideServerShipmentsExperienceDoubleDigit

Growth,WhileIndustryRevenuePostsSingleDigitIncreasein2005.Gartner,Feb2006.Web.12

Jun2012.http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=492245

12GartnerNewsroom.GartnerSaysWorldwideServerShipmentsExperience9PercentGrowth,

WhileIndustryRevenuePosteda2PercentIncreasein2006.Gartner,Feb2007.Web.12Jun2012.

http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=501405

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011Revenue($B) 49.5 51.8 52.8 55.1 53.3 43.22 48.77 52.27

Shipments(M) 6.712 7.565 8.233 8.84 9.07 7.56 8.89 9.52

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Shipmnets(M)

RevenueEstimate($B)

Year


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October10,2012

14 ServerPrimer

Itisexpectedthatservershipmentswillcontinuetoincreaseinthenearfuture

as the world becomes more dependent on the IT sector. In 10 years, the

numberofInternetusershasmorethanquadrupledfrom0.5billionin2001to

2.0billionin2010andthistrendisexpectedtocontinue.

Hewlett

Packard

(HP)

held

the

number

one

position

in

the

worldwide

server

marketwith29.3% factory revenuemarketshare forthe firstquarterof2012.

Additionalworldwidesalesleadersarelistedinthetablebelow.

Table2:WorldwideServerFactoryRevenue(inMillionsofUSdollars)20

Vendor 1Q12

Revenue

1Q12

Market

Share

1Q11

Revenue

1Q11

Market

Share

1Q12/1Q

11

Revenue

Growth

1. HP $3,460 29.3% $3,838 31.7% -9.8%

2. IBM $3,223 27.3% $3,477 28.8% -7.3%

3. Dell $1,842 15.6% $1,879 15.5% -2.0%

4. Oracle $718 6.1% $775 6.4% -7.3%

5. Fujitsu $614 5.2% $573 4.7% 7.3%

Others $1,950 16.5% $1,551 12.8% 25.8%

All Vendors $11,808 100% $12,093 100% -2.4%

13GartnerNewsroom.GartnerSaysWorldwideServerShipmentsExperienced7PercentGrowth,

WhileIndustryRevenuePosteda4PercentIncreasein2007.Gartner,Feb2008.Web.12Jun2012.


14GartnerNewsroom.GartnerSaysWorldwideServerShipmentsandRevenueExperience

DoubleDigitDeclinesinFourthQuarterof2008.Gartner,Mar2009.


15GartnerNewsroom.GartnerSays2010WorldwideServerMarketReturnedtoGrowthwith

ShipmentsUp17PercentandRevenue13Percent.Gartner,Feb2011.Web.4Jun2012.


16GartnerNewsroom.GartnerSaysWorldwideServerRevenueGrew7.9PercentandShipments

Increased7Percentin2011.Gartner,Feb2012.Web.4Jun2012.


17IDCPressRelease.WorldwideServerMarketAcceleratesSharplyinFourthQuarteras

DemandforHeterogeneousPlatformsLeadstheWay,AccordingtoIDC.IDC,Feb2011.Web4Jun

2012.http://www.idc.com/about/viewpressrelease.jsp?containerId=prUS22716111

18IDCPressRelease.Despitea7.2%DeclineinFourthQuarterRevenue,WorldwideServer

MarketRevenuesIncrease5.8%in2011,AccordingtoIDC.IDC,Feb2012.Web4Jun2012.


19Short,J.Bohn,R.,Chaitanya,B.HowMuchInformation?2010ReportonEnterpriseServer

Information.2011.http://hmi.ucsd.edu/pdf/HMI_2010_EnterpriseReport_Jan_2011.pdf

20IDCPressRelease.WorldwideServerMarketRevenuesDecline2.4%inFirstQuarteras

MarketGrowthSlowsinFaceofMarketTransitions,AccordingtoIDC,30May2012,



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October10,2012

15 ServerPrimer

HPwasalsothenumberonemanufacturerofbladeserverswith47.4%market

share. Additional sales leaders were: IBM (21.5%), Cisco (11.0%) and Dell

(8.7%).21

3.4.

ENERGY

STAR

and

Exclusion

of

Servers

with

More

thanFourProcessorSockets

In1992theEPA introducedENERGYSTARasavoluntary labelingprogramto

identifyandpromoteenergyefficientproductsandtherebyreducegreenhouse

gas emissions.22 Now a joint program between the U.S. Environmental

ProtectionAgencyandtheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy,theENERGYSTARlabelis

on major appliances, office equipment, lighting, home electronics, computer

serversandmore.

Asseenbythemarketdata,serversrangewidely insizeandperformance.The

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has therefore created a limiting

definitionof

servers

to

bound

the

energy

specification.

While

the

latest

ENERGY

STAR standard revision for servers is currently under review, its current

definition(Draft3,Version2.0)forcomputerserverisreproducedbelow:

Acomputerthatprovidesservicesandmanagesnetworkedresourcesfor

clientdevices(e.g.,desktopcomputers,notebookcomputers,thinclients,

wireless devices, PDAs, IP telephones, other computer servers, or other

networkdevices).Acomputer server is sold throughenterprisechannels

for use in data centers and office/corporate environments.A computer

server is primarily accessed via network connections, versus directly

connecteduser inputdevicessuchasakeyboardormouse.Forpurposes

of this specification, a computer servermustmeet all of thefollowing

criteria:

1) Ismarketedandsoldasacomputerserver;

2) Is designedfor and listed as supporting one or more computer

serveroperatingsystems(OS)and/orhypervisors,and istargeted

torunuserinstalledenterpriseapplications;

3) Provides supportfor errorcorrecting code (ECC) and/or buffered

memory (including both bufferedDIMMs and buffered on board

(BOB)configurations).

4) Ispackaged and soldwith one ormoreACDC or DCDCpower

supplies;and

5)

Isdesignedsuchthatallprocessorshaveaccesstosharedsystem

memoryand

are

independently

visible

to

asingle

OS

or

hypervisor23.

21ibid

22HistoryofENERGYSTAR,http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=about.ab_history

23[ENERGYSTAR2012]EnergyStarProgramRequirementsProductSpecificationsforComputer

ServersEligibilityCriteriaDraft3Version2.0.USEPA.2012.


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October10,2012

16 ServerPrimer

Additionally, the ENERGY STAR scope states that a product must meet the

definition of a Computer Server provided in Section 1 of this document [as

reproduced above] to be eligible for ENERGY STAR qualification under this

specification.

Eligibility

under

Draft

3

Version

2.0,

is

limited

to

blade,

rack

mounted, or pedestal form factor computer servers with no more than four

processor sockets.24 This scope restricts the servers that are covered by the

ENERGYSTARstandardbytheirabilitytosupportadditionalprocessors;this in

turnlimitstheserversenergyuseaswellasotherenvironmentalcriteria.

Accordingtomanyservermanufacturers,98%ofserverunitssoldare4sockets

or less. The remainder of the market is highend servers, which are typically

custombuilds/configurations.25

4.

ServerIndustryTrends

Over

the

past

decade,

server

manufacturers

and

others

within

industry

havedevelopedprogramstocreatefasterandbetterservers.Serverdevelopmentis

beingdriven,inpart,byMooresLaw,aprinciplenamedafterIntelcofounder

Gordon E. Moore, and based on his observation in 1965 that the number of

transistors that can be placed inexpensively on an integrated circuit doubles

roughlyeverytwoyears,thusenhancingtheperformanceofsucceedingcircuit

generations. After nearly half a century the trend toward progressively higher

performance still continues. The following subsections discuss some of these

performanceimprovingtrendsandassociatedissues.

4.1. HighDensityComputing

Amajor

technology

trend

in

the

server

industry

is

toward

smaller

form

factors

to accommodate IT expansion within confined floor spaces. Modular form

factorsdrovetheservermarket inthefirstquarterof2012,withbladeservers

increasing 7.3% annually and density optimized servers increasing 38.8%

annually. Densityoptimizedservers, asdefinedby IDC26, are servers that have

beendesignedforlargescaledatacenterswithstreamlinedsystemdesignsthat

focus on performance, energy efficiency, and density. Blade servers now

account for 16.6% of all server revenue, while density optimized accounts for

4.5%. In the first quarter of 2012, several vendors announced converged

solutionsforbladeplatforms;IDCexpectsthesetoenterthemarketstarting in

http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/prod_development/revisions/downloads/computer_serv

ers/Servers_V2_Draft_3_Specification.pdf

24ibid

25Source:ServerTechnicalCommitteemeeting,Houston,Texas,July31,2012.

26IIDCPressRelease.Despitea7.2%DeclineinFourthQuarterRevenue,WorldwideServer

MarketRevenuesIncrease5.8%in2011,AccordingtoIDC.IDC,Feb2012.Web4Jun2012.



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October10,2012

17 ServerPrimer

thesecondquarterof2012,deliveringanintegratedsystemforserver,storage,

andnetwork.27

IDC estimates that server system density has increased by 15% annually over

the last10yearsascompaniesshiftedfrompedestalserverstorackoptimized

systemsand

mainstream

adoption

of

blade

servers

began.28

In

1996,

companies

deployedanaverageof7serversperrack.In2006,theaveragehadincreasedto

14 servers per rack. During 2008 HP revealed the potential to have up to 256

halfheight blade servers in a single 42U rack, with support for up to 1024

processors.29

The ENERGY STAR Program Requirements for Computer Servers draft 2 of

Version2.0definesabladeserverasahighdensitydevicethatfunctionsasan

independent computer server and includes at least one processor and system

memory, but is dependent upon shared blade chassis resources (e.g., power

supplies,cooling)foroperation.30

Inorder

to

be

considered

equivalent

to

a

traditional

rack

server,

a

blade

server

must be installed within a Blade Chassis with access to Blade Storage. The

ENERGYSTARComputerServerVersion2draftdefinesthesetwosystemsas:

Blade Chassis: An enclosure that contains shared resources for the

operationofbladeservers,bladestorage,andotherblade formfactor

devices. Shared resources provided by a chassis may include power

supplies,datastorage,andhardwareforDCpowerdistribution,thermal

managementsystemmanagement,andnetworkservices.

Blade Storage: A storage device that is designed for use in a blade

chassis.Abladestoragedeviceisdependentuponsharedbladechassis

resources(e.g.powersupplies,cooling)foroperation.

The blade server, blade chassis, and blade storage combined form a

BladeSystem.

The industrymovetohighdensitycomputingmayprovidesignificant lifecycle

financial and environmental benefits. Scaramella and Perry studied eight

companiesthathadreplaced19100%oftheirserver infrastructurewithblade

serversandreportedseveralbenefitsincluding:31

27IDCPressRelease.WorldwideServerMarketRevenuesDecline2.4%inFirstQuarterasMarket

GrowthSlowsinFaceofMarketTransitions,AccordingtoIDC.IDC,May2012.Web.12Jun2012.


28Scaramella,J.WorldwideServerPowerandCoolingExpense20062010Forecast.IDC.2006.

http://www.mm4m.net/library/IDCPowerCoolingForecast.pdf

29Branscombe,M.HPPuts1000CoresinaSingleRack.TomsHardware,Jun2008.Web.11Jun

2012.http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/hpserverweb,1943.html

30[ENERGYSTAR2012]

31Scaramella,J.,Perry,R.BusinessValueofBlade.HP.2011.

http://h17007.www1.hp.com/docs/proliantgen8/IDCWhitePaperBusinessValueofBlades.pdf


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October10,2012

18 ServerPrimer

- Powercostswerereducedby$17peruserperyear

- IT Infrastructure costs were reduced by $55 per user per year; an

additional 17.1% savings was reported by companies that utilized

virtualization(refertoSection4.3.1foradiscussionofvirtualization)

-An

estimated

return

on

investment

of

250%

over

athree

year

period

Themove tohighdensitycomputing isalso likely to increase thepressureon

systemlevel power and cooling management. Additionally, increased power

drawandhotspotsarelikelytodecreaseserverreliability,thusincreasingfailure

rates.Powerandcoolingchallengescausedbydensificationisthereforelikelyto

requirenovelcoolingsolutions,both incoolingsystemsandthematingserver

hardware.

4.2. ServerInternalWasteHeatManagement

Note

that

the

issue

of

waste

heat

management

is

addressed

both

internal

to

the

server throughdesignandexternally in thedatacenter.The followingsection

focuseson the issues internal to the server, and thedata center isdiscussed

moreinSection5.

AccordingtotheAPCWhitePaper57,typicallymorethan99%oftheelectricity

usedtopoweraserver isconverted intoheat.32Theheatenergy increasesthe

internal temperatureof componentswhichwilleventually lead toequipment

failure. Servers are therefore designed to remove the heat energy, usually

through forced convection cooling by directing cool air over the hot

components. Note however that server cooling is becoming amore difficult

challenge as the amount of heat generated by a server increases with the

increasein

energy

use

associated

with

the

increase

in

server

performance.

Traditional rack servers have internal fans thatmove cool room air into the

serverandacrossthecomponentsandexpelthegeneratedheatback intothe

room. For blade server systems, fans provide similar functionality; however,

they are resident in the blade server chassis and therefore not server

components. Computer room air conditioners (CRAC) provide recurrent heat

exchange accepting the heat energy expelled by the server and other

equipment,coolingit,andreturningthecooledairbacktoroom.Thecooledair

istypicallycontrolledwithinaspecifiedtemperaturerangetosatisfythecooling

demands of IT equipment with the current ASHRAE specification is 64.4F

80.6F.33

The cooling effectiveness is therefore limited by the incoming air

32Evans,T.APCWhitePaper#57:FundamentalPrinciplesofAirConditionersforInformation

Technology.APC.Rev20042.http://www.apcdistributors.com/whitepapers/Cooling/WP57

FundamentalPrinciplesofAirConditionersforInformationTechnology.pdf

332008ASHRAEEnvironmentalGuidelinesforDatacomEquipmentExpandingthe

RecommendedEnvironmentalEnvelope.AmericanSocietyofHeating,RefrigeratingandAir

ConditioningEngineers,2008.http://tc99.ashraetcs.org/documents/

ASHRAE_Extended_Environmental_Envelope_Final_Aug_1_2008.pdf

Nearly99%ofthe

electricityusedto

poweraserveris

convertedtoheat.


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October10,2012

19 ServerPrimer

temperature,themaximumoperatingtemperatureofthecomponents,andthe

speedoftheairmovingoverthecomponentsurfaces.

Figure7 DiagramofInternalServerComponents34

Theamountofheatbeingreleasedtotheroomenvironmentiscompoundedby

theincreasingdensityofservers.TheAPCWhitePapernotesthatasingleblade

serverchassiscanreleasefourkilowattsofheatenergyintotheITroomordata

center, with approximately 50% of the heat energy released by servers

originatinginthemicroprocessoritself.HewlettPackardoffersadditioninsight,

statingthat

a

traditional

rack

type

server

setup

with

14

servers

will

require

8kW

of heat exchange, 26 servers will require 15kW, and 42 servers will require

24.2kW.35

Datacentersarehavingdifficultyadjustingtotheeffectofhighdensityrackson

power and cooling resources and alternate cooling technologies are being

developed.Severalcompaniesareconsideringliquidcoolingasanalternativeto

traditional air cooling as a means to promote energy and cost efficiency. A

commonmethodof liquidcooling istousewaterasthecoolingmediumsince

water has 3500 times the thermal capacity of air.36 In order to utilize water

34TheProblemofPowerConsumptioninServers.Intel,2009.

http://www.intel.com/intelpress/articles/The_Problem_of_Power_Consumption_in_Servers.pdf

35Miller,R.DataCenterKnowledge.TooHotforHumans,butGoogleServerskeepHumming.

March2012.Web.4Jun2012.http://www.datacenterknowledge.com/archives/2012/03/23/too

hotforhumansbutgoogleserverskeephumming/

36HPModularCoolingSystem:watercoolingtechnologyforhighdensityserverinstallations.

HP.2007.

http://h20000.www2.hp.com/bc/docs/support/SupportManual/c00600082/c00600082.pdf


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October10,2012

20 ServerPrimer

cooling,awaterblockmustbefixedtotheheatgeneratingcomponentsinplace

ofthetraditionalaircoolingheatsinkandfan.Astheprocessorsgenerateheat

it is transferred to the water which is run through a cooling system that

dissipates the generated heat and chills the water. A benefit of watercooled

systemsis

their

modularity;

they

can

operate

on

a

server

by

server

basis

or

for

anentirerackwhile effectivelydissipatingheat.Thisoffersseveraladvantages

overtraditionalaircoolingsincetheenergyuseissubstantiallyreduced.Water

cooledsystemscanalsobeoverclocked,aprocessthatincreasestheprocessor

speed and allows for increased performance in exchange for increased heat

generation. IBMsAquasarsupercomputer,built in2010,useswatercoolingto

maintainthesystemstemperature.Duetowatersthermalcapacity,itcarriesa

majorityoftheheatgeneratedawayfromthesystematover60C;thewateris

thenusedasaheatsourcefornearbybuildings.Thishasresulted inanenergy

savingsof40%andareductionofCO2emissionsbyupto85%.37

Other liquid cooling strategies exist. Forexample, Green Revolution Cooling, a

smallTexas

based

company,

uses

a

modified

mineral

water

called

GreenDef

as

a

dielectric mediumto cool servers.Because of thedielectric propertiesoftheir

solution, servers can be submerged in the liquid after waterproofing; this

involves removing the fans and encapsulating the hard drives. GreenDef has

1200timesthethermalcapacityofair,allowingforthecustomserverracktobe

densely packed; this property enables server processors to overclocked

successfully,creatingevenhigheroutput.Thesystemisattachedtoapumpand

heatexchanger.Somesetupsfeatureexportingthehotwaterasaheatsource

tonearbyfacilities.Inaregular100kWinstallation,thecostofinstallandenergy

requirementsperyearwashalfthatofthesamesizedaircooledsystem.38

4.3. ServerUtilizationandConnectivity

As previously stated, a server is typically dedicated to a single function and

therefore the amount of time an average server is actually being used, or the

server utilization, is only around 1022%.39 This means that a data centers

processing capacity as a whole is significantly underutilized. Some estimates

statethat15%oftheservers indatacentersareneverutilized.40Thefollowing

37"IBMResearch Zurich."Zeroemissiondatacenter.IBM,Jul2010.Web.4Jun2012.

http://www.zurich.ibm.com/st/server/zeroemission.html

38

The

CarnotJet

System.

Green

Revolution

Cooling.

http://www.grcooling.com/docs/Green

RevolutionCoolingCarnotJetSystemPamphlet.pdf

39Koomey,J.,Belady,C.,Wong,H.,Snevely,R.,Nordman,B.,Hunter,E.,Lange,K.,Tipley,R.,

Darnell,G.,Accapadi,M.,Rumsey,P.,Kelley,B.,Tschudi,B.,Moss,D.,Greco,R.,BrillK.Server

EnergyMeasurementProtocol.(2006).

http://www.energystar.gov/ia/products/downloads/Finalserverenergyprotocolv1.pdf

40[Microsoft2011]Aggar,M.TheITEnergyEfficiencyImperative.Microsoft.2011.

http://download.microsoft.com/download/7/5/A/75AB83E82487409FAC6C

4C3D22B72139/ITEI_Paper_5.27.11.pdf


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October10,2012

21 ServerPrimer

subsectionsdiscusssomeoftrendstoboostutilization,reduceenergycosts,and

saveequipmentandspace.

4.3.1. ServerVirtualization

Virtualization

is

a

softwarebased

solution

to

server

underutilization.

By

using

speciallydesignedsoftware,onephysicalserver,orhost,canbeconvertedinto

multiple virtual machines, or guests. Each virtual server acts like a unique

physicaldevice,capableofrunningitsownoperatingsystem(OS).

This allows the one application per server motif to be reworked into one

applicationpervirtualmachine.Usingvirtualization,atypicalsmalldatacenter

with one domain name server, one mail server, and one web server could be

compacted to a single machine running the base processor and two virtual

machines. Following a survey of the IT industry, Healy, Humphreys, and

Andersonsuggestedthat virtualizationcanreducehardwarecostsby20%and

generate a savings of 23%.41 Despite these potential benefits, twothirds of

organizationshave

virtualization

enabled

on

less

than

half

of

their

servers.42

Virtualization not only provides hardware reduction benefits, but it also saves

energy.Figure6showsatypicalserverenergyprofile,whereat lowutilization

thepowerconsumedisabouthalfofthepowernecessaryatfullutilization.Two

of the same servers operating at 20% utilization each would require more

energythanasingleserveroperatingat40%utilization.

Figure8 RelationshipbetweenServerUtilizationandPowerConsumption43

41Healy,M.,Humphreys,J.,Anderson,C.IBMVirtualizationServices.IBM.2008.http://www

935.ibm.com/services/us/its/pdf/idc_white_paper_for_ibm_on_virtualization_srvcsv2.pdf

42[Microsoft2011]

43ibid


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October10,2012

22 ServerPrimer

4.3.2. ServerConsolidation

Like virtualization, consolidation is a method to reduce the number of servers

within a data center. However, unlike the softwarebased virtualization,

consolidation is hardware based. Instead of grouping different applications or

functions

onto

one

server,

consolidation

replaces

multiple

servers,

each

with

low utilization and serving the same function, with a single higherutilized

server.44Aswithvirtualizationthismethodcanhelplowercostsandsavespace

byeliminatingexcessequipment.Carrstatesthatby2005,largedatacenters

are becoming increasingly common as smaller data centers consolidate.45 As

notedinFigure6,servershavehighpowerrequirementsatlowutilization;thus

consolidating two servers into one is less energy intensive than running two

independentservers.Figure7depictssixfirmsoperatingindividualmailservers

andasecondscenariowheretheyshareacloudbasedserviceinstead,enabling

anetreductionoftwoservers.Acloudcomputingcentercanbeconsideredto

bealargedatacenterconsolidatedfromseveralsmallerones.Thishighlightsa

basic

economy

of

scale:

the

larger

the

data

center,

the

more

efficient

it

iscomparedtoasetofsmallerdatacentersservingthesamepurpose.46

44

Iams,

T.,

Consolidation

and

virtualization:

The

same,

but

different.

http://searchdatacenter.techtarget.com/tip/ConsolidationandvirtualizationThesamebut

different

45Carr,NicholasG.TheEndofCorporateComputing.MITSloanManagementReview.vol.46,

no.3,pp.6773.2005.http://sloanreview.mit.edu/themagazine/2005spring/46313/theendof

corporatecomputing/

46GooglesGreenComputing:EfficiencyatScale.Google.2011.

http://static.googleusercontent.com/external_content/untrusted_dlcp/www.google.com/en/us/g

reen/pdfs/googlegreencomputing.pdf


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October10,2012

23 ServerPrimer

Figure9EffectsofConsoldation/CloudComputing

In February 2010, the U.S. government launched the Federal Data Center

Consolidation Initiative (FDCCI) and issued guidance for Federal Chief

InformationOfficers(CIO)Councilagencies.Theguidancecalledforagenciesto

inventorytheir

data

center

assets,

develop

consolidation

plans

throughout

fiscal

year 2010, and integrate those plans into agency fiscal year 2012 budget

submissions.

The Consolidation Initiative is intended to reduce the number of data centers

across the government and assist agencies in applying best practices from the

public and private sector, with goals to: reduce the overall energy and real

estate footprint of government data centers, reduce the cost of data center

hardware,software,andoperations, increasetheoverall ITsecuritypostureof

thegovernment,andshiftITinvestmentstomoreefficientcomputingplatforms

andtechnologies.

TheConsolidation

Initiative

plan

is

to

shut

down

at

least

1,200

of

the

3,133

data

centers the government owns and operates. To date, 250 data centers have

beenshutdownandthereareplanstocloseatotalof479bytheendoffiscal

year2012.47

4.3.3. CloudComputing

TheNationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnologydefinescloudcomputingas

amodel forenablingubiquitous,convenient,ondemandnetworkaccesstoa

shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers,

storage,applications,andservices)thatcanberapidlyprovisionedandreleased

withminimalmanagementeffortorserviceproviderinteraction.

Figure

7

illustrates

how

consolidation

using

a

cloudcomputing

data

center

is

moreefficient.AGooglecasestudyanalyzedtheeffectsoflocallyhostedemail

service compared to cloudhosted email service. The study methodology was

based on businesses with 50 (small business), 500 (medium business), and

10,000+(largebusiness)employees,andcomparedthedatacentersrequiredby

these businesses to a cloud computing datacenter operated by Google. The

resultsindicatethatasthenumberofusersincrease,peruserrequirementsfor

power and the corresponding emissions decrease exponentially following a

basic economy of scales argument. Some results from this study are outlined

below:48

47 Federal Chief Information Officers Council, Maximizing ROI: Consolidating Federal IT

Infrastructurehttps://cio.gov/maximizingroi/,accessed10/8/12

48[Google.2011]


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October10,2012

24 ServerPrimer

Business

emailserviceServerRequirements

Annual

EnergyPer

User

AnnualCO2

emissionsPer

User

Small

Asingle,midrangemulticore

server

with

local

disk

that

can

serve300usersanddraws200

Watts.

175kWh

103

kg

Medium

Asingle,large,manycoreserver

withcombinationsoflocaland

networkstorage,whichcanhost

1,000usersandwhichdraws450

Watts

28.4kWh 16.7kg

Large

Several,large,manycoreservers

withcombinationsoflocaland

networkstoragewhichcanhost

1,000usersanddraws450Watts.

7.6kWh 4.1kg

Google Cloudbasedservices


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October10,2012

25 ServerPrimer

facilitiesreportingapproximately1.10.50Astudyconducted in2009bytheU.S.

EPAENERGYSTARprogramlookedatPUEforabroadrangeof100datacenters,

thisstudyshowedarangeofPUEvaluesbetween1.25 3.75,withanaverage

valueof1.91.51Electricalpowermanagement,equipmentutilizationlevels,and

HVAC

are

major

areas

for

energy

consumption

within

data

centers.

Inconventionally cooled data centers, the air conditioning loads are one of the

largestdriversofenergyconsumptionaftertheITequipment.

Heatrecoveryandreuse(forexample inabsorptivecoolingsystems),wateror

refrigerant based cooling, and free air cooling52 are all strategies for reducing

theenergycostofdatacentercooling.However,thesecanbeverydifficultor

expensivetoimplementasaretrofittoexistingdesigns.

Expanding the allowable environmental operating range (temperature and

humidity) of IT equipment can result in lower HVAC related energy

consumption.In2008,ASHRAEexpanded itsclassesfordatacenterequipment

environmental specifications; four classes are defined 14, with each higher

number

class

having

a

wider

environmental

range.53

The

classes

define

recommended and allowable (wider) operational ranges for drybulb

temperature and humidity (RH and wetbulb), as well as ranges for non

operating equipment. In the 2011 whitepaper referenced, the recommended

andallowablerangesarerefinedrelativetothe2008standard,andclasses(A1

A4)aredefined;theoperationalrangesforA3andA4areexpandedrelativeto

the 2008 standard. In the model R270 server technical documentation, Dell

provides environmental specifications that allow for continuous operation at

the A2 level, and transient operation at A3 and A4 (less than 10% of annual

operatinghours,lessthan1%ofannualoperatinghours).54Thistypeofproduct

information can be helpful to the data center designer/operator in setting

50M.K.Patterson,"Metricsoverviewandupdate,"Powerpointpresentation,presentedatthe

Proceedingsofthe2011workshoponEnergyEfficiency:HPCSystemandDatacenters,Seattle,

Washington,USA,2011.

http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2159350&CFID=170830100&CFTOKEN=87344492

51Sullivan,A.,ENERGYSTARforDataCenters,USEPA,ENERGYSTARPowerPointPresentation,

Feb4,2010,

http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/prod_development/new_specs/downloads/uninterruptib

le_power_supplies/ENERGY_STAR_Buildings_Team_Metering_Presentation.pdf,lastaccessed

October8,2012.

52Pendelberry,S.,Thurston,M.,et.al.,CasestudyThemakingofaGreenDataCenter.

Proceedingsof

the

2012

IEEE

International

Symposium

on

Sustainable

Systems

and

Technology,

Boston,MA,May1618,2012.

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6228001

53ASHRAETC9.9,2011ThermalGuidelinesforDataProcessingEnvironmentsExpandedData

CenterClassesandUsageGuidance,ASHRAE,2011,http://www.eni.com/greendata

center/it_IT/static/pdf/ASHRAE_1.pdf,lastaccessedOctober8,2012.

54PowerEdgeR720andR720XDTechnicalGuide,Rev1.1,March2012.

http://i.dell.com/sites/content/sharedcontent/datasheets/en/Documents/dellpoweredger720

r720xdtechnicalguide.pdf,lastaccessedOctober8,2012.


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October10,2012

26 ServerPrimer

environmental controls criteria that minimize HVAC related energy

consumption, and could be added to the ENERGY STAR Power and

PerformanceDataSheet.55

55ENERGYSTARPowerandPerformanceDataSheet,DellPowerEdgeR720XDfeaturingtheDell

Smart1100WPSUandIntelE52640.

http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/products/pedge/en/DellPowerEdgeR720XD1100W

E52640FamilyDataSheet.pdf,lastaccessedOctober8,2012.


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October10,2012

27 ServerPrimer

6.

Server

Environmental

Assessments

Environmental impacts of a product occur throughout the product life cycle.

Someexamplesinwhichaproductwillimpacttheenvironmentarethroughthe

depletionofnatural resources (fuel /energy,material,water), the impacton

the ecosystem health (terrestrial and aquatic ecotoxicity, acidification,

eutriophication, land use), and the impact on human health (human toxicity,

stratosphericozonedepletion,ionizingradiation,andclimatechange).

Lifecycleassessment(LCA)isatoolusedtoquantifytheenvironmentalimpacts

of a product, holistically, throughout the entire life cycle; from material

extraction, manufacturing, transportation, use, and end of life. The impacts

associatedwiththeproductareassessedbycompilinganinventoryofrelevant

energyandmaterialinputsandenvironmentalreleases,evaluatingthepotential

environmental impactsassociatedwith the identified inputsand releases,and

interpreting the results tohelpmakemore informeddecisions.These studies

arealsoveryusefulinidentifyingifenvironmentalburdensareshiftedfromone

product lifecyclephase (forexample:materialextraction) toanotherproduct

lifecyclephase(forexample:productendoflife).

Effortwas exerted to identify full life cycle studies for computer servers. In

additionto literaturesearchesand inquiriesthroughRIT industrycontacts,the

manufacturersontheTechnicalCommitteewereaskedtoidentifyanyknowfull

LCAon servers.At the timeof thiswriting,no full LCA studiesusingmultiple

environmentalimpactshavebeenidentified.

Carbonfootprintingstudiesofcomputerservers,however,wereidentified,and

the following subsections highlight some of these studies that have

investigated the life cycle globalwarming potential of a server. It should be

notedthat

carbon

footprinting

is

asimplified

form

of

LCA

focused

on

only

one

environmental impact, and that computer servers have additional known

environmental impacts such as resource depletion, human toxicity, and

environmental toxicity thatarenotreportedbythesestudies.Complementing

the carbon footprinting studies with full life cycle assessments would avoid

burdenshiftingfromGHGtootherrelevantenvironmentalareasofconcern.

6.1. CarbonFootprintofaTypicalDellRackServer

Dellconductedastudy in2011todeterminethecarbonfootprint(greenhouse

gas (GHG) emissions contribution to globalwarmingpotential (GWP) in kgof

carbondioxideequivalents (CO2e))of theDellPowerEdgeR710 server. 56

This

analysiswas performed following the ISO 1404057

and ISO 1404458

standard

56Stutz,M.,O'Connell,S.,&Pfluefer,J.Carbonfootprintofatypicaldellrackserver.

InternationalSymposiumonSustainableSystemsandTechnology.May2012.Boston,MA.

57ISO14040:2006Environmentalmanagement LifecycleassessmentPrinciplesandframework

58 ISO 14044:2006 Environmental management Life cycle assessment Requirements and

guidelines

ALCAshowedthe

DellPowerEdge

R710was

responsiblefor

approx.6360kg

CO2eovera4yr

lifetime.

90%

of

theCO2eemissions

werefromuse.


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October10,2012

28 ServerPrimer

frameworkonthePowerEdgeR710serverwithtwoIntelXeonprocessors,12Gb

ofRAM,4x146GBharddrives(HDD),twohighoutputpowersupplies,oneDVD

drive,andfourfans.

TheDellpaperstatesthatthetotalcarbonfootprintofaDellPowerEdgeR710is

approximately6360

kg

CO2e.

This

was

calculated

over

a

4

year

lifetime

running

24hoursaday,7daysaweekassumingoperating50%ofthetimeat148Widle

workload,and50%ofthetimeat285Wfullworkload.TheaverageUSgridmix

wasusedforthiscalculation.

Results show that over 90 percent of the total lifecycle GHG emissions was

from theusephase (5960 kgCO2e). SeeFigure10. Only7 percent of the GHG

emissions was from manufacturing, which included raw material extraction,

subassembly manufacturing, transportation of subassemblies, and final

assembly.

Figure10 TotalProductCarbonFootprintoftheDellPowerEdgeR710intheUS

Dell ran two additional model scenarios. The first was to model the server at

100 percent utilization, and the second was to run the server at 100 percent

idle. At full utilization the unit produced 8240 kg CO2e, or 30% more carbon

emissions, and at idle it produced 4470 kg CO2e, or 30% less emissions (see

Figure11).

Dell stated that these results were a powerful message for eliminating

underutilized

server

through

virtualization.

Using

the

above

report

numbers,

onecanseethattwoserversrunningat50percentutilization(nominalcaseat

2x 6360 = 12720 kg CO2e) would produce 54 percent more carbon emissions

than one server running at 100 percent utilization (8240 kg CO2e) reinforcing

theirsupportforvirtualization.

8615 471

5960

GHGEmissions1000

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

GHGEmissions(kgCO2e)

Dell

PowerEdge

R710

Use

Manufacturing

Transport

Recycling


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October10,2012

29 ServerPrimer

Figure11 TotalCarbonFootprint(kgCO2e)oftheDellPowerEdgeR710server

6.2. Carbon Footprint of Fujitsu Primergy RX and TX

300S5Servers

Fujitsu published a study in 2010 called Life Cycle Assessment and Product

Carbon FootprintPRIMERGY TX 300 S5 and PRIMERGY RX 300 S5 Server.59

Thoughthetitleimpliesthatafulllifecycleassessmenthasbeencompleted,the

whitepaperonlypublishedresultsofthecarbonfootprint.Thepaperhowever

states that greenhouse effect, cumulative energy demand, acidification,

terrestrialandaquaticeutrophication,photochemicaloxidantformation,human

toxicity,and

eco

toxicity

were

studied.

The

servers

included

one

Intel

Xeon

2.26

GHz 8MB processor, one 4GB DDR31066 PC38500 ECC memory, one 146GB

harddrive,RAIDcontroller,DVDRW,andrackmountkitserver.

TheFujitsupaperstatesthatthetotalcarbonfootprintofthePRIMERGYTX300

S5 is approximately 3750 kg CO2e. This was calculated over a 5year lifetime

operating at a 30% workload. The average German grid mix was used for this

calculation. Results show that over 85 percent of the total lifecycle GHG

emissionswasfromtheusephase.SeeFigure12.The impactoftheusephase

oncarbonfootprintwasverysimilartotheDellresults.

Though limited data is contained in the white paper, a few other interesting

results were presented. One result highlighted how source power generation

impactsthe

carbon

footprint.

The

same

analysis

as

above

run

in

France,

where

thereisahighlevelofnuclearpower, insteadofGermany,wherethere ishigh

coal use, reduced the carbon footprint from 3750 kg CO2e to 980 kg CO2e.

59WhitePaper:LifeCycleAssessmentandProduceCarbonFootprintServerPRIMERGYTX/RX

300S5.Fujitsu.2010.http://fujitsu.fleishmaneurope.de/wpcontent/uploads/2010/12/LCA_PCF

WhitepaperPRIMERGYTXRX300S5.pdf

Full

Utilization

Nominal FullIdle1000

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

GHGEmissions(kgCO2e)

DellPowerEdgeR710

Use

Manufacturing

Transport

Recycling


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October10,2012

30 ServerPrimer

Additionally,oneofthereportlessonslearnedwastoavoidfocusingsolelyon

energy efficiency of servers. Though the use phase plays a big role in the

greenhouse effect, raw materials are key factors for several other impact

categories. This is an important statement, though no supporting data was

provided.

Figure12 RespectiveShareoftheTotalProductCarbonFootprint(Fujitsu)

6.3. CaseStudyofanIBMRackmountedServer

Weber looked at the uncertainty and variability in the carbon footprinting

methodology

using

an

IBM

rackmounted

server.

The

specific

server

model

numberandcomponentsarenotidentified;however,theserverisidentifiedas

an IBM circa 2008 model. The server life was modeled as a triangular

distribution with a most likely value of 6 years and minimum and maximum

valuesof3and10years. Theusephasemeanwas6238kgCO2erepresenting

around 94 percent of the servers total carbon footprint (88% 97% with

uncertainty).

The analysis also highlighted the contribution of the various components

without including the dominant use phase. The analysis showed that the

manufacture of the Integrated Circuits (ICs) and printed wiring boards (PWBs)

are responsible for a combined 45% of the remaining carbon emissions not

includingthe

use

phase.

The

breakdown

of

individual

product

carbon

footprint

contributionsfromthecomponentsisshowninthefigurebelow.60

60Weber,C.L.UncertaintyandVariabilityinProductCarbonFootprinting.JournalofIndustrial

Ecology,16(2),203211.2012.doi:10.1111/j.15309290.2011.00407.x

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.15309290.2011.00407.x/full


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October10,2012

31 ServerPrimer

Figure13 MeanResultsforServerCarbonFootprintbySubgroupwithoutUsePhase61

7.

ServerStandard

Scope

Topics

The following subsections highlight industry current practices and current

requirements of various environmental impact areas of concern. The sub

sectiontopicsarealignedwiththetopicsintheIEEE1680familyofstandards.

7.1. ServerMaterialSelection

All materials used in products impact theenvironment insome manner either

through their production, their use in products, or in the disposal of those

products. Minimizing the impact that a product has on the environment

requirestheselectionofmaterialsthatare,ingeneral,lesstoxic,arelessenergy

intensive

to

make

(which

may

include

containing

recycled

content),

are

from

renewablesources,andareeasiertoreuseorrecycle.

Thecurrentmaterialsusedinserversareestimatedinthefollowingsubsections.

Thesematerialsweredeterminedthroughadisassemblyanalysisperformedat

GIS,andamaterialanalysisprovidedbyCascadeAssetManagement.Notethat

a significant percentage of materials used in servers are steel and aluminum,

withalowpercentageofplasticcontent.

7.1.1. ServerDemanufacturing:GIS

In2010,graduatestudentsleadbyGISfaculty,Dr.CallieBabbitandDr.Michael

Thurston,researchedtheeffectsthatelectronicwastehasonspecificmaterial

flows.

This

study62

included

various

endof

life

scenarios,

including

reuse

and

recycling, for components of common IT products. The study included

61ibid

62 RIT internal report, Analysis of EWaste Material Flows, and Opportunities for

Improved Material Recovery March, 2010, Confidential, some data reproduced here

withpermission.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Server

ProductCarbonFootprint

(withoutuse)

(kgCO

2e) Logistics

Packaging

BulkMaterials

PowerSupplies

DVDROM

HardDrive

Components

RawPWB

IC


32/51


October10,2012

32 ServerPrimer

completingafulldisassemblyanalysisdowntotheindividualmateriallevelwith

materials identified by using various material analysis laboratory techniques.

One of the products studied was a Dell PowerEdge R710 server. This server

modelwasconsideredrepresentativeofvolumeservers.Thoughthemainstudy

scholarshipremains

confidential,

some

of

the

general

findings

of

this

study

are

reproducedbelowwithpermission.

Amajorstudyfocusareaappliedmaterialflowanalysis(MFA)methodologyto

servers.TheMFA investigatedeachmaterialfortheirtotalvolumes,value,and

percent of total waste and then this data was used to estimate the current

breakdownandvolumes inwhichproductsandcomponentsarerecovered for

refurbishment and reuse, remanufactured, recycled, or disposed. The Dell

PowerEdgecomponentsandassemblieswereseparatedintoindividualmaterial

types. In some cases, for simple geometries, material breakdown was

determined by means of simple volume/density calculations. Plastic

components were identified by their material codes. For those plastics

components

without

material

codes,

the

material

was

assigned

to

anUndefined Plastic category. A variety of methods were used to assign metal

components to a material category such as: inspection (observed density and

stiffness), level of magnetism, and Energy Dispersive Xray Spectroscopy was

alsousedonsomecomponentsthatwerenotobviousbyinspection.Finally,for

Lithium Ion batteries and for printed circuit boards, previous compositional

studies fromthe literaturewereusedtoestimatethematerialcompositionby

weightpercentage.

The material analysis results indicate that the majority of a Dell PowerEdge

servers weight is composed of ferrous steel (62.7%), aluminum (15.9%),

halogenated epoxy (9.6%) and plastics, (4.8%). Detailed estimates of material

compositioncan

be

found

in

the

table

below.

Table3 TotalMaterialCompositionoftheDellPowerEdgeR710byweight

MaterialWeight

(grams)Percentage

TotalWeight 24680

Steel/Ferrous 15480 62.70%

Ferrites/Magnets 456 1.80%

Aluminum 3934 15.90%

Copper 863 3.50%

Tin 123 0.50%

Brass

1.8

0.00%

Mercury 0 0.00%

Carbon 0.36 0.00%

Lithium 0.21 0.00%

Cobalt 0.6 0.00%

Nickel 32.1 0.10%

Silver 10.6 0.00%


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October10,2012

33 ServerPrimer

MaterialWeight

(grams)Percentage

Gold 0.68 0.00%

Palladium 0.17 0.00%

TotalPlastic

1179

4.80%

Plastic(various) 701 2.80%

PC+ABSFR 23.8 0.10%

PC+ABSFR(40) 299.7 1.20%

PBTGF30FR(17) 154.9 0.60%

PVC 0 0.00%

Rubber(includingfoams) 5.3 0.00%

Paper 15.3 0.10%

Epoxy 11.5 0.00%

CapacitorElectrolyte(EthyleneGlycolorButyrolactone) 30 0.10%

HDGlass/Ceramic

Disk

176.3

0.70%

HalogenatedEpoxy+GlassReinf 2359.4 9.60%

LiIonElectrolyte 0.03 0.00%

NonAqueousLiIonSolvent(propylenecarbonate,1.3

dioxolane,Dimethoxyethane)0.14 0.00%

7.1.2. ServerDemanufacturing:Cascade

Neil PetersMichaud, Owner and CEO Cascade Asset Management (Cascade),

provided a rack server demanufacturing study performed in August 2012.

Cascadeanalyzedthematerialfractions in1972 lbsofserversthatwerebeing

processed

at

end

of

life.

The

study

results

are

reproduced

in

Figure

14

withpermission.


34/51


October10,2012

34 ServerPrimer

Figure14CascadeDemanufacturedMaterialFractionsofServers(August2012)

7.2. EnvironmentallySensitiveMaterials

No information was found in the literature search concerning the specific

chemical makeup of substances used in servers. However, servers contain

componentssimilar

to

other

electronics

devices

and

that

data

is

reported

here

asaproxy.Thereport,InformationonChemicalsinElectronicProducts63,states

that analysis of chemicals present in electronic products is not easy. For

example, computers and mobile phones can contain over one thousand

differentsubstances.Thereportalsostatesthatthemainhazardoussubstances

found in electronic products are: lead, mercury, cadmium, zinc, yttrium,

chromium, beryllium, nickel, brominated flame retardants, antimony trioxide,

halogenatedflameretardants,polyvinylchloride(PVC),andphthalates.

The report also provided some examples of material use in electronic

equipment. Batteries can contain heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and

cadmium.Soldercancontain lead,tin,andothermetals. Internalandexternal

wiringis

often

coated

with

PVC

which

can

contain

additional

substances

such

as

phthalates. Semiconductors can be encapsulated by plastics containing

brominated flame retardants. Finally, printed circuit boards can contain

63Nimpuno,N&CScruggs(2011).InformationonChemicalsinElectronicProducts.Copenhagen:

NordicCouncilofMinisters.ISBN9789289322188

http://www.norden.org/en/publications/publikationer/2011524

64.3%

12.8%10.4%

5.3%

3.0%

1.3%

1.2% 0.9%

0.5%0.2%

0.1%

0.1%

7.2%

DemanufacturedFractionsServersTotalWeight1972lbs

ScrapFerrousMetal(1251lbs) PowerSupplies(249lbs)

PreciousCircuitBoards(202lbs) ShreddedHardDrives(104lbs)

CopperHeatsinksw/Aluminum(58lbs) MixedPlastic(25lbs)

AluminumBreakage(24lbs) Copper(18lbs)

ComputerCables(10lbs) LowValueBoards(3lbs)

UniversalWaste:NiCad/NiMHBatteries(1lbs) UniversalWaste:LithiumBatteries(1lbs)


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October10,2012

35 ServerPrimer

brominatedflameretardants,antimonytrioxide,andotherhazardousmaterials

suchaschromium,lead,mercury,beryllium,zincandnickel.

Limited data was found on the active use of alternative materials. Server

operatingconditionsandperformancedemandsofhighreliability,highenergy

use,

and

high

temperature

operation

to

name

a

few

require

performance

materialsthatarenoteasilyreplacedwithgreenalternatives.

Some information was found on the use of leadfree solders. Dell64 advertises

thatsincelate2007,theyhavebeenlaunchingleadfreeserverssuchastheDell

R900andR905. Inearly2008,Dell launchedtheirfirst leadfreebladeservers,

the PowerEdge M600 and M605. Since then, they claim that all new basic

configurationPowerEdgeservershavebeenleadfree.

7.2.1. RoHSDirective

A few hazardous materials in electronic equipment are governed by the

European Directive 2002/95/EC on the Restriction of the Use of Certain

Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (commonlyreferredtoastheRoHSDirective).TheDirectivewasadoptedinFebruary2003

by the EuropeanUnion (EU) and took effect inJuly of 2006 and is requiredto

become law in each member state of the European Union. This directive

restrictstheuseofsixhazardousmaterials(lead,mercury,cadmium,hexavalent

chromium,polybrominatedbiphenyls (PBB)orpolybrominateddiphenylethers

(PBDE))inthemanufactureofelectricalequipmentsoldintheEU.ThisDirective

has been adoptedbymany server manufacturers worldwide due tothe global

nature of IT equipment sales. Additionally, some states in the U.S. such as

California65 have adopted RoHS legislation based on the EU directive. On May

14, 2009, H.R. 2420, the Environmental Design of Electrical Equipment Act

(EDEE)

Act,

was

introduced

as

a

Bill

in

the

US

House

of

Representatives

with

similarrequirementsastheEURoHS;however,thisbilldiedincommittee.

The EU Directive has an exemption specific to servers for lead in solders for

servers, storage and storage array systems, network infrastructure equipment

for switching, signaling, transmission as well as network management for

telecommunications. The primary reason for this exemption is that solder

jointsaresubjectedtosignificantstressduetothermalcycling,andsolderswith

leadhavehistoricallybeenmoretolerantandhavehigherreliabilitythan lead

freesolders.

64Design.Smartermaterialchoices:what'sinsideourproductsandwhat'snot.Dell,2012.Web.

12Jun2012.http://content.dell.com/us/en/corp/d/corpcomm/earthgreenerproductsmaterials

65CaliforniaDepartmentofToxicSubstancesControl.RestrictionsontheuseofCertain

HazardousSubstances(RoHS)inElectronicDevices.StateofCalifornia,2010.Web.12Jun2012.

http://dtsc.ca.gov/HazardousWaste/rohs.cfm


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October10,2012

36 ServerPrimer

7.3. ProductLongevity

Server equipment has historically been replaced when it no longer meets the

performanceneeds of the market,notnecessarily by the functional lifeofthe

equipmentitself.

A

survey

of

the

IT

market

from

the

IDC

notes

that

the

optimal

time to replace a server is after three years of operation, at which time the

returnoninvestment(ROI)topurchasenewcomparedtocontinualoperationof

current equipment will be less than one year66. These product refreshes have

the benefit of increased efficiency and better power utilization, as noted by

Dell67. Data from Dell supports this replacement timeframe noting that their

PowerEdgeserversusuallyoperate forabout4yearsbeforetheyareremoved

fromthemarket.HewlettPackardsuggestsatypicallifetimeisapproximately3

4years.

Oneofthe mainreasonsgiven forreplacingserversbeforecomplete failure is

thatmanyexperienceadecrease inserverreliabilitywhich increasesoperating

costs.

The

survey

of

the

IT

market

mentioned

above

questioned

over

50participantsintheservermarkettodiscovertheeffectthataginghadonserver

equipment.Notethe increase in failureratesanddowntimeastheequipment

ages.(Figure15)

Figure15 EffectofTimeonServerReliability66

66Perry,R.,Pucciarelli,J.,Bozman,J.,Scaramella,J.TheCostofRetainingAgingIT

Infrastructure.HP.2012.http://h18006.www1.hp.com/storage/pdfs/4AA39351ENW.pdf

67Stutz,M.,O'Connell,S.,&Pfluefer,J.Carbonfootprintingofatypicaldellrackserver.

InternationalSymposiumonSustainableSystemsandTechnology.May2012.Boston,MA.

0

1

2

34

5

6

7

8

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%10%

12%

14%

16%

18%

20%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Downtime(h

rsperyear)

Failure

Rate

ServerAge(years)

EffectofTimeonServerReliability

FailureRate

Downtime


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October10,2012

37 ServerPrimer

7.4. DesignforEndofLife

A significant mass of electronic equipment reaches the end of life and is

discarded every year. A 2005 paper estimated that global electronic waste

generationwas

on

the

scale

of

20

50

million

tons

per

year

68

with

approximately

40thousandtonsofthiswastefromendof lifeservers.Thisvalue isprojected

to continue to increase as more servers reach the end of life through both

failureandobsolescenceduetorapidtechnologyadvancements.

Servers have traditionally been designed for rapid repair and easy upgrade to

ensure minimal downtime. Many of the components are therefore hot

swappable, or able to be removed and changed while the server continues to

run. The traditional repairable and modular design provides the secondary

benefit of simple separation at the servers end of life. Servers are therefore

easily separated into recyclable material streams, or are easily upgraded to

extend the product life. The challenges associated with upgrade are further

detailedin

section

7.5.2.

This abilitytodisassembly the server to the component level was also seen in

the GIS demanufacturing analysis covered in section 7.1.1. The Dell server

studied in this analysis had a very modular design, with many of the major

componentsretainedbyquickreleaseattachments.Thisdesignallowsforquick

and cost effective servicing of components with little or no down time during

the use phase, and complete removal of all major components at the endof

life. In the study, the total disassembly time was only 8.2 minutes. The quick

releaselatcheshadeitherlightblueororangecoloredtabs,whichincreasedthe

easeof locatingand identifyingthese latches.Wireharnesseswerealsoclearly

labeledforeasyidentificationwithquickreleaseconnectorsthatdidnotrequire

the

use

of

tools

to

remove.

The

motherboard

was

mounted

to

a

large

steel

framewhichwaseasilyremovedbyremovingafewT15Torxscrews.

The modular design of both components and the use of quick release clips

insteadofthreadedfastenersfacilitatedmanualdisassemblyasanoptionprior

to mechanical separation. This separation of components with highvalue

materialscanpotentiallymaximizethevaluerecovered.

7.5. EndofLifeManagement

7.5.1. ServerEndofLife

The European Union (EU) has implemented legislation (the WEEE Waste

Electricaland

Electronic

Equipment

directive)

to

control

the

disposition

of

end

oflife electronics. The WEEE directive requires manufacturer to report the

material content of products and support environmentally sound endoflife

processing.WithintheUnitedStates,thereisalsoamovetowardslegislationto

68EnvironmentalAlertBulletin:Ewaste,thehiddensideofITequipmentsmanufacturingand

use.UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.Jan,2005.

http://www.grid.unep.ch/products/3_Reports/ew_ewaste.en.pdf


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October10,2012

38 ServerPrimer

prevent dumping endoflife electronics into municipal waste streams, and

many companies are taking proactive steps to provide for collection and

processing of endoflife products. In the recent past, some endoflife

electronics have been shipped from developed countries to developing

countries

that

do

not

have

stringent

environmental

requirements;

publicityaround these practices has raised worldwide concern resulting in increased

monitoringbyNGOsandincreasedoversightbywesterngovernments.

The increased legislation, oversight, and public and corporate sensitivities are

resulting in improvements in the environmental impact of endoflife

electronics;however,therearetechnical, logistic,andeconomic limitationson

theeffectivenessofendoflifeprocessingpractices.

Thereareavarietyofsourcesofbestpracticetypeinformationonelectronics

design to decrease the endoflife environmental impacts through

remanufacturing,recycling,andrecovery.

There

is

a

significant

body

of

literature

in

the

area

of

product,

and

morespecificallyelectronicproduct,recyclingandmaterialrecovery;thisresearchcan

be grouped into several areas. One area describes the state of the art in

recyclingprocesses;this includesbroadreviewsaswellasdetailedevaluations

of particular processes.69,70,71,72 A second group of literature looks at the

economicand/orenvironmentalaspectsofrecycling,thisisofparticularinterest

asfreemarketrecyclingwillnotsurviveifnoteconomicallyviable.73,74,75,76,77,78A

69Cui,J.,Forssberg,E.,Mechanicalrecyclingofwasteelectricandelectronicequipment:a

review,JournalofHazardousMaterials,Vol.99,No.3,pp243263,May2003.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030438940300061X

70

Kang,

H.

Y.,

and

Schoenung,

J.M.,

Electronic

waste

recycling:

A

review

of

U.S.

infrastructure

andtechnologyoptions,Vol.45,No.4,Dec2005,pp.368400.

http://aix.meng.auth.gr/pruwe/dhmosieuseis/weee_usa.pdf

71Hageluken,C.,RecyclingofelectronicscrapatUmicoresintegratedmetalssmelterand

refinery,ProceedingsofEMC,Vol.1,p.307,2005.

http://www.preciousmetals.umicore.com/PMR/Media/e

scrap/show_recyclingOfEscrapAtUPMR.pdf

72Li,J.,et.al.,PrintedCircuitBoardRecycling:AStateoftheArtSurvey,IEEETransactionson

ElectronicsPackagingManufacturing,Vol.27,No.1,pp3342,Jan.2004.

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1331573&userType=&tag=1

73Boon,J.E.,Isaacs,J.E.,andGupta,S.M.,EconomicsofPCRecycling,ProceedingsoftheSPIE

InternationalConferenceonEnvironmentallyConsciousManufacturing,Boston,MA,Nov.58,pp.

2935,

2000.

http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=927163

74Sodhi,M.S.,andReimer,B.,Modelsforrecyclingelectronicsendoflifeproducts,OR

Spectrum,Vol23,No.1,Feb,2001.

http://aix.meng.auth.gr/helcare/ScareEng/Papers/%D7%D1%C7%D3%C9%CC%CF%20

%20Models%20for%20recycling%20electronics.pdf

75Kang,H.Y.,andSchoenung,J.M.,Estimationoffutureoutflowsandinfrastructureneededto

recyclepersonalcomputersystemsinCalifornia,JournalofHazardousMaterials,Vol.137,Issue

2,pp.11651174,Sept2006.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389406003360


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October10,2012

39 ServerPrimer

third group of literature attempts to evaluate the suitability for recycling of a

particulardesign.79,80ThesereferencesfromVillalbaetal.,provideametricfor

materialrecyclabilitythattakesintoaccountthepostrecycledmaterialvalueas

comparedtotheoriginalvalue;asecondindexthattakesintoaccountthecost

ofdisassembly

provides

an

overall

recyclability

metric.

This

approach

does

not

allowvisibilityintothedesignfactorsthataffectdisassemblycost.

In general, most of the components of ewaste have some economic value as

part of the recovery or recycling process; however, the costs associated with

transportation, disassembly, and separation can very quickly exceed the

potential material recovery value.81 In addition to proper material selection,

designfordisassemblyiscriticaltocosteffectiverecyclingofelectronics.

Thereisrobustliteratureintheareaofdesignfordisassemblyanddisassembly

planning for remanufacturing that is also applicable to recycling. Bras and

McIntosh (1999)82 provide an overview of the early research in this field. The

work includes models that can be used to optimize assembly or disassembly

processes

for

a

particular

design;

th

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