Short History of the NCO

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Museum of the Noncommissioned Officer

AS T HISTOF THE NC0

U.S. Army Sergeants Majcrr Academy


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U.S. Army Museum of theNoncommissioned Officer

A Short History of the NC0

NC0 Museum Staff ArticleWritten ByL. R. ArmsEditor

Patricia Rhodes

U.S. Army Sergeants Major AcademyFort Bliss, Texas

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PrefaceThe following is a short history of the U.S. ArmyNoncommissioned Officer. This work is produced in hopethat it will prove useful to the wide variety of NCOs inthe field and to visitors of the U.S. Army Museum ofthe Noncommissioned Officer, who seek additional infor-mation on NC0 history.The history is presented in a chronological mannerand is based upon a variety of works listed at the endof the paper. Sources are noted throughout the paper inthe folloing manner: (van Steuben). It should be pointedout that two unpublished works in the museums refer-ence files were of great help; these works are the twoFisher Manuscripts noted in the Sources Consulted.Several. oral histories and other works drawn from themuseums archives were used to give depth and providethe primary resources to the pamphlet.

b-.1 L. R. ARMSDirectorNC0 Museum

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ContentsIntroduction , . . . . . . . . . . . .American Revolution . . . .War of 1812 . . . . . . . I.. . . . .Expansion Westward . . .1820S & 1830s . . . . . . . . .Mexican-American War .1850s . . . . . . . . 1 .. L . . . ,Civil War . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . .Indian Wars.. , . . . . . .. .1880s & 1890s . . . . . . . . .Spanish-American War. .Modernization. . . . . . . . . . 1.World War I.. . . . . . . . . . . .Between World Wars . . . .World War 11.. . . . . . . . . . . .Post-World War II . . . . . . .Modern Era . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sources Consulted I.. . . .

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IntroductionThe history of the United States Army and of thenoncommissioned officer began in 1775, with the birthof the Continental Army. The American noncommissioned

officer did not copy the British. He, like the AmericanArmy itself, blended traditions of the French, British,and Prussian armies into a uniquely American institu-tion. As the years progressed, the American politicalsystem, disdain for the aristocracy, social attitudes, aadthe vast westward expanses further removed the U.S.Army noncommissioned officer from his European c~un-terparts and created a truly American noncommissionedoffia?r.

American RevoluGonIn the early days of the American Revolution., little&andardiz.&ion of NC43 duties or r.esponsib$lities existed.In 1778, derring the long, hard winter at Valley Forge,Ias~ector General Friedrich van Steuben standardizedPEb duties and responsibilities in his Regulations forthe Order and D i.scipline of the Trosps of the UnitedS&&es .(priated in 3.779). arngng &her thing.5 tE;iS work(eommtml~ called the $1~ Book3 set down the duties and


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quartermasters absence. He also supervised the properloading and transport of the regiments baggage whenon march. (*van Steuben)The First Sergeant enforced discipline and encour-aged duty among troops, maintained the duty roster,

made morning report to the company commander, andkept the company descriptive book. This document listedthe name, age, height, place of birth, and prior occupa-tion of every enlisted man in the unit. (*van Steuben)Sergeants and Corporals were expected to instruct re-cruits in all matters of military training, including theorder of their behavior in regard to neatness and sanita-tion. Outbreaks of disturbances were to be punished. List-ings of sick were to be forwarded to the First Sergeant.In battle, NCOs were to close the gaps occasionedby casualties and encourage men to silence and to fire

rapidly and true. (*van Steuben}The development of a strong NC0 Corps helped sus-tain the Continental Army through severe hardships tofinal victory. Van Steuben called the NC0 the back-bone of the Army. and his regulations established thecenterpiece for NC0 duties and responsibilities from 1778to the present.During the early stages of the American Revolution,the typical Continental Army NC0 wore an epaulet tosignify his rank. C orporals wore green, and sergeantswore red epaulets. A fter 1779, sergeants wore two epau-

lets, while corporals retained a single epaulet. (*Emmerson)From the American Revolution to World War II, thenoncommissioned officer received his promotion from theregimental commander. Entire careers were often spentwithin one regiment. If a man was transferred from oneregiment to the next he did not take his rank with him.No noncommissioned officer could be transferred ingrade from one regiment to another without the permis-sion of the General in Chief of the Army; this was rarely2


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done. Without permanent promotions of individuals,stripes stayed with the regiment.Three NCOs received special recognition for acts ofheroism during the American Revolution. These men,Sergeant Elijah Churchill, Sergeant William Brown, and

Sergeant Daniel Bissell, were awarded the Badge of Mil-itary Merit, a purple heart with a floral border and theword merit inscribed across the center. This awardwas the precursor of the Medal of Honor introducedduring the Civil War. (*Robles)Sergeant William Browns act of heroism occurredduring the assault of Redoubt #lO at Yorktown. He ledthe advance party whose mission was so hazardous itwas called the forlorn hope. Charging with fixedbayonets, they ignored musket fire and grenades, leapedthe barriers surrounding the redoubt, and in the ensuingstruggle captured the position. (Megehee)The American victory at Yorktown secured indepen-dence for the nation. Independence meant the new na-tion would provide for its own defense. The nation waspoor, and the cost of maintaining an army was a heavyburden. Many Americans, like Thomas Jefferson, opposedthe maintenance of a peacetime Army on the groundsthat it could be used against the people. The Americangovernment folowed a policy which reduced the numberof troops in the Army to the bare minimum during timesof peace, relying upon militia or volunteer troops toprevent uprisings and quell Indian disturbances.During times of war the Army was enlarged, withthe professional soldiers forming the basis for expan-sion. This policy endured to some extent until worldcommitments and the stationing of troops overseas inthe 20th century required the nation to maintain a strongprofessional force.The system of relying heavily on untrained militiaunits, raised on the spur of the moment, was severelytested during the Indian troubles on the Northwest Fron-tier in the 1790s. In 1790 and 1791 two militia units

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were defeated by Indians in the Northwest (present-dayOhio and Indiana). The Army was enlarged from 800 to1,500 men to quell the uprising. These troops, known asthe Legion, were trained, drilled, and formed into awell-disciplined group. Pn 1794 they marched against theIndians and defeated them in the Battle of Fallen Tim-bers. (*Matloff) The action showed the importance oftraining, drill, and diseiphne during pitched battles.

War of1812When the United States declared war on Britain on18 June 1812, the total Army numbered 11,744 men. Thereal basis for defense of America lay in the militias ofthe states, totaling 694,000 men. (*Ferrell) Control of themilitias centered in the states, and many would not fightoutside the United States or even outside local boundaries.In addition, the United States could not supply alarge field Army. The largest number of fighting troopsin the active militia and the Regular Army was 35,800men in 1814. (*Ferrell)To reduce the cost of maintaining an Army, unitswere often called to fight on short notice and sent homeafter the action. This met with mixed results as troopswere often not trained. Some units raised in this mannerfought gallantly, but others ran in panic at the first shot.In 1813, the governor of Kentucky was called uponto raise 2,000 men for the invasion of Canada. Disre-

garding the limits placed on their num bers, the Ken-tuckians raised about 3,000 men and headed for theNorthwest (present-day Michigan) to unite with 2,500Army Regulars.A large portion of the Kentucky volunteers-1,200-formed a mounted regiment. These troops dressed inleather hunting frocks and trousers and wore brighthandkerchiefs. Each man carried a tomahawk, scalpingknife, and long rifle. Though mounted, they were armed

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with long rifles, instead ,of carbi.nes or sabers, and wqre:taught to charge straight into hostile fire. (*&Iahon)On the s.hore of Lake l$rie they united their forceswith the Regulars and ,a ha,ndful of men from -Pennsyl-,vania. They then .marched forward to meet ,900 British

Regulars and a coalitiqn of Indians, totaling 2,OQOalliedagainst them.The Indian and British forces slowly retreated infront .of the larger force until they reached a strong de-fensive position With the river Thames, two swamps,and -woods used to as&t in the defense, th-e Indiansand British ~Regulars waited ,for the .h,astily-formed in-vasion force, believing t,heir .more exper,ienced forceswould .ca,rry the day. (Sugden)The American forces reached the site and without ,hes-itation the mounted Kentucky regiment charged &aightat the British Regulars. The shock of the Kentuckianscharging pell-me11 crushed the British lines. Withinminutes the mounted Kentucky regiment had riddenthrough the British lines and dismounted. They openedfire upon the rear of the British lines as the AmericanRegulars and other Kentuckians opened fire to the front.The British panicked and fled, leaving the Indians tofend for themselves.Turning upon the Indians who were hidden in thewoods and s.wamps, the Americans pressed forward. TheIndians resisted for a short while, but having seen theirallies ,totally cleared from the field, they too began to,flee. I*Mahon)The troops from Kentucky, having accomplishedwhat had been asked of them, returned home shortlyafter the Battle of the .Thames. They had served a littleover three months and fought only on,e major battle, butthey had proven that the citizen-soldier can be a vitalpart of any war effort.When the War of 1812 ended, greater emphasis wasplaced on American la,nds west of the M,ississippi River.

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The purchase of the Louisiana River system in 1803 hadadded a vast unexplored region to the United States. Priorto 1812 five expeditions for exploration of this land werelaunched. All expeditions were accompanied by enlistedmen and NCOs.

Expansion WestwardThe expedition of Captain Meriweather Lewis andSecond Lieutenant William Clark is a good example ofthe typical Army expedition during this period. The ex-pedition was composed of two officers, four NCOs, 23privates, nine French or Indian interpreters, and Lewisslave York. The expedition collected information on plantand animal life, topography, social customs among theIndians, and climate conditions. They encountered 50different tribes, to many of whom they provided peace

medals, trinkets, and goods in return for friendly rela-tions. (*Jackson County) Several men of this expeditionbecame traders and trappers in the years that followedand were instrumental in opening the fur trade on theMissouri. (*Time-Life Books}The fur trade proved to be a highly lucrative busi-ness and the Indians main source of acquiring guns,powder, tinware, steel traps, blankets, and other goods.The government sought to prevent Indian troubles bypromoting government-sponsored trade. Friendly tribessought the establishment of fur factories (small frontierforts) in their areas, often requiring this of the govern-ment in treaties or peace negotiations. To assist in con-trolling the fur trade and assure that friendly relationswith Indian tribes were maintained, a small number oftroops were stationed at each fur factory. These troopsensured that traders had proper licenses and confiscatedall liquor brought into Indian areas. (*Jackson County)The small, isolated fur factories changed the environ-ment of Army life, requiring NCOs to take greater careand responsibility in the daily lives of their troops. NCOs


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ensured their mens cleanliness by inspections and close-ly monito red their ac tivities with five roll calls per day.Punishments for infractions were often harsh, withfloggings and even the cutting off of ears being amongthe sentences. (*Talbot)A typical fur factory, Fort Osage, had six two-storyblockhouses, en listed quarters, a four-floored factory, awell, and a two-story commanding officers house. Thefactory and two of the blockhouses constituted the outerfort and were protected from one side only. The otherbuildings were enclosed in the inner fort, which had gatesthat could be closed in case of attack. (*Jackson County)

Fur Factory

IndianCampq

Blockhouse

qBlockhouse

BlockhouseEnlistedQuarters

Blockhouse BlockhauseTrade at the fur factory was operated by a govern-

ment appointed civilian known as the factor. In addi-tion to protecting the factor and his goods, soldiers wereused by the factor to load and unload goods, build orrepair the factory, and on occasion to beat and packfurs for shipment.The factor and the soldier worked closely together.In 1820 the Army paymaster, paddling up the MissouriRiver, overturned his canoe. Pay for the soldiers at Fort

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&age, already lang overdue, was lost. The factor at I?ortOsage used the factorys cash profits to pay the soldiers,of the fort, receiving a government voucher in return.The factory syste~m was abandoned in 1822. Soldierscontinued to control the river traffic, ensuring that no li-quor passed upstream, but trade reverted to private traders

and trappers. (*Soldier and Trader on the Missouri)1820's &DC830's

In 1821 the first reference to ~noncommissioned officerchevrons was made by the War Department. A GeneralOrder directed that sergeants major and quartermastersergeants wear a worsted chevron on each arm abovethe elbow; sergeants and senior musicians, one on eacharm below the elbow; and corporals, one on the rightarm above the elbow. This practice was officially dis-continued in 1829. (*Emmerson)The first school for instruction was opened at FortMonroe in 1824. This school instructed entire units, in-stead of individuals, in the use of artillery. Though sus-pended from time to time, it would be the precursor formodern technical training.

In 1825 the first attempt was made to establish asystematic method for noncommissioned officer selection.The appointment of regimental and company noneommis-sioned officers remained the prerogative of the regimentalcommander. Regimental commanders were expected toaccept the company comm anders recommenda tions forcompany NCOs unless there were overriding considera-tions. (*Fisher)

The Abstract of Infantry Tactics, published in 1829,provided instructions for training noncommissioned offi-eers. The purpose of this instruction was to ensure thatall NCQs possessed an accurate ,knowledge of the exer-cise and use of their firelocks, of the manual exercise ofthe soldier, and of the firings and marchings.


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Field officers and the adjutant were required to as-semble noncommissioned officers frequently for bothpractical and theoretical instruction, Furthermore, fieldofficers were to ensure that company officers providedproper instruction to their noncommissioned officers.The sergeant major assisted in instructing sergeantsand corporals of the regiment. Newly-promoted corporalsand sergeants of the company received instruction fromthe first sergeant.In 1832 Congress added to the ranks of noncommis-sioned officers, creating the Ordnance Sergeant. Thiswas a specialized position, with the duties centering onreceiving and preserving the ordnance, arms, ammuni-tion, and other military stores of the post to which hewas assigned. (*Fisher)Daily rations during the 1830s included beef (1%poundsj or pork (% pounds); flour or bread (18 ounces);

whiskey, rum, or other liquor (% pint); vinegar (4 quartsper 100 men}; soap (4 pounds per 100 men); salt (twoquarts per 100 men); and candles (1% pounds per 100men). The liquor ration was eliminated in 1832 and re-placed with four pounds of coffee and eight pounds ofsugar per 100 men.The lack of vegetables in the daily ration often proveddisastrous at frontier posts. During the winter months,scurvy struck posts and the only relief was to trade localIndians whiskey for vegetables. This trade, though illegal,saved mare than one post from the ravages of scurvy.When coffee replaced whiskey, the Army had little to

trade to attain the needed vegetables, as Indians wouldrarely trade vegetables for coffee. (For prevention ofscurvy, beans were introduced into the daily ration inthe 1840s.) (*Gamble)Post gardens provided another source of nutrition out-side the daily rations. In an effort to lower the cost ofsustaining an Army, gardens were used to grow vegeta-bles. Enlisted men planted, hoed, and watered the gardensas fatigue duty. At other posts, in addition to gardens,

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herds of cattle were maintained. Many commanders andenlisted men disapproved of such duty, regarding it asunmilitary. (*Gamble)Considered by many to be more military and assist-ing in supplementing the daily ration, hunting proved

popular on the frontier. One commander went so far asto declare that the Army would save a great deal ofmoney and train its troops if soldiers were organized intohunting parties, instead of spending endless hours onfatigue duty.Leisure time for soldiers during this period was spentin a variety of pursuits. Card games, horse races, andbilliards were common at frontier posts, though theseactivities were sometimes frowned upon. In contrast, read-ing, letter writing, and prayer groups received supportthroughout the Army. Post libraries were established atthe moderate or larger size posts. Libraries contained

books of fiction and nonfiction, journals, and newspapers.Enlisted men and officers were given either separaterooms or reading times. Drama groups were common,with both male and female characters played by the sol-diers. The main dining room or other suitable locationbecame the stage on which Don Quixote, MonsieurTouson, The Village Lawyer, or other plays wereperformed. (*Gamble)Theatrical performances were also provided at postswhen showboats arrived. Most frontier Army posts dur-ing this period were located on a major waterway suchas the Mississippi or Missouri River. Steamboats traveled

these waterways transporting passengers, goods, and themail. At times they were accompanied by theatrical groups.When the showboats arrived, everyone at the post wouldbe treated to live theatrical performances. (*Gamble)In the 1830s a policy of removing all Indians fromeast of the Mississippi River to new homes in the westbegan. This policy required additional frontier forts tobe established and led to several bitter struggles withthe Eastern tribes, the most fierce of which were known

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as the Seminole Indian Wars. It also required the Armyto assume a role as maintainers of peace between East-ern and Western tribes on the western frontier. (Utley)In addition to the garrison troops needed to maintainpeace among the Indians, the opening of the Santa Fe

trade trail in the 1820s created the need for mountedtroops in the Army. In 1832, Congress created a battal-ion of mounted rangers. These were militia units, notpart of the Regular Army, and proved expensive to main-tain. Accordingly, in 1833 Congress created two dragoonregiments.Daily life for dragoons while in garrison consistedof reveille at daybreak, stable call 15 minutes later,breakfast, guard mounting, and mounted drill. Aftermounted drill there was carbine drill on foot till 11:OOand then an hour of saber exercise. This was followedby dinner from 1200 to 1:OO. A 30-minute mounted drill

before sunset and an hour-long stable call remained be-fore supper. After supper the men cleaned their accou-trements and were then free for leisure pursuits. Tapswas sounded at 9:OO. (*Lowe)Dragoons were considered elite troops. They we re re-quired to be native-born American citizens during a pe-riod when many soldiers we re of foreign birth. To showthat they were the elite forces, Dragoons reintroducedthe chevron for use by NCOs in 1833. These chevronswere worn point down.Immigration had a dramatic impact on the Armyfrom 1840 onward. Many units were composed of large

numbers of Irish and German immigrants. U.S. Grantestimated that over half the Army during this periodconsisted of men born in foreign countries. (*Grant)Many of these immigrants sought escape from the ethnicor religious persecution which was common in the UnitedStates during this period. Newspapers in the Northeastwere filled with want ads stating Irish need not apply.Immigrants who previously had been teachers, merchants,or even lawyers enlisted in the Army as a means of escap-ing persecution and incorporating into American society.11

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In 1840 an effort was made to give the NC0 Corpsgreater prestige by adopting a distinctive sword. Themodel 1840 NC0 sword remains the sword of the NC0Corps and is still used in special ceremonial occasions.

Mexican-American WarThe annexation of Texas in 1845, and American de-sires for California, led to war w ith Mexico in 1846. Thewar, unpopular in some areas of the United States, wasthe first to require large numbers of troops outside thecountrys borders.During the Mexican-American War, the United Statesraised 115,000 troops; 73,000 of these were volunteers.Volunteers were promised 160 acres of land upon comple-tion of their enlistment. They were raised by local areas

of particular states and elected their officers and NCOsby popular vote. This often led to a lack of disciplineamong the troops, but their spirit more than compensatedfor their lack of discipline. The volunteers, like the Reg-ular Army, hardened in battle and by wars end provedan effective force. (*Smith & Judah)One volunteer unit, the First Regiment MissouriMounted Volunteers, achieved considerable acclaim.Composed of eight companies from different Missouricounties, the regiment totaled 856 men. They were farm-ers, businessmen, teachers, lawyers, and other elementsof Missouri society.The volunteers marched with the Army of the West,leaving Fort Leavenworth on 26 June 1846. Marchingin detachments to ensure that enough forage and waterwould be found, they m aintained a pace of 35 miles perday. In August they captured Santa Fe without a fight.They then turned southward, as the main Army marchedwest and engaged the Navajo. In November a treaty wassigned with the Navajo, and the Missourians headed forEl Paso.

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On Christmas Day, as 450 Missourians rested justnorth of El Paso, a 1,200-man Mexican force chargedthe camp. The Missourians held fast and the Mexicanforces retreated a short distance. Sixty Missourians gainedtheir mounts and charged wildly, forcing the MexicanArmy before them. Two days later the Missourians enteredEl Paso, where they spent the next two months.The Missourians next headed for Chihuahua. Near-ing the city they were met by a force four times theirown. The Mexican soldiers wa ited in a narrow pass nearthe Sacramento River. The Missourians opened with aburst of artillery, and when the Mexican force fell back,the Missourians charged. By sunset the battle concludedwith one Missourian dead and enemy losses totaling 300dead, 500 wounded, and 40 prisoners.After several more months and many miles of march-ing, the Missourians reached Matamoros; here they boarded

ships and returned home via the Gulf of Mexico and theMississippi River. They had covered 3,000 miles withoutever being paid and seldom supplied. They had defeatedtwo Mexican armies and the Navajo. They were farmers,teachers, and businessmen who served to expand theirnation westward. (*Volunteer)The Mexican-American War ended with the additionof vast territories by the United States. In the years thatfollowed, a major portion of the Armys responsibilitiescentered around protecting the Oregon and Californiaemigrant trails. The large area covered by these trails,and the small size of the Army, required operations tobe carried out in small detachments. NC& often led thesmall detachm ents sent out from frontier forts to dis-courage Indian attacks on settlers or other troubles.

1850'sIn October 1849 , a young Massachusetts farm boynamed Percival Lowe joined the U.S. Armys Dragoons.Having read Fremonts Narrative of 1843-1844 and other

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Army adventures, he felt that five years of life in thewest could round out his education. Lowe was intelligent,well-educated, and strong, which made him an ideal sol-dier for the years ahead.A few days after enlisting he was sent to Carlisle

Barracks, Pennsylvania, a school for mounted recruits.Lowe received training, drilling on foot and horseback,and practice with the saber. He also met Big Mit, atough Irishman with a crude disposition.Several weeks after enlisting, Lowe sat eating chickenat a table in the mess hall. Big Mit, a six-feet two-inchgiant weighing 225 pounds, decided he would finish offall the chicken on the table. He looked at Lowe, who satsilent, and sneered an insult. Lowe sprang to his feet,drew his saber, and beat Big Mit with it.Luckily for Lowe and Big Mit, the saber was dull,and after a few days in the hospital, Big Mit began a

long healing process. No action was taken against Lowewhen he explained what had happened.During the winter of 1849, Lowe and 75 men, includ-ing Big M it, were sent to join B Troop, Second DragoonRegiment, at Fort Leavenworth. Their trip was to havebeen by steamboat; however, the river was frozen solidabove Portland, Missouri.The men left the steamboat, hired a couple of wagonsfor their baggage, and began to walk. Big Mit, still notcompletely recovered from his beating, rode in one of thewagons. The journey was long, and the men had littlemoney. The rougher crowd, like Big Mit, took to stealingothers heavy coats and selling them for money to buywhiskey. The men endured due to the assistance of Cor-poral W ood, who paid for their rations out of his ownpocket, keeping vouchers to be reimbursed.They arrived at Fort Leavenworth on ChristmasDay and received bread, boiled pork, and coffee for theirsupper-a poor supper, but at least they were warm.At Leavenworth, Lowe drilled on foot, horseback,and with the saber, awaiting spring to go to the field.

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To supplement Army rations, he purchased vegetablesfrom Missouri farmers.Big Mit and his friends supplemented their daily ra-tions by crossing the river to Whiskey Point or Rialt.0,where the wildlife and liquor flowed. Though this was

against regulations, few cared, even if it meant spendingsome time in the guardhouse.Sundays were inspection days. The men, their bar-racks, and gear would be inspected by their Troop Com-mander. One Saturday evening, Big Mit decided to tradehis gear for Lowes. When Lowe ret.urned from supper henoticed the gear on his bunk was not the clean, sharp-looking equipment he had left. Looking around, Lowefound his rightful gear on Big Mits bunk. He took hisgear, leaving the soiled gear in its place.When Big Nit returned from supper to find his olddirty gear laying on his bunk, he was furious. Grabbinga carbine, Big Mit charged towards Lowe. Lowe drewhis saber and again beat Big Mit w ith all his might,.Two officers of the guard separated the men. Big Mitwas taken to the hospital for a months stay. Lowemeanwhile explained his actions and was sent back tohis unit (*Lowe}The two episodes with Big Mit had little effect onLowes career. His education, intelligence, and couragewere more important.During the next few months Lowe proved himselfas a soldier. He learned quickly how to keep his horse

in sound condition while campaigning. He also learnedthe ways of the Plains and the various Indian tribesthat lived upon it.. More than anything, however, helearned about the individual soldiers in his unit andhow to lead them. He was promoted to corporal, thensergeant, and in June of 1851, a litt.le over t.wo yearsafter he had enlisted, Lowe was made first sergeant ofhis company.Two yea rs after he made first. sergeant in 1853, Lowewas sent to a Kansa Indian village to demand the return

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Percival Lowe, B Company, 2d Dragoons, 1852.16


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of five horses stolen from the Army the previous spring.He went alone, except for an interpreter. He entered theKansa camp with the interpreter and went to the houseof the chief. Without a lot of introduction, Lowe told thechief that he had come to demand the return of thehorses the Karma had stolen from the Army. If thiswas not done, the Army would come to the camp andtake the horses by force. The chief denied any knowl-edge of the stolen horses. Lowe stated that he knewthat the Kansa had stolen the horses, and that if theywere not returned to his camp by the time he reachedit, the chief would be sorry. He then shook the chiefshand and left.

Reporting back to his commander without the horses,Lowe was told to assemble 20 men, return to the camp,and take the horses. Leaving their sabers in camp be-cause of the noise created by the scabbards, the mentook their revolvers and plenty of ammunition and headedfor the Kansa camp.

First Sergeant Lowe and his men rode quietly intothe Kansa camp and captured the chief as he ran out ofhis house. The village sprang to the alarm, with women,men, and children yelling. Several young men rushed outwith guns and bows and arrows as if to give battle. Thechief calmed them and went off peacefully with Loweand his men.By the time they reached their camp, three of thehorses had been returned and promises had been received

for the return of the others. This accomplished, the com-mander lectured the chief and then allowed him to returnto his village.Back in camp First Sergeant Lowe resumed his du-ties. Muster rolls were to be kept, the company libraryorganized, and fatigue details set to work. Discipline, amajor problem on the frontier, had to be maintained.Lowe viewed whiskey as the major source of disci-pline problems for enlisted men. He talked with othernoncommissioned officers about this and cautioned each

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to give personal attention to his men to assure they werenot drinking to excess. Sometimes drunk soldiers wouldbe brought to Lowe, who would lock them in a store roomuntil they sobered up. Offenders received extra duty aspunishment.Lowe and the noncommissioned officers of the com-pany established the company court-martial (not recog-nized by Army regulations). This allowed the noncom-missioned offieers to enforce discipline for the breakingof minor regulations without lengthy proceedings. In thedays before the summary court martial, it proved effec-tive to discipline a man by the company court-martialand avoided ruining his career by bringing him beforethree officers of the regiment.A problem as major as drunkenness was desertion.It was not uncommon for a man to desert to head westin search of gold or merely because he was tired of the

military.One deserter crossed the Missouri River from FortLeavenworth to the town of Weston. He became a re-cruiter of deserters, encouraging men to desert in orderto rob them, and then with friends turn them in for areward.Upon discovering this mans shanty, Lowe informedthe company commander and a party was sent out toarrest the man. A lieutenant, Sergeant Peel, and a groupof men rode to the shanty. They found another man andsix women sitting at a table eating dinner. Sergeant Peel

felt certain that the wanted man was hiding under hiswifes big hoop skirt and told her so. He further statedthat if he had to go under her skirts to capture the manhe would. The lieutenant; not nearly as brave, told thesergeant to search no further. The lieutenant, SergeantPeel, and the men left. A month later the man gave him-self up and admitted he had been hidden under his wifesskirt when Sergeant Peel had searched his house. (*Lowe)During this period the soldiers life consisted primarilyof garrison duty or campaigning in the west. Campaigns

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were meant to prevent o r quell Indian uprisings, protectsettlers o r traders, and to generally extend governmen talcontrol over far-flung areas. They often last,ed for monthsand covered hundreds of miles.In 1833, a young man who went by the name Utah

joined a group of recruits at Carlisle Barracks, Pennsyl-vania. He had joined the Army for a five-year enlistmentto participate in the Mormon War. After training at Car-lisle Barracks, Utah was sent to Fort Leavenworth tojoin the Dragoons.Utahs unit began their march from Fort Leavenworthto Salt Lake City at a rate of 12 miles per day. D isciplinewas lax, desertion and drunkenness common. The laxdiscipline was combined with severe punishment far thosewho were caught. A stout bugler would flog the offend-ing individual, drawing blood with every blow. Punish-ment for desertion ranged from 25 to 50 blows.On the march, units followed rivers or streams whenpossible. This usually provided them with water for drink-ing and some wood far cooking. The cedar or cottonwoodfrom t,hese riverbeds was mixed up with buffalo chips(dried buffalo dung) to create a fire.On many days, the total rations consisted of threehardtack biscuits and a piece of salt pork a day. At othertimes, rations were supplemented by wild game or fruitwhich the men encountered upon their journey.There was time for hunting and other amusementsduring the day because the horses had to graze. Men

played cards, wrote letters, hunted, or sought other pursuits.During the march, the men often encountered emi-grants and Indians. With bath, they traded and exchangedinformation With the Indian tribes, the Army tried toestablish friendly relations. At a camp of the Sioux, Utahand other soldiers traded old uniforms and feathers forbuffalo robes.At night the Dragoons established a camp. Fifteenmen, with their saddles, valises, blankets, rifles, sabers,

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and accoutrements were stuffed inside a single tent. Thetents, Utah stated, were not big enough to hold a goodsize double bed, and there was little comfort.By the time Utahs unit arrived in Salt Lake City,the Mormon War had ended. The unit stayed in the area

for some time, quartered in adobe buildings QT tents. Fi-nally the unit was sent out to help quell trouble withthe Utes. Utahs diaries stop suddenly; it is not knownif he met his death at the hands of the Utes ar simplylost interest in keeping a journal.The chevron went through a series of changes duringthe 184%1860 period. In 1847 the chevron was worn inthe inverted V. A few years later, in the 1850s, it wasturned point down in the V. Epaulets were worn withthe dress uniform, but not with the undress. The changesended by the Civil War, settling in the V or pointdown. It remained in the V shape until the regulations

of 1902. (Emmerson)During the 1859s major changes were made in U.S.Army weaponry. In ordnance, the percussion cap andrifled weapons were developed and refined. Weapons likethe Sharps carbine and the Joslyn added greatly to fire-power and accuracy.

Civil WarThe Civil War marked a radical change in Americanwarfare; it brought the total war to America. This war

required a large number of draftees and the launchingof massive campaigns. It would end in the trench war-fare outside Petersburg, Virginia.During the Civil War, noncommissioned officers ledthe lines of skirmishers which preceded and followed eachmajor unit. Noncommissioned officers also carried the flagsand regimental colors of their units. This deadly task wascrucial to maintain regimental alignment and in order forcommanders to define the locations of their units on thefield.

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As the war progressed, organizational and tacticalchanges led the Army to employ more open battle forma-tions. These changes further enhanced the combat lead-ership role of the noncommissioned officer. (*Fisher)The battle for Fredricksburg in 1862 proved one of the

most costly in the war. The days were cold. Rain, mixedwith snow, turned roads to mud. Prior to the battle, eachsoldier received rations for four days, Rations consistedof hardtack, meat, eoffee, and 60 rounds of ammunition.On 13 December 1862, Corporal William Heatley andPrivate Alfred BeIlard looked across the RappahannockRiver from Stafford Beights. They could see Uniontroops attempting to storm Maryes Hill in wave afterwave only to be met with a wall of lead from Confeder-ate troops.Skirmishing continued until four oclock on 14 De-cember. At that point, a truce in the fighting was calledto clear the dead from the field and allow the troops torest.Men began playing cards and singing. Some tradedtobacco with Confederate soldiers. Early on the morningof the 15th, a fight was arranged between a Confederatesoldier and a Union soldier from the Sixth W isconsin. Asthe troops watched, the two men fought to a draw.Union troops withdrew across the Rappahannock Ri-ver north of Fredricksburg and established winter quar-ters. The quarters were made with pine log walls, fourfeet high, and a chimney on one side. Four buttoned shel-ter tents provided the top. Inside, bunks were made frompine sticks covered with spruce leaves. On Christmasthe troops received a ration of dried app les and whiskey.(*Winter Campaign)New forms of technology would start to shape theArmy during the Civil War: railroads, telegraph commu-nications, steamships, balloons, and other innovations.(*Matloff) These innovations would impact on noneom-missioned officer rank structure and pay.

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Corporal Henry Jagger, 1860.22


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Corporal with nine button f~+frochoat, 2862.23


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Pay for U.S. troops during the CiviI W ar varied ac-cording to branch and rank, w ith more technical fieldsreceiving greater pay. As early as 1861, Army regulationsstated the payscale as follows:CavalrySergeant Major .................................. $21.00

Quarte rmaster Sergeant ........................ 21.00Chie f Bug ler ..................................... 21.00First Sergeant ................................... 20.00Sergeant. ......................................... 17.00Carpora l. ......................................... 14.00Bugler ............................................ 13.00Farrier and Blacksmith ......................... 13.00Private ........................................... 13.00Artillery and InfantrySergeant Major .................................. $21.00Quarte rmaster Sergeant ........................ 17.00First Sergeant ................................... 20.00Sergeant .......................................... 17.00Corporal. ......................................... 13.00Artifieer, Artille ry ............................... 15.00Priva te.. ......................................... 13.00Principal Musician .............................. 21.00Musician ......................................... 12.00

OrdnanceMaster Armorer ................................Master Carriage-Maker ........................Master Blacksmith .............................Artificer .........................................Laborer ..........................................Sappers, Miners, and PontoniersSergeant .........................................Corporal. ........................................Private First Class .............................Private Second Class ..........................Musician ........................................

Hospital StewardsFirst Class ......................................Second Class ...................................24

$34.0034.0034.0017.0013.00$24.0020.0017.0013.0012.00$22.0020.00


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The Civil War witnessed a continuation of the prac-tice of incorporating different racial and ethnic groupsinto the Army by units. Blacks, Irishmen, Indians, andothers formed racial or ethnic units. One Irish ethnicunit was composed of troops from New York City andknown as the Irish Brigade. This unit distinguished itselfat Fredricksburg: making six charges upon Confederatepositions, it was reduced from 1,200 to 280 men. (*Wiley)

After the Civil War, ethnic units were largely discon-tinued. Troops were either discharged or incorporated in-to other units of the Army. Racial segregation, however,remained, with some units which were composed entirelyof Black soldiers. These troops were among the most activeon the frontier during the Indian Wars period. (*Berry)In the post-Civil War era, the Artillery School at FortMonroe reopened to train both officers and noncommis-sioned officers. In 1870 the Signal Corps established aschool for training officers and noncommissioned officers.

Because both the Artillery and the Signal Corps requiredmen to have advanced technical knowledge in order tooperate compkx equipment and instruments, these schoolswere the first ones established. Efforts to provide advancededucation for noneommissioned offieers in other less tech-nical fields, however, failed to attract supporters. It wasfelt experience and not the classroom was needed tomake a good sergeant in the infantry and other fields.Indian Wars

The Indian Wars of the 187Os-1890s saw the Armyinvolved in a long series of engagements. These wars of-ten consisted of numerous scattered skirmishes over wideareas, without any substantial battle being fought to de-termine the wars end. This type of war led to the furtherenhancement of the NCOs role as small unit leader. Of-ten fighting in small detachments, troops relied heavilyon the knowledge and abilities of NC0s. (*Fisher)

One of the many outstanding soldiers of this periodwas Sergeant Charles L,. Thomas of the 11th Ohio Cav-alry. Late in the summer of 1865, the right column of25


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the Powder River Expedition, containing 1,400 men, waslost. Unable to regain their lines and wandering hope-lessly, the column began to despair.Rescue missions were sent out; Sergeant Thomas, withtwo Pawnee scouts, was among them. After 24 hours,Thomas and the scouts were attacked by Sioux w arriors

and a running battle ensued. Near sundown, Thomassighted the lost column. Spurring his horse, he cut apath through the Sioux, reaching the column.He then rallied the men in the camp into a fightingformation and forced the Sioux to give way. Thomaspushed the troops onward for I.50 miles to a supply camp.This prevented the destruction of the column, which wouldhave been a major disaster for the Army. (*Thomas)During the Indian Wars period, enlisted men livedin spartan barracks, with corporals and privates in onelarge room. Sergeants were separated from their men, insmall cubicles of their own adjacent to the mens sleep-ing quarters, (*Fisher) This gave enlisted men a senseof comradeship, but allowed little privacy.Black soldiers of this period were often referred to asBuffalo Soldiers. The units they served in were the 9thand 10th Cavalry and the 24th and 25th Infantry. Thesetroops provided 20 years of continuous frontier service.They campaigned in the Southern Plains, in West Texas,in the Apache lands, and against the Sioux. (*Chappell)One Black soldier, Sergeant George Jordan, won theMedal of Honor for actions during the campaign againstthe Apache leader Victoria. Sergeant Jordan led a 25-man

unit to Tularosa, New Mexico, to stave off a coming at-tack. Standing firm against 200-300 Apaches, SergeantJordan and his men prevented the towns destruction.(*ChapelI)The soldier of this period spent mueh of his time en-gaged in manual labor. S oldiers in the west were calledupon to build or repair housing and fortifications, re-pair roads and bridges, serve as blacksmiths or bakers,perform guard duty, and other tasks. It was a hard life,

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pay was pear, and desertion was common. NCOs werefully tested in their abilities ta maintain effective fight-ing units.During the 1870s the Army discouraged enlisted menfrom marrying. Regulations limited the number of marriedenlisted men in the Army and required special permissionto be obtained if a man in the Army wished to marry.Those men who did marry without permission couId becharged with insubordination. They could not live in posthousing or receive other entitlements. Still, nature provedstranger than Army desires or regulations. Marriagesoccurred and posts were transformed into communities.(*StalIard)NCO wives had a hard life, often working as laun-dresses or maids. Their meals consisted of beans, bacon,beef, and hardtack, with eggs, sugar, or other staplesbeing too high-priced for their budgets. Many lived indugouts, sod huts, or adobe buildings. The luckier wiveslived in wooden structures or stone buildings. (*St&lard)

1880's & 1890"sOne of the more colorful NCOs of this period wasSergeant John T. OKeefe of the Signal Corps. Stationedon top of Pikes Peak to observe and record the weather,OKeefe led a lonely, dulI life. In order to free himselffar drinking binges, he often prepared the weather reportsdays in advance.In addition to the fabricated weather reports, OKeefefabricated several very unusual stories. The eruption ofPikes Peak, OKeefe reported, buried the town of Colorado

Springs under a mountain of ash.After the Pikes Peak volcano became dormant, OKeefereported an even stranger occurrence. He, his wife, andhis child were attacked by ferocious rats. The wild var-mits ate his child. His wife escaped the same fate whenhe wrapped her in zinc roofing. He placed stove pipeson his legs and battled the critters for hours. He wasnearly spent when his wife Iassoed him with a wire con-nected to a battery, which electrocuted the rats as theyattempted to bite him.


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Shortly after this last report OKeefe was transferred.Never again did Pikes Peak erupt or wild mountain ratsattack men in herds.In contrast to the light-hearted OKeefe, the noncom-missioned officers of the Greely Expedition recorded theweather in one of the harshest climates in the world. In

1881 the U.S. Army Signal Corps sent an expedition toestablish a meteorological station as far north as possi-ble. The expedition consisted of three officers, eight non-commissioned officers, twelve enlisted men, two Eskimos,and one civilian photographer.Venturing forth from southern Greenland, the expe-dition established a basecamp, Fort Conger, in the HallBasin, by August. Using several dog sleds, a steam-drivenlaunch, and two barks, they discovered new lands northof Greenland and established a record by reaching thefarthest latitude north, at 83 degrees, 24 minutes North.For three years the men continued to operate the me-

teorological station and explore the far north. By 1884the men began to question if they w ould ever see homeagain. The expedition began to move south, using thesteam-driven launch and two barks. Reaching C ape Sabin,they built a stone cabin and again waited; only 50 daysof supplies rema ined. As the supplies dwindled, the menfell ill with scurvy. D rained by lack of nourishm ent andbitter cold, they began to slowly die. The cabin collapsed,and they were forced to take shelter in a tent.In June 1884 sailors of the Thetis, a sealing ship,spotted the remnants of the expeditions camp. Rippingopen the tent, which had collapsed, they found six sur-vivors: Lt. Adolphus Greely, Sergeant David Brainhard,Sergeant J.R. Frederick, Hospital Steward Henry Biederbick,and two privates. (*Fisher} The men were unable La stand,their bodies resembling skeletons-eyes sunken deep inthe sockets, jaws hanging freely, and joints swollen.The expedition provided the scientific -communitywith valuable information, discovered new lands, andestablished the record for latitude. To the men of theExpedition, however, it provided a cold, harsh, bittermemory.

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In 1885 the first retirement system was establishedfor enlisted men. The system allowed a man to retireafter 30 years of service with three-quarters of his activeduty pay and allowances. (*Fisher)Barracks life in the 1890s was simple, with cardgames, dime novels, and other amusements filling idletime. Foot lockers contained personal possessions, alongwith military clothing and equipment.Soldiers during this period maintained handbooks.The handbook contained a variety of information, includ-ing sections entitled: Extracts from Army Regulationsof 1895, Examination of Enlisted Men for Promotion,Take Care of Your Health, Extracts from Articles ofWar, and others. In the back, there were three sectionsfor the soldier to fill in: Clothing Account, MilitaryService, and Last Will and Testament.These handbooks were meant to be carried for a num-ber of years and provided the soldier with an accurate

record of the important events in his Army life.William B. Cox, a typical soldier in I-I Company, 18thInfantry Regiment, recorded his dates of discharge andclothing received, but failed to write anything in his lastwill and testament. His clothing records for 1898 are asfollows:2 Blouses #51 Forage Cap2 Cap Devices1 CL Chevrons1 Coat Canvas6 Collars1 Float1 Leggings1 DB Shirt2 M Shirts1 Shoes6 Stockings1 C Trousers2 Trousers U

$48.36 Yearly Clothing Allowance7.02.5T.22001.04.24-84551.94.581.89.36.943.1419.33 Total Carried Forward

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Spanish-American WarWhen the United States declared war on Spain inApril 1898, the U.S. Army consisted of approximately26,000 men. Lacking the troops to conduct a war over-

seas, the War Department asked for volunteers. NationalGuard units, a lready formed, were allowed to volunteerand serve as units. In all, the United States raised 275,600men to fight against Spain.Using the Regular Army as the nucleus, the UnitedStates created a fighting force. Major problems for de-ployment of this force consisted of preparing and trans-porting this Army ta various theaters of war. The troopsneeded to be equipped, trained, and supplied before en-gaging the enemy. The pace of preparation was extremelyslow and months passed before any action could be taken.Some volunteer units never reached the front in time tosee actian.In May 1898, the Fourth Illinois, a National Guardunit, assembled at Springfiefd to begin preparations forthe fight The unit was transported to Savannah, Georgia,for training. They drilled daily, wrote numerous letters,played baseball, studied Spanish, and stood guard.As the Fourth I1bnois prepared in Savannah, othertroops captured Santiago and forced the surrender of themain Spar&h force in Cuba.The primary enemy for American troops in the occu-pation of Cuba was disease. Even before troops reachedCuba, diseases became commonplace. On 8 August, the

first man of the Fourth Illinois, still in Savannah, diedof typhoid. This disease, and malaria, would prove fatalto many before they could be transported to Cuba.In early January 1899 the unit boarded the No&&zfor Cuba. Most of the time an ship was spent sleeping,writing, or on guard duty. When the ship entered HavanaHarbor, the band started playing patriotic songs and ex-citement filled the air.The next day, amid heat and dust, the unit disem-barked. Havana bad narrow streets, grated windaws,

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h&tenant and Sergeant Major, Ist Maine Infantry, 1899.34


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flower- and vine-covered villas, and pretty women. Themen looked around their new surroundings in amazement.They marched to a hill near the ocean and estab-lished camp. Other American volunteer units surroundedthem. Hastily, they set up their tents and lay down to

sleep. In the middle of the night, they awoke to a hardrain. Water rushed in beneath the tent floor, makingsleep impossible. The lesson was quickly learned, andthe next day the tents were properly erected to preventfurther flooding.Camp life consisted of daily drill, inspection, guardduty, work parties, and writing. Often different units, orCubans and Americans, would play baseball. Less fre-quently, passes were given to allow the soldiers to visitHavana.The unit spent some time in the field marching from

one place to another. Along the way they were greetedwarmly by the Cubans. The march was light, from 5 to18 miles per day. There was time to visit sugar m illsand other places of interest.Finally, in April 1899, the unit was sent back to theUnited States and then released from active duty. Theyreceived a heros welcome and were treated to a banquetand a reception. (*Morgan)In the years that followed the Spanish-AmericanWar, the United States would be required to defend hernewly-won empire. The Philippine Insurrection, BoxerRebellion, and other problems required the United Statesto station over one-third of the U.S. Army overseas.(Matloff) The movement of the Army overseas and gar-risoning of troops in these foreign lands required addi-tional manpower and modernization of the Army.Edward Whitehead, a member of the 46th VolunteerInfantry, fought in the Philippine Insurrection from 1899to 1901. On the march, he carried a shelter tent, poncho,30 rounds of ammunition, and a Krag-Jorgenson rifle.At first, they wore cork helmets, but these were found

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unsuitable for tropical conditions, and they quicklyadopted the campaign hat. Their uniforms were blueshirts and khaki trousers. On their arms they worebands holding 20 rounds of ammunition. Around theirwaists were web belts with additional ammunition.(*Whitehead)

ModernizationThe increase of technology which accompanied mod-ernization greatly affected the NCO Corps during the lasthalf of the 19th Century. The number of NC0 ranks grewrapidly; each new advent of technology created anotherpaygrade. The Army was forced to compete with indus-try for technical workers. In 1908 Congress approved apay bill which rewarded those in technical fields in or-der to maintain their services. Combat soldiers were notso fortunate. (*Fisher) A Master Electrician in the CoastArtillery made $75-84 per month, while an Infantry Bat-talion Sergeant Major lived on $25-34 per month, TheInfantry Battalion Sergeant Major made about the sameas or less than a Sergeant of the Signal Corps ($34-43per month). (*Emmerson)The duties -of the noncommissioned officer were clearlydefined during this period. The five or six pages of in-structions provided by, von Steubens Regulations for theOrder and Discipline of the Troops of the United Statesin 1778 grew to 417 pages when the Noncommissioned

Officers Manual was written in 1909. The duties of theFirst Sergeant and Sergeant Major were covered in chap-ters of 15 and 54 pages respectively. These chapters in-cluded forms that should be filled aut and maintained,a description of duties, what should and should not bedone, customs of service, and things of special interest.(*Moss)The Noncommissioned Officers ,Manual includes aP&page chapter on discipline. It stresses the role ofpunishment in achieving discipline. This role, the work

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states, is to prevent the commission of offenses and to re-form the offender. (*Moss) Repeatedly in this section andothers, it is stressed that treatment of lower grade person-nel should be uniform, just, and in no way hum iliating.(*Moss)In 1902 the chevron was turned to what we wouldtoday call point up. It was also greatly reduced in size.Though many stories exist as to why the chevrons di-rection was changed, the most realistic is that it lookedbetter. Clothing had become more form-fitting; indeed,the IQ-inch chevron of the 1880s would have wrappedcompletely around the sleeve of a 1902 uniform.In 1916 problems in Mexico became problems in theUnited States when Mexican revolutionaries attackedColumbus, New Mexico. A punitive expedition was sentto Mexico to punish the rebels. Though it failed to cap-ture the rebels, itin World War 1. did prepare America& troops for action

World War IWorld War I required the first massive training ofmen the United States had seen, NC& trained four mil-lion men, one million of whom would be sent overseas.A typical training day started at six, with breakfast atseven oclock. Training assembly began at eight, andthe work day ended at four. Corporals were the primarytrainers during this period, with lessons emphasizingweapons and daytime maneuvers. Twelve hours of train-ing were devoted to proper use of the gas mask, with a

trip to the gas chamber included. (Brock & Case)After viewing the differences in American and for-eign NC0 prestige, General Pershing suggested thatspecial schools for sergeants and separate NCO messesshould be established. The performance of noncommis-sioned officers in the American Expeditionary Forceseemed to validate these changes. (*Fisher)The First World War proved a brutal struggle, withtechnology coming to the forefront. Gas warfare was

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introduced, the machine gun ended mounted charges,and airpower came of age. Victories were measured inyards gained pe r thousands of men lost. Though Ameri-can forces saw limited action in comparison to IBritishand French forces, it was the United States that tippedthe balance of power in favor of the Allies,The trenches were a complex system, interwovenand protected with layers of wire. The trenches not onlyprotected the front line soldiers, but also connected thefront and rear areas. They averaged seven to eight feetin depth, w ith firing steps to permit the soldiers to justbarely look over the top. (*Case}

Not all the time was spent in the front line trench,Work was done in details to watch for enemy activity.The details were relieved every four hours by a new de-tail. Old houses or pup, tents in the rear provided placesto sleep. (*Case)Near St. Etienne, a young corporal named HaroldTurner, of Company F, 142nd Infantry, engaged enemytroops. Corporal Turner assisted in organizing a platoonofscouts, runners, and signal corpsmen. Serving as sec-ond in command, he led the troops forward under heavyfire.Encountering a machine gun emplacement with fourmachine guns, Turner rushed forward with fixed bayo-net. After a desperate struggle, he succeeded in captur-ing the position of four machine guns and 50 Germansoldiers, thus allowing the advance to continue.

Between World WarsAfter World W ar I Congress reorganized the NC0ranks. Five NC0 ranks were established: master ser-geant, technical sergeant, staff sergeant, sergeant, andcorporal. First sergeant became a position comparablein rank to the technical sergeant. There. were 231 voca-tio,nal skills that could add $3 to $35 to the soldiersmonthly pay. (*Emmerson)

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As the Army was drastically reduced during thisperiod, enlisted men were often demoted, rather thanpromoted. The records of Alexander Loungeway, through32 years of service, provide a good example of the typi-cal enlisted mans career during this period. Joining theArmy in 1908, Loungeway rose through the ranks andwas promoted to first lieutenant during World War 1.After the war he was reverted to a first sergeant, thenhe became a sergeant, then a corporal, and finally aprivate first class. Be was promoted to corporal a yearbefore he retired. (*Loungeway) All of his character re-ferences read excelfent.

These reductions resulted from two things. The firstwas that promotions were given by the regiment andcouId not be taken to a new regiment. If a man wastransferred , or his unit disbanded, he went to the nextunit as a private. It wasnt until 1940 that enlisted mencould be transferred from unit to unit and retain theirstripes.

Secondly, in 1922 the Army scheduled 1,690 noncom-missioned officers for reductions. This .was done to re-duce the total force and save money. Lt caused severehardships for many noncommissioned officers, especiallythose with families. (Fisher)Post-World War I budget reductions and then theGreat Depression led to irregularities in pay: often thesoldier received only half his pay, or half his pay inmoney and half in consumer goods or food. (*Case)During the late 1930s technicians were created ingrades 3, 4, and 5 (SSGi, SGT, and CPL), with chevronsmarked with a T. This led to an increase in promo-tions am ong technical personnel. In 1948 the technicianranks were discontinued; they would be replaeedby spe-cialists in 1955. (*Emmerson)The typical first sergean t of this period carried hisadministration files in his pocket-a black book. The bookcontained the names of everyone in the company andall kinds of information on them (AWOLs, work habits,

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Corporal Jim Taomey, Machine Gun Troop, 3rd Cavalry,Fort Myer, Virginia, 1941.42


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promotions, and so forth}. The book was passed on fromfirst se rgeant to first sergeant, staying with the com-pany. It provided the company with a historical docu-ment. (*Wooldridge)The first sergeant accompanied men on runs, the drill

field, training, or the firing range. He was always atthe forefront of everything the company did. (Wooldridge)World War II

With the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941,the United States found itself at war. Japanese advancesin the Pacific were so swift that American supply lineswere quickly cut.In the Philippines, hunger soon became the majorproblem for U.S. troops. On 6 January 1942, soldiers onBataan had their food allotment cut in half. Fresh meatwas nearly discontinued, and rice, fish, tomatoes, andcanned meat became staple items.As hunger became more widespread, it damaged mo-rale and was seen as a problem almost as serious asenemy action, Rations were cut in February to 1,000 cal-ories per day instead of the 4,000 or more needed bycombat troops.As the hunger grew, men became obsessed by food.They ate horses, iguanas, monkeys, crows, and carabao(water buffalo). Men had dreams that centered on freshbread, plum butter, blackberry jelly, and pork and beans.In April the Japanese intensified their attack, and thesituation became hopeless. Literally starving, the Ameri-can forces were becoming too weak to continue their val-iant resistance. Night blindness, edema, dysentery, scurvy,and diarrhea-all caused by extreme malnutrition-furtherweakened them.Oln 9 April 1942, U.S. forces bowed to the inevitableand surrendered American forces on Bataan to the Japa-nese. During the last week before the surrender, manyunits were completely without food for as much as 72hours. (*RG 407; Rhodes)

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While American troops fought in the Philippines,other units were being formed in the United States. TheArmy used NCOs on active duty prior to Americas entryin the war as trainers for troops earmarked for dutyoverseas, in the expandable army concept.Mobilization greatly inereased the numbers of Armynoncommissioned officers. Mobilization, combined withother factors, created a staggering growth in the per-centage of noncommissioned officers to total forces. Theproportion of noncommissioned officers in the Army in-creased from 20 percent of the enlisted ranks in 1941 tonearly 50 percent in 1945. This resulted in the lesseningof prestige for many noncommissioned officer ranks.Coupled with this growth in numbers, there was achange from an &-man infantry squad to the X-mansquad, with the sergeant replacing the corporal as itsleader. Thus, the rank of corporal came to mean verylittle, even though he was in theory and by tradition a

combat leader. (*Fisher)Basic training in World War II centered on hands-onexperience instead of the classroom. AH training wasconducted by NCOs. After basic training, a soldier wassent to his unit where training continued. The majorproblem was that the rapid expansion of the Army ledto a decrease in experienced men in the noncommissionedofficer ranks If a man showed potential, he was pro-moted, with privates becoming corporals, and corporals,sergeants. (*Van Autreve)World War II witnessed a number of heroic deedsby noncommissioned officers. Such were the actions of

Staff Sergeant Charles W. Shea at Monte Damiano, Italy.On 12 May 1944, Company F, 2d Battalion, 350th Infan-try, $$th Division, encountered heavy machine gun fireas they advanced. Staff Sergeant Shea recognized thatthe advance of his unit depended upon taking the threemachine gun positions, and advanced alone. He hurleda grenade into the first of these, capturing four enemysoldiers; moved to the second and forced the two-mancrew to surrender. He then moved to the third. Coming44


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under fire, he rushed that position and killed its threedefenders. With this, Sheas unit continued to advance.Later in the war, Sergeant Harrison Summers showedthe same type of raw courage , durin,g the assault atUtah Beach on D-Day, 6 June 1944. Sergeant Summers,of the 502d Parachute Infantry Regiment, IOlst AirborneDivision, led an assault .against .G,erman coastal fortifi-eations. Sergeant Summers, with 12 men, moved againstenemy positions. Ermounteripg heavy fire, the 12 fellback, Ieaving Summers to advance alone. He ran to thefirst enemy position, kicked the .door open, .and with arain of bullets killed all &he enemy soldiers inside. Hethen moved down a row of stone buildings, clearing theenemy as he went. (*Fisher)Fighting in the Pacific and Europe required largenumbers of men. Millions of men enlisted and millionsmore were drafted. Still the Army suffered from m an-power shortages. In I.942 the Army formally added wo-men to its ranks. By 1945 over 90,000 women would Ix

enlisted in the Army.Women served in administrative, technical, motorvehicle, food, supply, communications, mechanical, andelectrical positions ,during the war. After the war womencontinued to serve in a nariety of roles in the Army.(Treadwell)Women in the Army, World W,ar II

:Numbes of W0me.n1942.. . . . . *. . . . . . . ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . * ~. . . .11,222194% . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . .55,9461944 . x.. . . . . . . . . I. I,. . , . . . . . . . . . . < ..


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Tech-5 Pearlie Hurgreaues, 1942,General Eisenhowers driver in North Africa46


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Women in the Army, World War II (continued)Womens OccupationsPercentage as of September 1944

Administrative/Office . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . 45Technica l/Professiona l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Motor Vehicle.. . . . . I.. . . . . . . . . ~. . . . . . 9Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.. , 9Supp ly.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Communications . . . I,. . . . . . . , . . . . , . . . . . . 5Mechanical/Trade . . . . . . . I. I . 4Radio/Electrical . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

In 1945 Congress passed legislation entitling enlistedmen with at least 20, and not more than 29, years ofservice, to be placed on the retired list. They thereupondrew F/2 percent of their average pay for the six monthspreceding retirement, multiplied by the number of yearsof active service. These men remained in the reserveuntil completion of 30 years of service. (*Fisher)

Post-World War IIIn the post-World War II era, there were two pro-grams which affected NCOs: a Career Guidance Planand professional schools for NCOs. The technical rat-ings were dropped and emphasis was placed on service-wide standards for NCO selection and training. (*Fisher)As a result of the continued growth of technology,a new emphasis on education began in the post-WorldWar II era. This em phasis encouraged the young soldierto become better educated in order to advance.On 17 December 1949 the first class enrolled in the2d Constabulary Brigades NC0 school, located at Munich,Germany. Two years later, the U.S. Seventh Arm y tookover the 2d Constabulary funct,ions and the school be-came the Seventh Army Noncommissioned Officers Aca-demy. Eight years later AR 350-90 established Army-widestandards for NC0 academies. Emphasis on NC0 edu-cation increased to the point that by I.959 over 180,000

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soldiers would attend NC0 academies located in the eon-tinental United States. (*Fisher)In addition to NCU academ ies, the Army encouragedenlisted men to advance their education by other means.,By 1952 the Army had developed the Army Education

Program to allow soldiers to attain credits for academiceducation. This program provided a number of ways forthe enlisted man to attain a high school or college diploma.In 1950 an unprepared United States found it neededto commit large numb ers of troops in a nation a half aworld away. The attack of North Korea on Americasally, South Korea, stressed American responsibilitiesoverseas . It was clear fr,om this point forward thatAmerican .commitments in Asia, Europe, and the Pacificwould require a strong and combat-ready professionalArmy,,During Korea the noncommissioned .officer emerged

more prominently as a battle leader than he had inWorld War II. The deeply eroded hills, ridges, narrowvalleys, and deep gorges forced many units to advanceas squads. (*Fisher)Korea was the first war the United States enteredwith a n integrated Army. Black soldiers and white sol-diers fought side-by-s ide on the battlefield against acommon foe.Near Surang-ni, Sergeant Ola L. Mize led the defenseof Outpost Harry. Learning of a wounded soldier ina.n outlying listening post, during an artillery barrage,Mize moved to rescue the soldier. Returning to the main

position with the soldier, Mize .rallied the troops into aneffective defense as the enemy attacked in force. Knockeddown three times with grenade or artillery ,blasts, Mizecontinued to lead his men.With the enemy assault temporarily halted, Mize andseveral m en moved from bunker to bunker clea-ring theenemy. Upon noticing a friendly machine gun positionbeing overrun, he fought his way to their aid, killing ten

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enemy soldiers and dispersing the rest. Securing a ra-dio, he directed artillery fire upon the enemys approachroutes. At dawn, Mize formed the survivors into a unitand successfully led a counterattack which cleared theenemy from the outpost.In 1958 two grades were added to the NC0 ranks.It was stated that these grades, E-8 and E-9, would pro-vide for a better delineation of responsibilities in the en-listed structure. It was also hoped that additional gradeswould help in obtaining and retaining good NCOs. Atthis point the NC0 ranks were corporal, sergeant, staffsergeant, sergeant first class, master sergeant, and aer-geant major. (*Fisher)

Modern EraIn 1965 the first Am erican ground troops were com-

mitted to Vietnam. The American policy of containmentof Communism would be severely challenged in Vietnam.The Vietnamese Communists fought a long, drawn-outwar, meant to wear down American forces. There wereno clear battlelines and often it was hard to tell foefrom friend. In 1973 a formal cease-fire signed by Amer-ican and North Vietnamese delegations ended Americantroop commitments to the area.Vietnam proved to be a junior leaders war, with de-centralized control. Much of the burden of combat lead-ership fell on the NCO. N eeding large numbers of NCOsfor combat, the Army created the Noncommissioned Of-ficers Candidate Course. Three branches were established

at Fort Benning, Fort Knox, and Fort Sill. After a la-week course, the graduate was promoted to E-5; the top5 percent to E-6. An additional 10 weeks of practice fol-lowed, and then the NC0 was sent to Vietnam for com-bat. This program was received with mixed feehngs fromsenior NCOs, many of whom felt it undermined the pres-tige of the NC0 Corps. Few of these senior NCOs, how-ever could say they actually knew an unqualified NC0from the NC0 Candidate Course. (*Fisher)49


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There were many outstanding acts of heroism duringthe Vietnam War; one of the most outstanding was thatof Sergeant First Class Eugene Ashley. During the ini-tial stages of the defense of Camp Lang Vei, Ashleysupported the camp with high explosives and illumina-tion mortar rounds. Upon losing communication with thecamp, he directed air strikes and artillery support.

He then organized a small assault force composed oflocal friendly forces. Five times, Ashley and his newly-formed unit attacked enemy positions, clearing theenemy and proceeding through boobytrapped bunkers.Wounded by machine gun fire, Ashley continued on, fi-nally directing air strikes on his own position to clearthe enemy. As the enemy retreated, he lapsed into uncon-sciousness. While being transported down the hill, an en-emy artillery shell fatally wounded him. (*Recollections)In 1966 Army Chief of Staff Harold K. Johnson chose

Sergeant M ajor William 0. Wooldridge as the first Ser-geant Major of the Army. The SMA was to be an advisorand consultant to the Chief of Staff on enlisted matters.He would identify problems affecting enlisted personneland recommend approp riate solutions. (*Wooldridge)During the following year, General Johnson decidedto establish the position of Command Sergeant Major.This position served as the commanders enlisted assis-tant to commanders at and above the battalion level.(Wooldridge)In the last half of FY 197 1, the Army implementedthe Noncommissioned Officer Education System. This

progressive system is designed to educate NCOs on sub-jects and skills needed by them to enhance their per-formance and abilities. At first NCOES consisted ofthree levels of training: Basic Noncommissioned OfficerCourse (to provide basic leadership skills and a knowl-edge of military subjects needed at the squad and teamlevel), Advanced Noncommissioned Officer Course (toprovide the student with advanced technical and lead-ership skills), and the Sergeants M ajor Academy (which50


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prepared senior NCOs to perform duties as sergeants ma-jor at the division and higher headquarters). (*USASMAAHR 72-73)The Noncommissioned Officer Education System grewin the 70s and 80s and today includes the PrimaryLeadership Development Course (which emphasizes howto lead and train and the duties, responsibilities, andauthorities of NCOs), in addition to the above-mentionedcourses.All NCOES courses have common cores written bythe US. Army Sergeants Major Academy at Fort Bliss,Texas. The Academy also operates three senior NC0courses outside NCOES, which are designed to trainNCOs for particular positions. These courses are theFirst Sergeant Course (a sister course is operated inEurope), the Operations and Intelligence Course, and thePersonnel and Logistics Course. (*USASMA AHR 86)The emphasis on NC0 education was stressed in 1986with the issuance of MILPO Message Number 86-65. Thismessage established the Primary Leadership DevelopmentCourse as a mandatory prerequisite for promotion tostaff sergeant. This was the first time an NCOES courseactually became mandatory for promotion. (*USASMAAHR 86)In 1987 the Armys emphasis on NC0 education wasagain clearly exampled by the completion of a new Ser-geants Major Academy building. This 17.5 million dol-lar, 125,000 square foot structure allowed the Academyto expand course loads and number of courses.As the Noncommissioned Officer Education Systemcontinues to grow, the NC0 of today combines historyand tradition with skill and ability to prepare for com-bat. He retains the duties and responsibilities given tohim by von Steuben in 1778, and these have been builtupon to produce the soldier of today.


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Sources ConsultedHistory of the NCO, Fisher Manuscript, Dr. ErnestFisher, unpublished, CMH, long version, NC0 Museum.History of the NCO, Fisher Manuscript, Dr. ErnestFisher, unpublished, CMH, short version, NC0 Museum.Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troopsof Uw United States, Friedrieh von Steuben, 1782, Hartford.Soldiers of the American Revolution, CMH.First Decorated, Mark Megehee, NC0 Museum.The Book of the Continental Soldier, Harold L. Peterson.American Soldiers of the Revolution, Alan Kemp.Collectors Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Ameri-canRevolution, George C. Neuman and Frank J. Kravic.A Pictorial History of the United States Army, GeneGurney.Abstract of Infantry Tactics, 1830, U.S. Governmen%The Sword of the Republic, Francis Purcha.American Mititary History, CMH.The Beginnings of the Army, Charles Jacobs.ITistory of the United States Army, William Gaenoe.Americun DipEsmaey, Robert H. Ferrell.The War of 11312, ohn K, Mahon.Teeumsehs Last Stand, John Sugden.The Trailblazers, Time-Life Books.Fort huge, Jackson Gannty Parks Department.34~ Life on the Plains, David Meriwether.Life of an &Z&ted &ddier of the Western Frontier, 181%2845, Stanley Graham..Cheurons, LTC William K. Emmerson.

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The Noncommissioned Officers Manual, 1910, WarDepartment.The Great FVCU 914-1918, John Terraine.World War I Through My Sigh&, Horatio Rogers.Kaiser Bill, an autobiography of John Oeachner, IrwinKoehler.Edgar Brock Oral History Interview, NCO Museum.Marcus Case Oral History Interview, NC0 Museum.Record Group 407, National Archives, Washington, D.C.The Philippine Archives, Patricia M. Rhodes, NC0Museum.The Good War, Studs Terkel.SMA William Bainbridge Oral History Interview, NC0Museum.SMA William 0 . Woaldridge Oral History Interview, NCOMuseum.SMA Leon Van Autreve Oral History Interview, NC0Museum.CSM Theodore Dobol Oral History Interview, NC0Museum.TFEeVietnam War, Ray Bonds.RecolleCtions of NC0 History, L.R. Arms, NC0 Museum.History of the US Army Sergeants Major Academy,1 July 1972-73 December 1974, USASMA.US Army Sergeants Major Academy Annual HistoricalReview, I January-31 December 1986, L.R. Arms.US Army Sergeants Major Academy Annual HistoricalReview, I January-31 December 1987, L.R. Arms.Reproduced at AWP-Ft-Lvn, KS!j+O200-3CMN-20 November f 989

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Short History of the NCO

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