Timeline of language-related historical events:

Focus on the US and Hawai‘i 1800s to envisioning the

future

This collaboratively-created timeline by the students of SLS 408, Bilingualism and Bilingual Education, is a

visual representation of the theme of the 2016 LLL Graduate Student Conference:

Celebrating Voices: Past, Present, and Future.

It focuses on historical events in both Hawai‘i and the US that have impacted language use and instruction over the last few decades. Many of these legislative

events have shaped the ideologies surrounding multilingualism in the United States.

After seeing this timeline, what are your thoughts on what the future has in store for bilingualism and

bilingual education?

Created Collaboratively by the students of SLS 408-1, Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, Spring 2016

, monica.vidal@hawaii.edu

1868 1878-1879_________________________

In 1868, the Indian Peace Commission recommends

English-only schooling for the Native Americans in their

report, stating:

“...Schools should be established, which children

should be required to attend; their barbarous dialect should be blotted out and the English language substituted” (p. 87).

In 1878–79, the California constitution

is rewritten:

"All laws of the State of California, and all official

writings, and the executive, legislative, and judicial proceedings shall be

conducted, preserved, and published in no other than

the English language."(remained in effect until 1966.)

Bernice Bishop establishes

Kamehameha Schools with an

English only model.

Students stage walk-out on first day:

"Don’t tell me I can’t use my language!"

On O‘ahu on January 17, 1893, the Kingdom of Hawai‘i is illegally overthrown.

Queen Lili‘uokalani yields her throne, under protest, in order to avoid bloodshed, trusting

that the United States government would right the

wrong that had been done to her and the Hawaiian people.

1887 1893_________________________

Bernice Pauahi Bishop

Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom

1896__________________________

‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i is banned in both public and private schools; teachers face termination; children are punished

This law does not make Hawaiian illegal within Hawai‘i, however it takes Hawiian out of both public and private schools which have

far-reaching effects on the community and the transmission of languages within families.

Many children are punished for speaking Hawaiian, and the Hawaiian language is consequently regarded as a foreign

language with the school system. In 1987, 91 years later, the ban is lifted thanks to the efforts of Hawaiian parents and their

community.

The classification of Hawaiian as a foreign language in the school system in still in place today.

A Hawaiian Kingdom banknote from 1879 illustrates the decline of the Hawaiian language even before the official ban was declared in 1896.

There are only two words that appear in Hawaiian. These are literally marginalized on the bill and one is a transliterations of English:

‘elima’, meaning ‘five’ in Hawaiian and ‘haneri'--a transliteration of ‘hundred’.http://www.angelfire.com/hi2/hawaiiansovereignty/hawlangillegal.html

1906_______________The Naturalization Act of 1906 revises the 1870 law to require immigrants to be able to speak English in order to be eligible for

naturalization.

This law is meant to promote a unified America and to discourage ethnic separation It is by US President Theodore Roosevelt

who strongly promoted the idea of Americanization.

He famously said in 1907: "...We have room for but one language here

and that is the English language, for we intend to see that the crucible turns our people out as American, of American

nationality, and not as dwellers in a polyglot boarding house."

1918 1919 __________________________

"English Only" statute of 1918 makes it a misdemeanor in Texas for any teacher or

administrator to use a language other than English in school or to prescribe textbooks

not printed in the English language, except in high school

foreign language classes.

By 1919, 34 states had passed English-only laws.

This is in effect until 1973.

New Hawaiian Law: ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi to be taught

as a foreign language

According to ‘Aha Pūnana Leo’s language revitalization

timeline, in 1919, “Many Hawaiian parents with higher economic and social aspirations absorb colonial

attitudes in opposition even to the academic study of

Hawaiian by their children.”

1923 1927 __________________________

Meyer v. State of NebraskaA U.S. Supreme Court case

declaring the 1919 Nebraska Act regulating foreign language education violates the Due Process clause of the 14th

Amendment. The act restricts the use of a foreign language as a medium for instruction, and as

a subject of study.

The court holds the statute as unconstitutional, saying it deprives

the community of basic civil liberties.

Farrington v. Tokushige

U.S. Supreme Court unanimously reverses Hawai‘i’s

law that made it illegal for schools to teach foreign

languages without a permit claiming it violates the due process of the 5th and 14th

amendment.

http://www.nbcnews.com/id/4021218/ns/us_news-life/t/brown-v-board-education-nation/#.VxbDzxMrJE4

1954: Brown v. Board of Education = Desegregation of schools.

1957 1958 __________________________

Mary Kawena Pukui and Samuel H. Elbert

publish the first Hawaiian Dictionary with 30,000

entries.

This could be seen as the beginning of the revitalization movement for ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i.

In 1964, they published a Hawaiian-English version of

the dictionary.

National Defense Education Act (NDEA)

In response to the Russians launching Sputnik in 1957,

NDEA is passed under President Dwight D.

Eisenhower.

It promotes foreign language learning from elementary schools to universities.

Fidel Castro’s coup dʻétat dissolves Fulgencio Batista’s

dictatorship and creates a communist government in

Cuba.

Many educated Cubans flee to the US, creating larger

numbers of Spanish-speaking people in Southern Florida.

Hawai‘i is “admitted”, against protest, as the

50th State of the United States of America

By this point, no first language speakers

of ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i are entering school except on

‘remote’ Ni‘ihau. (Aguilera & LeCompte, 2009)

1959 __________________________

1963 1964 __________________________

Coral Way InitiativeBilingual Education program is

introduced at an elementary school in Miami.

First bilingual program after WWII(García, 2009).

Half day of English and half day of Spanish instruction.

Within 3 years, the initiative reported their success:

Both groups of students were bilingual and bicultural!

Civil Rights Act of 1964

A landmark piece of legislation in the U.S. that prohibits discrimination

based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin ending inequality for

voter’s rights, and racial segregation in all public

spheres.

http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/07/02/lyndon-johnson-s-last-miracle-the-civil-rights-act-turns-50.html

President Lyndon Johnson signed into law the Civil Rights Act of 1964。

1964: Civil Rights Act

Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965

(Hart-Celler Act)

Abolishes the national origins quota system that had structured American

immigration policy since the 1920s and replaces it with a

preference system that focuses on immigrants'

skills and family relationships with citizens

or residents of the U.S.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)

ESEA is passed by President Lyndon B. Johnson as part of the

“War on Poverty” campaign. ESEA provides federal funding in the form of grants to school districts serving low-income

families and students.

This bill was later adopted as the No Child Left Behind Act (2001), but was reauthorized in 2015 as

ESEA by President Obama.

1965 __________________________

http://institute-of-progressive-education-and-learning.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Federal-Education-Programs-5.gifhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act#/media/File:ESEAJohnson.jpg

“Lyndon B. Johnson at the ESEA signing ceremony with his childhood schoolteacher, Ms. Kate Deadrich Loney.”

Bilingual Education Act (BEA),

Title VII of the ESEA of 1965, known as the Bilingual Education Act, is signed into law January 2, 1968.

Schools must accommodate language-minority children.

This is the first FEDERAL law to address the needs of students learning English. It also makes it possible in the future for more to be

done with bilingual education as regards students’ rights.

However, the goal of the Act, which is sponsored by Democratic Senator Ralph Yarborough of Texas, is the “quick acquisition of English”. While it

is a big step forward, there is little importance placed on actually becoming bilingual.

The act would consequently lead to several amendments and in 2001, it was renamed without mentions of bilingualism in the title. This was tied to

No Child Left Behind.

1968__________________________

Merrie Monarch Festival

The MMF is an annual week-long cultural event taking place in Hilo, Hawai‘i. The major purpose of the festival is to

perpetuate, preserve, and promote the art of hula and the traditional Hawaiian arts.

Started by The Hawai‘i Island Chamber of Commerce to generate tourism in 1971, the MMF has turned into one of the most

prestigious Hula competitions.

The festival is named after King David Kalākaua who was nicknamed the “merrie monarch”.

Along with the successful Hokul‘ea sailing of the ancient routes to the Tahitian islands in 1976, the MMF is often regarded as one

of the first events to mark the Hawaiian Renaissance.

1971__________________________

1972__________________________

Indian Education Act

The IEA is a landmark legislative act that creates a comprehensive

approach for meeting the needs of American Indian and Alaska

Native students by recognizing the cultural related needs and

distinct language.

It deals with education from preschool to graduate-level

coursework, and provides service not provided by the Bureau of Indian

Affairs.

Mills v. Board of Education

A case against the District of Columbia that asserts the

necessity of a public education for students with disabilities.

It sets a precedent that free services for children with needs

must be provided by public schools regardless of their physical

capabilities.

http://www.newmobility.com/2015/07/ada-a-peoples-history/

In 1977, disability rights activists in San Francisco held a rally in support of Section 504, and then streamed into the Health, Education and Welfare building, where they stayed for 25 days. Photo by Anthony Tusler.

1974__________________________

Lau v. NIcholsJanuary 21, 1974

Chinese students in San Francisco sue for not having enough resources in the school district to help with low English proficiency; claims that Title VI of the Civil Rights Act entitled them to this because it stated that schools can not discriminate on

basis of national origin.

It influenced the development of bilingual education programs. For

example, after Lau, EEOC and BEA are enacted. It reaffirms the rights of

non English speakers to be free from discrimination in education.

Bilingual Education and Training ActJune 3, 1974

Governor Dolph Briscoe [D-TX] signs the act into law. It marks a turning point in

bilingual education in the state; it caters to Mexican-American students, declaring that all Texas public elementary schools enrolling 20+ children of limited English

ability in a given grade level must provide bilingual instruction.

Any language can be used for instruction; this abolishes Texas’s

1918 English-only teaching requirement.

1974__________________________

Serna v. PortalesJuly 17, 1974

In New Mexico, a successful class-action suit is brought

against the school district for not providing a community of 50% hispanics appropriate

bilingual and bicultural teaching plans for children with hispanic

surnames.

Portales school district was in violation of the 14th

Amendment.

Equal Education Opportunity Act

August 21, 1974

This act makes it so no state can deny equal education opportunity to someone based on their race, color, gender, or national origin.

It also bans the failure of an educational agency to take

appropriate action to overcome language barriers that impede

equal participation by its students in its instructional programs.

1975 __________________________

Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (ISDEAA)

Gives Indian tribes control over their own affairs and shifted responsibility for the administration of federal program to the tribes. Tribes are able to

negotiate contracts directly with the federal government to run their own programs and

services, instead of the federal government doing it for them which had previously been the case.

The act sets out to achieve Native Indian tribe participation in the U.S. government as well as

education of Native peoples. It supports the right of Native Indians to control the education of its people and establishes assistance to upgrade

that education. It is amended in 1988 which made it harder for the federal government to deny

the proposals put forward by tribes.

Aspira v. New YorkMay 28, 1975

Aspira, a NYC-based community organization that works for the rights of Puerto Rican and Latin@ students, successfully sues the city seeking aid for bilingual

learners of English.

The court mandates that the city carefully assess and identify students needing

special language services. It also requires implementation

of an appropriate bilingual education.

1976 __________________________

Keyes v. School District No. 1

In Denver, Colorado, Hispanic and African American students claim de

facto segregation influenced the Park Hill school district. De Facto meaning

there is no official law supporting segregation in Denver school, yet

segregation still exists.

After securing an order from the state for desegregation, they expand their

suit to include the remaining schools of the Denver school districts within the

city and win.

Polynesian Voyaging Society sails the Hokule‘a on a

successful 30-day, 2500 mile journey following the ancient

route of the Polynesian migration between the

Hawaiian and Tahitian islands (Eddie Aikau Foundation)

This, along with the Merrie Monarch Festival in 1971, can

be regarded as marking the beginnings of the Hawaiian

Renaissance.

https://www.preceden.com/timelines/72785-social-structure-of-colorado-1945-present

1977 1977-1978 __________________________

National Clearinghouse for bilingual education a.k.a National

Association for Bilingual Education (NABE)

Supports the education of English Language Learners through

professional development language learning.

They form partnerships with other civil rights and educational

organizations to fight for the interests of language minority students

American Institutes for Research (AIR) conducts a national evaluation of 38 bilingual programs. Critics of bilingual ed cite this

study: it compared Spanish-language students enrolled in bilingual ed and those

enrolled in English ed..

They measured English in reading, oral comprehension, math, as well as Spanish

reading and oral comprehension.

AIR concluded there was no difference between the two groups in oral English and

math and that all English classroom students outperformed the bilingual students in English

reading.

A major flaw in this evaluation was that ⅔ of the Spanish students in the English Ed sample had previously been enrolled in

Bilingual Ed!

Two provisions for the State Constitution are submitted: that the

Hawaiian language be accorded the status of official language along with

English; and that The study of Hawaiian be accorded special

promotion by the State. Both provisions are passed”.

(‘Aha Punana Leo Revitalization Timeline, n.d.)

HAWAI‘I STATE CONSTITUTION, ARTICLE XV, SECTION 4, OFFICIAL LANGUAGES

“English and Hawaiian shall be the official languages of Hawai`i, except that

Hawaiian shall be required for public acts and transactions only as provided

by law” (Crawford, n.d.).

1978 1979 ________________________________________________

Jim Cummins begins publishing work where he distinguishes between oral proficiency and academic language

proficiency.

He observes that English-language learners are able to acquire oral

proficiency in 2–3 years, but that it may take another 2–4 years to

acquire academic language proficiency.

These numbers have been distorted in Bilingual Education debates in which Ron Unz, the millionaire businessman

from California that sponsored Proposition 227 in 1998.

Castañeda v. PickardThis is successful case against a school

in Texas where Mexican-American children were segregated by a

discriminatory grouping system. It was first tried in 1978 where the ruling was in favor of the defendant. After the appeal in 1981, measures are made for the evaluation of English Proficiency in

Limited English Proficient (LEP) students.

3 principles are established to assess LEP programs. They should:

1. be based on a sound educational theory,2. effectively implement the educational theory it follows, and 3. be evaluated after a certain period of time to measure its effectiveness in overcoming the language barriers.

NCLB (2001) does not respect the 3rd point.

The University of Hawai‘i at Hilo initiates a Hawaiian Studies

degree program taught through Hawaiian.

The focus of the degree is traditional Hawaiian language and culture, especially performing arts,

to complement the focus of the Mānoa campus B.A. on Hawaiian

history and politics.

This is the first time that Hawaiian has been used as a medium of

government funded education since 1895.

(ʻAha Pūnana Leo)

1981 1982 ________________________________________________

First ʻAha Pūnana Leo is established on Hilo

Several Hawaiian language teachers met on Kauaʻi to discuss the status and state of the Hawaiian language. They formed an

organization an organization called ʻAha Pūnana Leo on January 12, 1983: a pre-school taught in Hawaiian which also required parents to take an active role in the home for the successful

transmission of Hawaiian .

Several board members drafted a bill to make Hawaiian an official legal language of instruction in Hawai‘i public schools.

This non-profit organization created by parents interested in restoring Native Hawaiian language through Hawaiian medium of education, successfully persuaded the state government to suspend the English Only law in 1987 that had been in effect

for 91 years.

1983 ________________________________________________

US Senator S. I. Hayakawa (R-CA) founds “US English”, a political lobbying organization aimed at making English the

official language of the US.

A law like this could have have negative effects for immigrants who do not speak English.

Though not successful in 1983, it is still in existence today and have a few “celebrities” on their advisory board:

Arnold SchwarzeneggerAlex Trebek (the host of Jeopardy!)

Donald Trump

1983 (cont) ________________________________________________

The ‘Aha Pūnana Leo political action committee submits two bills into legislation.

1st: The Hawai‘i State Legislature passes a resolution asking the DOE to implement schools taught through Hawaiian.

2nd: The legislation passes calling upon the U.S. Congress to develop policy in support of the survival of Hawaiian and other Native American languages.

1987 ________________________________________________

The Hawaiian Lexicon Committee is established to create words for new

concepts current to the progression of time with emphasis on the curriculum

content of the Hawaiian Language Immersion Program.

For several years, there were no first language speakers of Hawaiian on the

committee (NeSmith, 2005)

The first elementary indigenous language immersion classes in the

US officially begins at Keaukaha Elementary in Hilo and Waiau

Elementary in Pearl City.

https://twitter.com/ahapunanaleo

Native American Language Act (NALA)

An executive order voted by Congress in 1990, NALA declared that Native Americans had the right

to use their own languages.

It was amended in 1992 and furthered the effort to preserve,

protect and promote the rights and freedoms of Native Americans to

use and develop their own indigenous languages

(Reyhner & Eder, 2004).

White House conference on Indian Education

As required by amendments to the 1987 Indian Education Act,

this conference discussed possibilities of creating board of education specifically for Native

American communities that would help create programs to

keep their language alive and to educate their children in their

respective languages.(see abstract)

1990 1992 ________________________________________________

Final report of the White House conference on Indian Education

PROPOSITION 227 aka (English Language in Public Schools Statute)

The English for children Initiative in California, Proposition 227, is presented as something that can improve English language

instruction for children who need to learn English for economic reasons and employment opportunities.

This proposition, sponsored by Ron Unz, outlaws bilingual education and lawmakers claim Proposition 227 will teach all children English as

rapidly and effectively as possible.

1998__________________________

Proposition 203-English for the Children passes by 63% in Arizona

Ron Unzʻs Proposition 227 “English for the Children“ Initiative in California passed in 1998, influenced similar propositions in

Arizona and Massachusetts that win by landslides.

Ron Unz campaign is defeated in other states, but the damage is done.

In California bilingual education falls from 498,879 in 1998 to 167,163 in 2000.

2000__________________________

No Child Left Behind

NCLB passes Congress in 2001, and is signed on January 8th 2002 by George W. Bush. It makes states and their schools accountable for fostering academic achievement for all students, in particular minority children, English language

learners, and students who need special education.

One problematic aspect of this act is that it refers to students as English Language Learners rather than bilinguals or students from a language minority background. Therefore it implies that the only difference between students is their English

proficiency.

Secondly, this accountability is done through standardized testing and rewarded funding for acceptable scores. The bilingual students’ low scores are due to “critical

assessments without preparation” (Hilner, 2005) and have a major impact on whether or not schools received funding.

As a result of NCLB and its emphasis on testing, the Bilingual Education Act was renamed the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act, removing any mention of the word “bilingual”.

2001_______________________ ___

Esther Martínez Native American Language Preservation Act of 2006

Esther Martinez proposes this bill amending the Native American

Programs Act of 1874 which provided administration for Native American

language programs, but limited federal funding.

The purpose of the new law is to protect language immersion

programs trying to keep Native American language alive. This act

authorized three-year grants for education language nests, survival

schools, and restoration programs, and lays out the requirements for the

programs and applicants.

Kerry Laiana Wong writes the first dissertation solely in

Hawaiian, entitled:

Kuhi aku, kuhi mai, kuhi hewa e: He mau loina kuhikuhi ʻakena

no ka ʻolelo Hawaiʻi (Ways of fingering the culprit in Hawaiian)

2006 ________________________________________________

February 11, 2015Native Hawaiian

Education Reauthorization Act of

2015(referred to the Committee

on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions)

Sponsored by Senator Mazie Hirono [D-HI]

A bill to amend the Elementary and

Secondary Education Act of 1965 regarding Native

Hawaiian education.(Native Hawaiian Education Reauthorization Act of 2015)

November, 2015 Pidgin is considered an official language

in Hawaii.

"In [census] data collected from 2009-

2013 in Honolulu, Hawaii and Maui counties, 1,390

respondents over the age of five listed

Pidgin or Hawaiian Pidgin as the

language they spoke at home."

(Hawaiian news now)

2015__________________________

June 16, 2015

Seal of Biliteracy in Hawaiʻi

“The Board of Education hereby establishes a Seal of Biliteracy to be awarded

upon graduation to students who demonstrate a high proficiency in either of the State’s two official languages and at least

one additional language, including American Sign

Language…”(http://sealofbiliteracy.org/hawaii)

BOE Policy 105.14, Multilingualism for Equitable Education

Action on Student Achievement Committee recommends new Board Policy 105.14, Language in Education (ELL/Bilingual). and passes!

The goals are to provide:

1. a range of language education program(s) for multilingual students, which includes EL students and students who want to learn an additional language

2. effective educators with appropriate knowledge, skills and instructional materials

3. outreach supports to families to become actively engaged in their children’s education.

Our very own SLS MA student, Samuel Aguirre plays role in this success!

2016__________________________

ReferencesAguilera, D., & LeCompte, M. D. (2009). Restore my language and treat me justly: Indigenous students’ rights to their tribal languages. In S. C. Scott, D. Y. Straker, & L. Katz (Eds.). Affirming students' right to their own language: Bridging language policies and pedagogical practices, (pp. 68-84). Madison, NY: Routledge.

A timeline of revitalization (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.ahapunanaleo.org/index.php?/about/a_timeline_of_revitalization/

Crawford, J. (n.d.). Issues in U.S. language policy: Language legislation in the U.S. Retrieved from http://www.languagepolicy.net/archives/langleg.htm

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://www.ed.gov/essa?src=rn

García, G. (2009 December 23). Bilingual Education. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/bilingual-education/

García, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.History of Indian Education - OIE. (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oese/oie/history.html

Gov.track.US. (n.d.) H.R. 4766 (109th): Esther Martinez Native American Languages Preservation Act of 2006. Retrieved from https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr4766

Hilner, B. (2005).. "'Bad Policy and Bad Law'": The shortcomings of the No Child Left Behind Act in bilingual educational policy and its frustration of the equal protection clause. Educational Law Consortium Journal, 5.

Holmes, J., & Sutherland, J. (n.d.). FindLaw's United States Supreme Court case and opinions. Retrieved April 18, 2016, from http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/262/390.html

ReferencesKeiki K. C., Kawaiʻaeʻa, K. K. C., Housman, A. K., Alencastre, M., Ka’awa, K., Mākaʻimoku, K. K., & Lauano, K. K. (2007). Pūʻā, i ka ʻŌlelo, Ola ka ʻOhana: Three Generations of Hawaiian Language Revitalization. Hūlili: Multidisciplinary Research on Hawaiian Well-Being, 4(1), 183–237.

Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, Colorado. (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2016, from https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/413/189

NABE: About NABE. (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://www.nabe.org/aboutnabe

Native Hawaiian Education Reauthorization Act of 2015, S. 464, 114th Cong. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/senate-bill/464

NeSmith, R. K. (2005). Tutu’s Hawaiian and the emergence of a neo Hawaiian language. Oiwi Journal 3: A Native Hawaiian Journal. Honolulu, HI: Kuleana ‘Oiwi Press

Reyhner, J. & Eder J. (2004). American indian education a history, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press

Ross, W. G. (n.d.). Meyer v. Nebraska. Retrieved from http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.law.032

Wong, K. L. (2006). Kuhi aku, kuhi mai, kuhi hewa e : He mau loina kuhikuhi ʻakena no ka ʻolelo Hawaiʻi [Ways of fingering the culprit in Hawaiian] (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI.

TruthOut Archive. Kunichoff, Y. (2010, September 25). Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://truth-out.org/archive/component/k2/item/91897:speaking-in-tongues-bilingual-education-and-immigrant-communities

TruthOut Archive. Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://truth-out.org/archive/component/k2/item/91897:speaking-in-tongues-bilingual-education-and-immigrant-communities