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Social Development
Social development
The changing nature of our relationships with others over a life
What characterizes our relationships during different phases?
Theories of social development– Biological– Cultural– Cognitive
Freud (1856-1939)
Psychodynamic theory of personality Human drives (eros and thanatos) Conflict between drives and individuals or
social norms Social development a matter of learning to
channel sexual and aggressive urges into socially acceptable channels
Erikson (1902-1994)
Psychosocial theory of life stages Extension of Freudian psychosexual theory Considered entire life cycle, rather than first
5 years a la Freud Recognized influence of societal, historical,
and cultural factors on personality 8 stages of development, each characterized
by a conflict to be resolved
Erikson (1902-1994)
When the environment makes new demands on people, conflicts arise
Faced with a choice of 2 ways of coping with the conflict (adaptive vs. maladaptive)
Only once crisis resolves does one have the energy to address next stages of development
With resolution comes personality change Failure to resolve means conflict will recur
1. Oral-sensory
Birth to age 1 Conflict: Trust vs. mistrust Important event: Feeding Infant only develops a sense of trust if
caregivers are consistently responsive to basic needs
Must form trusting relationship with parents to form with others
2. Muscular-Anal
18 months to 3 years Conflict: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Toilet training Self confidence and control development Toddler strives for auntonomy Negative parenting or experiences can instill
sense of shame and incompetence
3. Locomotor
3-6 years old Conflict: Initiative vs. guilt Independence
– Eager for responsibility– Sense of guilt may develop if child not allowed to
be responsible and do things on own– E.g., handing tools to dad
4. Latency
Ages 6-12 Conflict: Industry vs. inferiority School As students, have means and need to be
productive and work on own Peer interactions important for development Lack of success in these areas - inferiority
5. Adolescence
12-18 years Conflict: Identity vs. role confusion Peer relationships Teen must formulate identity in areas of
politics, sex roles, occupation, etc.
6. Young adulthood
18-40 years Conflict: Intimacy vs. isolation Romantic relationships Must develop intimate relationships or suffer
sense of isolation
7. Mid-adulthood
40-65 Conflict: Generativity vs. stagnation Parenting Must find some way to satisfy and support
the next generation
8. Maturity
65+ Conflict: Ego identity vs. despair Reflection on, and acceptance of one’s own
life Fully accepting oneself and coming to terms
with mortality Inability to do so = despair
Evolutionary perspectives
Darwin & Natural Selection Mechanisms underlying human behavior are
products of natural selection (evolved because of survival benefit)
Freud and Erikson influenced
John Bowlby (1907-1990)
Attachment – emotional bond between infant and adult caregiver
Promoted by instinctive tendencies in both partners
E.g., infants cries elicit distress in caregiver, smiling and cooing when comforted, reciprocal reinforcement
Cultural perspectives
Biology emphasizes universal similarities, cultural emphasizes flexibility of human nature
Development is a matter of adapting to the social norms and practical conditions of the culture
Cultural look at Erikson
4. Industry – coincides with age when school starts in our society
5. Identity – we start deciding on careers6. Intimacy – coincides with typical age for
marriage• Different cultures may have different norms,
and consequently different conflicts to resolve at different ages/times
Urie Bronfenbrenner
www.people.cornell.edu/pages/ub11/
Bronfenbrenner - Social Ecology Theory
Network of interactions/interdependencies among people, institutions, and clutural constructs (e.g., tools, religion, modes of communication) to which the developing person must adapt psychologically
Child’s ability to learn at school influenced not just by course material, but parents’ attitudes re: education
Bronfenbrenner - Social Ecology Theory
Microsystem: layer closest to the child; has most influence
relationships/interactions with immediate environment (e.g., family, school, neighborhood)
reciprocal interactions (parents behavior influences child, child’s behavior influences parents)
Bronfenbrenner - Social Ecology Theory
Mesosystem: layer provides structure between structures of microsystem
connection between teacher and parents, church and community, etc.
Exosystem: larger social system not directly interactive (parents workplace
schedule) but feels pos or neg influence
Bronfenbrenner - Social Ecology Theory
Macrosystem: outer most layer of child’s environment
Cultural values, customs, laws trickle down effect on all other layers E.g., cultural determinants of who is involved
in raising the child
Bronfenbrenner - Social Ecology Theory
Chronosystem: dimension of time as it relates to child’s environments
Elements can be external, such as timing of parental death
Internal - physiological changes within child With age, kids react differently to
environmental changes (more proactive)
Cognitive perspectives
Piaget Child as mentally active contributor to own
developments changes in social behavior reflective of
underlying changes in way child understands the world
Cognitive perspectives
Vygotsky concepts such as right/wrong, friend/enemy
exist in social environment and symbolized in words
integrates cognitive and cultural perspectives
Kohlberg’s Moral Development
Based on Piaget Piaget - 2 stages divided at age 10 think about moral dilemmas in different ways Young - rules are fixed and absolute
– consequence based
Older - judgement of motive/intention– onset of formal operations
Kohlberg’s Moral Development
6 stages of moral development stages not a product of maturation, but of
socialization Heinz steals drugs example Focus on reasoning behind judgement
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 1 - Preconventional Morality
Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment orientation
Similar to Piaget’s first stage “It’s against the law to steal”. Why is it wrong?… Because you get
punished.
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 1 - Preconventional Morality
Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange Recognize there isn’t one universal “right” or
“wrong” passed down from authorities different people have different viewpoints Heinz may steal drugs if wants wife to live,
but might not if he wants a new wife Consequence doesn’t define right/wrong, but
is viewed as a risk or consideration
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 1 - Preconventional Morality
Indications of appreciation of fair exchange still see people as individuals and not as co-
members of society
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 2 - Conventional Morality
Stage 3: Good interpersonal relationships pre-adolescence morality more than simple deals/exchanges people should behave in “good” ways, live up
to expectations of society View Heinz’s behavior as moral, because it is
well intentioned and altruistic Pharmacist viewed as selfish, greedy
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 2 - Conventional Morality
Stage 4: Maintaining social order stage 3 most applicable to 2 party dilemmas
involving close acquaintances now person becomes concerned with society
as a whole emphasis on obeying laws, respecting
authority, pulling societal weight euthanasia verdict
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 2 - Conventional Morality
Stage 4: take the perspective of society as a whole, view self as part of collective
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 3 - Post-conventional Morality
Stage 5: Social contract & individual rights people want to keep society functioning functional society not always fair Recognize differences in values but think all
rational people agree on 2 things:1 Everyone entitled to basic rights2 desire democratic process for change
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 3 - Post-conventional Morality
Heinz has a duty to save wife that supercedes law
Right to life: at stage 4, based on religious doctrine or some authoritative principle that legitimizes opinion
Stage 5 - based on what one thinks society ought to value
working towards conception of “good” society
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 3 - Post-conventional Morality
Stage 6: democratic process, while desirable, does not invariably result in moral decision making or change
somebody gets short end of stick Federal budget stage 6 aspires towards justice
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 3 - Post-conventional Morality
Justice: – treat all claims from all parties with impartiality– respect basic dignity of all individuals– principles of justice apply to all (Universal)– wouldn’t vote for a law that benefits some, but
hurts others– justice for all– Kohlberg’s “theoretical stage”
Summary of Kohlberg
Stage 1: kids think that what authority says is right, is right
Obey rules, avoid punishment Stage 2: No longer see single authority; can
entertain differing view points useful to make social exchanges for own
benefit
Summary of Kohlberg
Stages 3 & 4: start thinking as members of society bound by values, norms, expectations
Stage 3 - emphasize being a good person– Having helpful motives towards those you care
about
Stage 4 - shift focus to obeying laws to maintain society as a whole
Summary of Kohlberg
Stages 5 & 6: Less concerned about maintaining society for it’s own sake, more concerned with “what makes a good society”?
Stage 5- basic rights and democratic process allowing all voices to be heard
Stage 6 - justice
Summary thus far...
3 Categories of social development1 Biological - universal drives, instincts, stages
common of human nature2 Cultural - development viewed as adaptation
to norms/values of culture3 Cognitive - relationship between intellectual
dev. and social development
Summary thus far...
As kids acquire greater understanding, the behave towards others in more advanced ways
Social Development
Continued…
Review…
3 categories of social development– Biological theories (universal drives, instincts)– Cultural theories (adaptation to cultural norms)– Cognitive theories (social dev is a product of
intellectual development)
– Erikson & Bowlby, Bronfenbrenner, Kohlberg
Attachment and Bonding
Infants develop an emotional bond with those with whom most dependent
Subsequently use bonded caregiver as a “home base” from which to explore environment
Bowlby– 1950’s– Attachment theory
Attachment and Bonding
“…an affectionate tie that one person or animal forms between himself and another specific one – a tie that binds them together in space and time.” (Ainsworth)
Bowlby’s Attachment
Found that securely attached kids – Show distress when object of attachment leaves,
especially in unfamiliar environment– Show pleasure when reunited with mom– Show distress when approached by stranger,
unless mom reassures/comforts kid– More likely to explore unfamiliar environment if
mom present, than if mom is absent– Social referencing
Harlow’s Monkey’s
Harry Harlow, 1959 Monkeys raised in cages with two surrogate
moms (bare wire vs. cloth) ½ fed from wire mom, ½ fed from cloth mom Would monkeys attach to surrogate in lieu of
mom? Which would be more effective in facilitating
attachment – feeding or tactile?
Harlow’s Monkey’s
All monkeys treated cloth surrogate as mother (regardless of feeding)
Clung to it for extended periods daily Sought protection when threatened Braver exploring when present Press lever repeatedly to be able to see
it/her
Strange Situations Test
Ainsworth Infant and mother placed in unfamiliar room
with toys Infant remains in room while mom and
stranger move in and out 3 attachment styles
Ainsworth’s Typology
Securely Attached– Explore room/toys confidently with mom present– Gets upset and explores less when mom gone
(with and without stranger)– Demonstrates preference for mom over stranger– Express pleasure when mom returns
Ainsworth’s Typology
Avoidant attachment: Avoid mom and give her cold shoulder
Anxious Resistant Attachment: No avoidance but persistent but difficult to comfort when distressed
70% Secure 20 % Avoidant 10 % Anxious Resistant
Reciprocal Parent-Child Influence
Temperament influences parental behaviour/interactions
Van den Boom (1994) – mothers of irritable babies tend to withdraw emotionally
When parents of irritable children are coached/instructed/supported in efforts to parent/interact effectively, outcomes are good
Attachment
Through early developmental interactions with primary caregivers, children develop internal working model of self, others, and their sense of self in relation to others
Model influences individual throughout development
Secure = more confident, better problem solving, emotional health, sociable
Attachment Disorders
Inhibited RAD: failure to initiate/respond to social interactions in developmentally appropriate manner
Non-attachment disorder Result of being deprived of opportunity to
attach, or by removal of primary object without adequate replacement
Attachment Disorders
Disinhibited RAD: diffuse attachments Indiscriminate sociability Lack of apprehension for strangers High turnover of caregivers/incomplete
attachment with any one figure One disrupted attachment that impacts
willingness to do so again
Socialization
Caregivers serve as source of comfort & security
Also vehicles for learning/practicing cultural rules/norms/values
most early social interactions are with caregivers
Helping & Giving Behaviors
Instinctual cross cultural by end of first year, spontaneous giving threshold nurtured and celebrated in some
cultures helping with adult tasks (18-30 months) Transition from self- to other-oriented
Empathy
Capacity to sense and feel emotions others feel
By age 2, clearly exhibit concern for distressed others and respond with efforts to comfort
Securely attached: more giving, helpful
Restraint
Balance between exploring and appropriate fear
Conflict between wants and social/environmental limitations
Social referencing - looking to caregiver for indications of whether to proceed or not
Restraint
7-15 mos: avoids approaching if caregiver’s expression suggests fear, disgust, anger
Increasingly verbal in 2nd year 2 1/2 - 3 years: reference absent caregiver
by recalling words (Vygotsky’s private speech)
Attempts to negotiate (ambiguous cues vs. desirable object)
Guilt
Not inherently negative Can facilitate self control Crucial to social development and interaction Empathy-based vs. Anxiety-based Guilt deters aggression, moderates
selfishness, promotes helping
Parenting Style
Authoritarian: obedience valued for it’s own sake; high degree of power assertion
Authoritative: Concerned that kids learn basic principles of right and wrong; value inductive discipline over power assertion
Permissive: Most tolerant and least likely to discipline; interventions motivated by parental frustration
Play
Universal forms of play Rough-and-tumble: play fighting/chasing Constructive: building/making things Sociodramatic: imaginary roles Formal games: sports, games with
established rules, competitive
Play
Teaches kids to get along with each other, and allows practice of survival skills
Predators practice hunting, prey practice escaping, etc.
Play nurturing Play fighting Culture specific play activities
Mixed Age Play
School vs. neighborhood Qualitative differences of mixed age play
– less competitive– gentler• Exposure to new skills and info• Opportunity to consoliidate knowledge through
teaching• Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
Gender Differences
Biology vs socialization sex vs. gender Newborn males more irritable & less
responsive than females 6 mos: boys more fidgetty and more likely to
exhibit facial expression of anger 13-15 mos: girls more compliant (static
through adolescence)
Gender Differences
Caregiver behavior– Gentler and more verbal with girls– Discrepancy between treatment of males and
females dependent on degree of differentiation between male/female roles in culture
Gender Differences - Peers
Have begun to internalize cultural gender expectations
recognize own gender and stability thereof Attend most closely to people of own gender
and model behavior Exaggerate male/female differences Evolutionary value
Gender Differences - Peers
Play primarily with own gender Most aversion to opposite sex between 8-11 Stronger avoidance in girls until later
childhood Boys avoidance of girls supported by social
sanctions imposed by both males and females
Gender Differences - Peers
Girls more likely to influence peer behavior via polite suggestions
Boys more likely to use direct commands Boys unresponsive to polite suggestions,
therefore resistant to female influence
Gender Differences - Boys
Large, hierarchically organized groups efforts to prove superiority and dominance
via competition and social coercion King of the hill
Gender Differences - Girls
Smaller, intimate groups Cooperative play Competition more subtle Jumping rope
Adolescence
Puberty until individual viewed by self and others as member of adult society
Transition characterized by rebellion and risk taking
Female onset = 10.5 Male onset = 12.5 Earlier onset than non-industrialized cultures
Adolescence
Erikson - adolescence = identity crisis Who am I? How do I fit in? Rebellion vs. rejection Rebellion linked more to physical maturation
than age
Peer Influences
Emphasis shifts from parental influences and models to peers
Content of peer interactions change from play activities to thoughts/feelings
Delinquency training
Peer Influences
Restructuring of established gender barriers Dunphy (1963) Cliques: close knit group
– 3-9 members– same sex– best friends– substantial time together on daily basis
Peer Influences
Crowd: larger group composed of several cliques– Selected contacts (parties, planned activities)– cross gender– provides safe environment for interacting with
opposite sex– opposite sex peers in social network tends to
increase with age
Delinquency & Risk Taking
Myth of Invulnerability Sensation seeking Moffit
– Delinquency = pathological side effect of conflict between early puberty and delayed acceptance into adult world
– Sex, crime, alcohol as adult activities
Delinquency & Risk Taking
Judith Harris:– juveniles engage in delinquency to set selves
apart from adult society– dress, act differently– goal is acceptance of own peers rather than
adults
Evolutionary perspective
Young Male Syndrome: reproductive value of risk taking
goal of achieving higher status, thereby increasing attractiveness to females
Females also engage in peak levels of risk taking and delinquency during adolescence
Fighting related to gossip/insults re: sexual behavior that decreases reproductive options