Space Shuttle Updated

7/31/2019 Space Shuttle Updated

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1. INTROUCTION

Origin of the Report

This report has been compiled by the Students of Second Year

Engineering of Production of Fr. C.R.C.E. for the year 2010-2011.

The subject Title chosen for this Report is SPACE SHUTTLE and has

been submitted as a part of the curriculum for the subject of PCT.

In its 26-year history, the space shuttle program has seenexhilarating highs and devastating lows. The fleet has taken

astronauts on dozens of successful missions, resulting in

immeasurable scientific gains. But this success has had a serious

cost. In 1986, the Challenger exploded during launch. In 2003, the

Columbia broke up during re-entry over Texas. Since the Columbia

accident, the shuttles have been grounded pending redesigns toimprove their safety. The 2005 shuttle Discovery was supposed to

initiate the return to flight, but a large piece of insulating foam broke

free from its external fuel tank, leaving scientists to solve the mystery

and the program grounded once more until July 2006, when the

Discovery and Atlantis both carried out successful missions.

In this article, we examine the monumental technology behind the

shuttle program, the mission it was designed to carry out, and the

extraordinary efforts that have been made to return the shuttle toflight.

SHUTTLE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

In the post-Apollo era, the Space Shuttle was intended to make

access to space "routine" and less expensive. To meet these goals, it


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had to be reusable and economical to

develop and operate. Thus, the Shuttle was

shaped not only by engineering

considerations but also by pressure from the

White House and Congress to control itscost.

AN AL LY FOR THE SH UTTLE

Because the Department of Defense was

interested in using the Shuttle to launch

reconnaissance and other military satellites,

military requirements also influenced the

Shuttle's design. A delta wing was chosenfor maneuverability, and the size of the

payload bay was increased to ensure that it

could hold the largest planned military

payloads.

THE CHANGING SHAPE OF THE SHUTTLE

During the early 1970s, various Space

Shuttle designs were proposed and rejected

until an acceptable balance between function

and cost was reached.

NASA's concept in 1969 was a reusable

manned booster and orbiter, but

development costs were too high. In mid-

1971, North American Rockwell proposed a

fully reusable shuttle, like this model, but

operating costs were considered too high.

To cut costs, NASA abandoned the fully

reusable Shuttle design in favor of one that

was partially reusable. Several designs were


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considered, including this Grumman Aerospace concept for a vehicle

with stages that used the Apollo-era Saturn F-1 engine.

In early 1972, NASA decided on a partially reusable Space Shuttleproposed by North American Rockwell. It included a reusable

manned orbiter, two reusable solid-propellant booster rockets, an

expendable fuel tank, and an enlarged cargo bay. President Richard

Nixon approved the new Space Shuttle design.


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2. THE SPACE SHUTTLE

The space shuttle consists of three major components:

The orbiter which houses the crew;

A large external fuel tank that holds fuel for the main engines;

and

Two solid rocket boosters which provide most of the shuttle's lift

during the first two minutes of flight.

All of the components are reused except for the external fuel tank,

which burns up in the atmosphere after each launch.


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A typical shuttle mission is as follows:

getting into orbit

launch - the shuttle lifts off the launching pad

ascent

orbital maneuvering burn

orbit - life in space

re-entry

landing

A typical shuttle mission lasts seven to eight days, but can extend to

as much as 14 days depending upon the objectives of the mission.

Let's look at the stages of a mission one by one.


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2.1. ORBITTER

The orbiter is the manned spacecraft of the Space Shuttles three

main components. It can transport into near earth orbit (115 to 690

miles from the earths surface) cargo weighing up to 56,000 pounds,

and it can return with up to 32,000 pounds. This cargo, called

payload, is carried in a bay 15 feet in diameter and 60 feet long. The

major structural sections of the orbiter are:

The forward fuselage, which contains the pressurized crew

compartment

The mid fuselage, which contains the cargo bay

The aft fuselage, from which the main engine nozzles project

The vertical tail, which serves as a speed brake used during

re-entry and landing.


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The crew compartment is divided into two levels, the flight deck on

top and the middeck below. The flight deck includes all flight controls

used for launch, rendezvous operations, and landing. The middeck

provides the crew's working, eating, and sleeping environment. It also

houses the electronic, guidance, and navigation systems. The orbiternormally carries a flight crew of up to 7, but a total of 10 people could

be carried under emergency conditions.


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2.2. SPACE SHUTTLE MAIN ENGINE(SSME)

The Space Shuttle orbiter has three main engines weighing 7,000

pound each. They are very sophisticated power plants that burn liquid

hydrogen with liquid oxygen, both from the external tank (ET). The

main engines are located in the aft (back) fuselage (body of the

spacecraft). They are used for propulsion during launch and ascent in

to space with the aid of two powerful solid rocket boosters (SRBs).

The main engines provide 29% of the thrust needed to lift the shuttle

off the pad and into orbit. Each engine can generate almost 400,000

pounds of thrust at liftoff.


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2.2.1. MAIN ENGINE: FUEL

As the Shuttle accelerates, the main engines burn a half-million gallons of

liquid propellant provided by the ET. The main engines burn liquid

hydrogen (LH2) --the second coldest liquid on Earth at -423 degrees

Fahrenheit (minus 252.8 degrees Celsius) and liquid oxygen.

Cryogenic propellants are liquid oxygen (LOX), which serves as an

oxidizer, and liquid hydrogen (LH2), which is a fuel.

In gaseous form, oxygen and hydrogen have such low densities that

extremely large tanks would be required to store them aboard a rocket. But

cooling and compressing them into liquids vastly increases their density,

making it possible to store them in large quantities in smaller tanks.


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2.2.2. MAIN ENGINE: OXIDIZER

Oxidizer from the external tank enters the orbiter's main propulsion system

liquid oxygen feed line. Here it branches out into three parallel paths, one

to each engine. In each branch, liquid oxygen pre-valve must be opened to

permit flow to the low-pressure oxidizer.

Low Pressure Oxidizer Turbo-pump (LPOT) is an axial-flow pump driven by

a six-stage turbine powered by liquid oxygen. The flow from the LPOT is

supplied to the High-Pressure Oxidizer Turbo-pump (HPOT). The HPOT

consists of a main pump and a pre-burner pump .The main pump boosts

the liquid oxygen's pressure.

The Low Pressure Fuel Turbo-pump (LPFT) is an axial-flow pump driven by

a two-stage turbine powered by gaseous hydrogen. It boosts the pressure

of the liquid hydrogen


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The High Pressure Fuel Turbo-pump (HPFT) is a three-stage centrifugal

pump driven by a two-stage, hot-gas turbine. It boosts the pressure of the

liquid hydrogen.

2.2.3. MAIN ENGINE: PRODUCING THRUST

The three Space Shuttle Main Engines, in

conjunction with the Solid Rocket Boosters,

provide the thrust to lift the Orbiter off the

ground for the initial ascent. The main engines

continue to operate for 8.5 minutes after launch,

the duration of the Shuttle's powered flight. After

the solid rockets are jettisoned, the main

engines provide thrust which accelerates the

Shuttle from 4,828kilometers per hour (3,000

mph) to over 27,358 kilometers per hour (17,000

mph) in just six minutes to reach orbit. They

create a combined maximum thrust of more than

1.2 million pounds.

2.2.4.MAIN ENGINES:

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

The inner surface of each combustion chamber,

as well as the inner surface of each nozzle, is

cooled by gaseous hydrogen flowing through

coolant passages. Thermal protection for the

nozzles is necessary at the nozzle/engine attachpoint because of the exposure that portions of the nozzles experience

during the launch, ascent, on-orbit and entry phases of a mission. The

insulation consists of four layers of metallic batting covered with a metallic

foil and screening.


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The five propellant valves on each engine (oxidizer pre-burner oxidizer, fuel

pre-burner oxidizer, main oxidizer, main fuel, and chamber coolant) are

hydraulically actuated and controlled by electrical signals from the engine

controller. The main oxidizer valve and fuel bleed valve are used after

shutdown of the SSMEs approximately eight and a half minutes after liftoff.

The main oxidizer valve is opened during a propellant dump to allow

residual liquid oxygen to be dumped overboard through the engine, and the

fuel bleed valve is opened to allow residual liquid hydrogen to be dumped

through the liquid hydrogen fill and drain valves overboard. After the dump

is completed, the valves close and remain closed for the remainder of the

mission.


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hypergolic, pressure-fed, fixed thrust engine. There are two OMS engines

per orbiter vehicle.

2.4. REACTION CONTROL SYSTEM (RCS)

The reaction control system (RCS) on the orbiter is very similar to the

OMS. It helps to maneuver the orbiter in more delicate situations. Two

prime examples of when the RCS is used is when the orbiter is docking

with the International Space Station (ISS) or capturing a satellite to be

repaired. The RCS consists of 44 small nozzles that are fueled by the same

liquid nitrogen tetra-oxide and mono-methyl hydrazine combination as the

OMS. Six of these engines produce a thrust of 25 pounds each, while theother 38 produce 870 pounds of thrust each. Since the RCS is used for

delicate maneuvering, different combinations and durations of engine burns

can be used.

This shows one cluster of RCS engines found next to the left aft OMS

engine. Additional engines are found next to the right aft OMS engine aswell as on the side and nose of the orbiter.


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2.5. ECLSS

The environmental control and life support system (ECLSS) provides a

pressurized and livable environment for the orbiters crew. This

environment is not only important for the crew, but it is essential to the

protection and proper functioning of the onboard avionics. An additional

function of the ECLSS is the management, storage, and disposal of water

and crew waste.

ECLSS: Four Main Sub-Systems

1. Pressure Control System: maintains a pressure of 14.7 psia of a breathable

mixture of oxygen and nitrogen in the crew compartment. Nitrogen also is

used to pressurize wastewater tanks.

2. Atmospheric Revitalization System: uses circulated air and water coolant

loops to remove heat, control humidity, and purify the air in the cabin.

3. Active Thermal Control System: uses two Freon loops to collect heat from

the orbiters waste systems and transfer it overboard.

4. Supply & Wastewater System: stores water that is produced by the fuel

cells for use by the orbiter crew (drinking, cooking, hygiene). It also stores

liquid waste produced by the crew, as well as wastewater collected from


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the humidity separator. It has the ability to dump both supply and

wastewater overboard.

2.6. THE SOLID ROCKETBOOSTERS (SRB)

The solid rocket boosters, or SRBs, are the largest

solid fuel motors ever used in space flight, and are

also the first designed to be reusable. Each booster

rocket is attached to either side of the external tank(ET) Each SRB weighs approximately 1,300,000

pounds (589,670 kg) at launch with roughly 85

percent being the weight of the solid fuel itself.

When the Shuttles three main parts are assembled

and placed on the mobile launch platform, the

weight of the ET and the orbiter are held up by the

two SRBs. Each SRB is bolted to the launch

platform by four pyrotechnic bolts.

The two SRBs provide 71.4 percent of the main

thrust needed to lift the Space Shuttle off the launch

pad. Each booster has a thrust of approximately

3,300,000 pounds (14,685 kilonewtons) at launch

and help lift the Shuttle up to an altitude of about

150,000 feet, or 28 miles (50 kilometers). The SRBs

burn for approximately two minutes and are then

jettisoned. During their decent, three main

parachutes are deployed from the top of each SRB

to allow for a safe splashdown in the Atlantic

Ocean.


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2.7. EXTERNAL TANK (ET)

The external tank (ET) is the largest of the three main parts of the shuttle

system (ET, SRBs, orbiter). When fully loaded, it becomes the heaviest

element of the shuttle as well, going from 66,000 pounds to 1,655,600

pounds.

The ETs liquid hydrogen (fuel) and liquid oxygen (oxidizer) supplies the

three Space Shuttle main engines (SSMEs), located in the orbiter, during

launch and ascent into space. Fuel from the ET begins to be consumed 6

seconds prior to launch of the Shuttle as the main engines power up to 90percent. The ET continues to supply fuel to the SSMEs until all of the liquid

fuel is consumed and the shuttle approaches its orbit, the ET is jettisoned

off. As it passes back through the atmosphere, it begins to disintegrate.

Any parts not completely destroyed falls into the remote parts of the ocean

and are never recovered or reused.


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Three important components of the ET are the

Oxygen tank

The inter tank

Hydrogen tank

2.7.1. ET: OXYGEN TANK

The liquid oxygen tank is made out of aluminum monocoque and operates

in a pressure range of 20 to 22 psig (pressure per square inch-gauge). The

tank contains anti-slosh and anti-vortex structures to reduce fluid motion

during launch and ascent into space. The tank feeds into a 17-inch

diameter line that transports the liquid oxygen through the inter tank, then

outside the ET to the SSMEs. The 17-inch-diameter feed line allows liquid

oxygen to flow at approximately 2,787 pounds per second with the SSMEs

operating at 104 percent (that is equal to a maximum flow of 17,592 gallons

per minute). The liquid oxygen tank's double-wedge nose cone reduces

drag and heating, contains the vehicle's ascent air data system, and serves

as a lightning rod. The liquid oxygen tank's volume is 19,563 cubic feet


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(143,351 gallons) and is 331 inches in diameter, 592 inches long, and

weighs 12,000 pounds empty (1,361,936 pounds full).

2.7.2. ET: INTERTANK

The unpressurized intertank is a steel and aluminum cylindrical structure

that is joined on either end to the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen tanks.

The intertank houses ET instrumentation components and contains an

umbilical plate that allows for the detection (especially of hazardous gases)

and release of excess gas supplies (mainly boiled of hydrogen).

The intertank is 270 inches long, 331 inches in diameter and weighs 12,100

pounds.


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2.7.3. ET: LIQUID HYDROGEN TANK

The liquid hydrogen tank is an aluminum structure. The hydrogen tank is2.5 times larger than the oxygen tank but weighs only one-third as much

when filled to capacity. The reason for the difference in weight is that liquid

oxygen is 16 times heavier than liquid hydrogen.


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2.8.1. FIRST STAGE ASCENT

After about two minutes, when the shuttle is about 45 kilometers (28miles) high and traveling more than 4,828 kilometers per hour (3,000mph), the propellant in the two boosters is exhausted and thebooster casings are jettisoned. They parachute into the AtlanticOcean, splashing down about 225 kilometers (140 miles) off theFlorida coast.

The empty boosters -- the largest solid rocketsever built -- are recovered by special NASA shipsto be eventually refilled with fuel and launchedagain. The solid fuel used by the boosters isactually powdered aluminum -- a form of thesame metal you find in foil wraps in your kitchen -- with oxygen provided by a chemical calledammonium perchlorate.

2.8.2. SECOND STAGE ASCENT

The three space shuttle main engines, attached to the rear of the shuttle

orbiter, continue to fire until about 8.5 minutes after liftoff, burning a half-

million gallons of liquid propellant from the large, orange external fuel tank

as the shuttle accelerates. The main engines burn liquid hydrogen the

second coldest liquid on Earth at minus 252.7 degrees Celsius (minus 423

degrees Fahrenheit) and liquid oxygen. Since the hydrogen and oxygen

can reach a temperature as high as 3,315.6 degrees Celsius (6,000degrees Fahrenheit) as they burn higher than the boiling point of iron

the engines operate at greater temperature extremes than any other piece

of machinery ever built.


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The engines' exhaust is primarily water vapor as the hydrogen and oxygencombine. As they push the shuttle toward orbit, the engines consume theliquid fuel at a rate that would drain an average family swimming pool every25 seconds and they generate over 37 million horsepower. Their turbinesspin almost 13 times as fast as an automobile engine spins when it isrunning at highway speed.

Eight and a half minutes after launch, with the shuttle traveling 8 kilometers(5 miles) a second, the engines shut down as they use the last of their fuel.

A few seconds after the engines stop, the external fuel tank is jettisonedfrom the shuttle. The only part of the shuttle that is not reused, the tank re-enters the atmosphere and burns up over the Pacific Ocean. The shuttleorbiter, the only space shuttle component that will circle the Earth, weighsonly about 117,934 kilograms (260,000 pounds). The shuttle has

consumed more than 1.59 million kilograms (3.5 million pounds) of fuelduring its first 8 minutes of flight.

2.9. Landing

When it is time to return to Earth, the shuttle isrotated tailfirst into the direction of travel to preparefor another firing of the orbital maneuvering systemengines, a firing called the deorbit burn. This enginefiring, usually about three minutes long, slows theshuttle by only a couple of hundred miles per hour,but it is enough that it begins to descend toward theatmosphere. The engine firing takes place usuallyhalf a world away from the intended landing site: for example, the firingmay take place above the Indian Ocean to put the shuttle on course towarda landing at the Kennedy Space Center. The three-minute firing is the onlyactive brake the shuttle will use as it heads toward a landing. The rest of itsdescent toward Florida and trip halfway around the world is devoted to

slowing down using only the drag produced by the atmosphere.After the firing takes place, it is about another 25 minutes before the shuttlewill descend to a point that it first encounters the effects of the atmosphere,usually at an altitude of about 129 kilometers (80 miles) and a range ofmore than 8,047 kilometers (5,000 miles) from the landing site. Before theshuttle encounters the atmosphere, leftover fuel is burned from the forward


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reaction control system steering jets as asafety precaution. Before it reaches the upperatmosphere, the shuttle is oriented with thenose angled up about 40 degrees fromhorizontal and its wings level, an orientationthat keeps the black thermal tiles on theunderside facing the majority of the heatgenerated by its encounter, heat that canrange as high as 1,648.9 degrees Celsius(3,000 degrees Fahrenheit) on the leadingedges of the wings and nose.

The aft steering jets are used to control the shuttle's orientation as itdescends into the atmosphere. As it descends, however, it begins a

transition from spacecraft to aircraft, and its aerosurfaces -- the wing flapsand rudder -- gradually become active as air pressure builds. As thosesurfaces become usable, the steering jets turn off automatically.

The shuttle's altitude drops from 15,240 meters (50,000 feet) to about3,048 meters (10,000 feet) as it begins to align with the runway. As it alignswith the runway, the shuttle then begins a steep descent with the noseangled as much as 19 degrees down from horizontal, a glide slope that isseven times as steep as the average commercial airliner landing. Duringthe final approach, the shuttle drops toward the runway 20 times faster than

a commercial airliner as its rate of descent and airspeed increase. When itis less than 610 meters (2,000 feet) above the ground, the commanderpulls up the nose and slows the rate of descent in preparation fortouchdown.

At this point, the pilot deploys the landing gear. As the shuttle's mainlanding gear touches down, it is dropping at less than 8 kilometers per hour(5 miles per hour) and has a forward speed of about 354 kilometers perhour (220 miles per hour). After touchdown, the pilot deploys a drag chute

from a compartment located just below the tail and the commander beginsto drop the shuttle's nose gear slowly toward the runway. The drag chute isthen jettisoned before the wheels come to a stop to ensure that it falls clearof the shuttle.


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3. Space Shuttle Improvements

Spaceship, Heal Thyself

Damage to a spaceship's hull often begins as tiny surface cracks, which

are invisible to the eye. These micro-thin

cracks can also form underneath the surface

of the material, where they are hidden from

sight. Once these cracks form, they will grow

until the material weakens and breaks. In

order to prevent these tiny cracks from

spreading, a new material has been developed that will sense damage and

mend itself instantly. This self-healing ability could significantly prolong the

life of the spacecraft.

There are three parts to this new self-healingmaterial:

Composite material - The bulk of thematerial is an epoxy polymer made from

carbon, glass or Kevlar and a resin, such asepoxy, vinyl ester or urethane. Microencapsulated healing agent - This is

the glue that fixes the microcracks formed inthe composite material. This healing agentis a fluid called dicyclopentadiene, orDCPD. This fluid is encapsulated tinybubbles that are spread throughout thecomposite material. There are about 100 to200 capsules per cubic inch.


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Catalyst - In order to polymerize, the healing agent must come intocontact with a catalyst. A patented catalyst, calledGrubbs'

catalyst, is used for this self-healing material. It is important thatthe catalyst and healing agent remain separated until they areneeded to seal a crack.

When a microcrack forms in the compositematerial, it will spread through the material.By doing so, this crack will rupture themicrocapsules and release the healing agent.This healing agent will flow down through thecrack and will inevitably come into contactwith the Grubbs' catalyst, which initiates thepolymerization process. This process willeventually bond the crack closed. In tests, theself-healed composite material regained asmuch as 75 percent of its original strength.

The market for this kind of self-healing material goes far beyond spacecraft.Approximately 20 million tons of composite material is used every year for

engineering, defense projects, offshore oil exploration, electronics andbiomedicine. This self-healing material will show up in many everydayitems, including polymer composite circuit boards, artificial joints, bridgesupports and tennis rackets.


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Living Wires

During long space missions, maintaining the health of onboard computers

and electronics systems will be just as important as maintaining the exterior

shell. NASA is working on a new type of system that will give self-repairing

capabilities to the internal wiring of the spacecraft. This new evolvable

hardware will be able to monitor the electronics and correct systems before

malfunctions become a crucial problem.

Initially, a self-repairing flight system would be used in airplanes beforebeing moved to spacecraft. At the NASA Aviation Safety Program, basedat the Langley Research Center, researchers are working on this kind ofself-healing computer system. In 1999, the United States space agencyreported that it could have commercial systems available by 2004. The ideahere is to create a self-healing computer system that uses a cluster of low-powerprocessors that are loosely coupled to spacecraft systems viawireless links.These health management and control upset management systemscould detect, diagnose and prevent abnormalities before problems becomeuncorrectable. The computerized health management system will monitorvital functions, help prevent and reduce any malfunctions, enhance a flight

crew's ability to respond to problems and reduce a pilot's workload duringan emergency. Control upset management would include advanceddetection and prediction algorithms, display formats, pilot cueing andguidance and control methods to prevent accidents when failures occur.Both of these systems could work for aircraft and spacecraft.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=self-healing-spacecraft.htm&url=http://www.larc.nasa.gov/http://www.howstuffworks.com/microprocessor.htmhttp://www.howstuffworks.com/microprocessor.htmhttp://www.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=self-healing-spacecraft.htm&url=http://www.larc.nasa.gov/


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4. CONCLUSIONS

It is therefore important to note that the space shuttle programs were

viewed with great importance after the Apollo-era, as clear by the Quote of

Neil Armstrong

This is one small step of man, but a giant leap for mankind

These programs are beneficial not only to bring forward the findings in the

outer space but also to the defense sector in installing stations in space ,

which can be the upcoming battlefield following the star war series.

But before these brilliant ideas are put into use it is necessary to look into

nook and corners of space shuttle safety.

Hidden beneath its familiar shape, the Space Shuttle has undergone ametamorphosis. From the inside out, thousands of advances in technologyand enhanced designs have been incorporated into the Shuttle since it firstlaunched. Today's Shuttle is a safer, more powerful and more efficientspacecraft. When the Shuttle Atlantis launches this year, it will be the mostup-to-date Space Shuttle ever. From a new "glass cockpit" to main enginesestimated threefold safer, Atlantis is far different than when it first flew in

1985.This year also will see the 100th Space Shuttle launch in history, amilestone for a workhorse that has taken over 600 passengers and 3million pounds of cargo to orbit. The Shuttle fleet has spent almost two anda half years in space. But even the most-traveled Shuttles remain young inthe lifetimes for which they were built. NASA is preparing for the possibilityof flying the Space Shuttle for at least another decade. Future upgrades willmake this American cornerstone of world spaceflight even better towarda goal of doubling its launch safety by 2005.

Since 1992: Not only has the cargo capacity of the Shuttle increased by 8tons, the annual cost of operating the Shuttle has decreased by 40 percent.Improvements to the main engines and other systems have reduced theestimated risks during launch by over 80 percent. And the number of allactual problems experienced by the Shuttle in flight has decreased by 70percent. Although they have flown for almost 20 years, the Space Shuttle


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fleet has used only about a quarter of the lifetime for which it was designed.Discovery, the most flown Shuttle, has completed 27 trips to space out of100 flights originally designed for each Shuttle.

With the recent events being taken into consideration, like the Columbia

break up on re-entry various redesigns of the shuttle structure and design

were considered.

To bring the shuttles back to flight status, NASA has focused on threemajor areas:

Redesign the ET to prevent insulation from damaging the shuttleorbiter

Improve inspection of the shuttle to detect damage

Find ways to repair possible damage to the orbiter while in orbit Formulate contingency plans for the crew of a damaged shuttle to

stay at the ISS until rescue

The ET holds cold liquefied gases as fuel (oxygen, hydrogen). Because thetemperatures are so cold, water from the atmosphere condenses andfreezes on the surfaces of the ET and the fuel lines leading in to the orbiter.Ice can fall off the ET itself or cause the ET foam insulation to crack and falloff. In addition to ice, if any of the liquid gas were to leak and get under thefoam, it would expand and cause the foam insulation to crack. So much of

the ET redesign has focused on eliminating places where condensationcan occur.

Apart from the externals the shape of the hull and design are more

specifically viewed after the introduction of nano-technology that produces

efficient materials promising the detection and self healing of the external

structure as well as onboard computers and electronics to ensure safety of

crew members.

In the future, spacecraft could possibly take us to the edge of our solarsystem and beyond. If that is to be possible, we will need spacecraft withbuilt-in safeguards. These smart-spacecraft will have to be able to senseand react to potential problems that might go unseen by their humanpassengers.


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SUMMARY

BENEATHTHESKIN

Tomorrows Shuttle: Cutting Risks in Half by 2005

Enhancements now under development could double the Shuttle's safety

by 2005: New sensors and computer power in the main engines will "see"

trouble coming a split second before it can do harm, allowing a safe engine

shut down. A new engine nozzle will eliminate the need for hundreds of

welds and potential leaks. Electric generators for the Shuttle's hydraulics

will replace the highly volatile rocket fuel that now powers the system. Anda next-generation "smart cockpit" will reduce the pilot's workload in an

emergency, allowing the crew to better focus on critical tasks. Other

improvements will make steering systems for the solid rockets more

reliable, make the manufacturing of solid propellant safer and increase the

strength of external fuel tank welds.

Solid Rockets and External Tank Upgrades

Future improvements for the solid rocket boosters include a redesign of several

valves, filters and seals in the steering system to enhance their reliability as well

as studies of the potential for an electrical system to power the booster

hydraulics. Also, changes to the solid rocket propellant manufacturing process will

make the workplace safer for Shuttle technicians. For the external tank, a new

friction-stir welding technique will produce stronger and more durable welds

throughout the tank.

Better Main Engines


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The Space Shuttle's main engines operate at greater extremes oftemperature and pressure than any other machine. Since 1981, threeoverhauls to the original design have more than tripled estimates of their

safety. Now, a fourth major overhaul is planned that will make them evensafer by 2005. The planned improvements include a high-tech optical andvibration sensor system and computing power in the engines that will "see"trouble coming a fraction of a second before it can do harm. Called the

Advanced Health Monitoring System, the sensors will detect and track analmost microscopic flaw in an engine's performance in a split second,allowing the engine to be safely shut down before the situation can growout of control. Also, the engine's main combustion chamber will beenlarged to reduce the pressures on internal components without reducingthe thrust, and a new, simplified engine nozzle design will eliminate the

need for hundreds of welds over 500 feet of them and potential leaks.

Smart Cockpit

The new "glass cockpit" that will be initiated when Atlantis launches onSTS-101 sets the stage for the next cockpit improvement, planned to fly by2005: a smart cockpit that reduces the pilots workload during criticalperiods. The enhanced displays won't fly the Shuttle, but they will do muchof the deductive reasoning required for a pilot to respond to a problem. By

simplifying the pilots' job, this smartcockpit will allow astronauts to betterfocus on critical tasks in an emergency.

Todays Space Shuttle

Since 1992: Not only has the cargo capacity of the Shuttle increased by 8tons, the annual cost of operating the Shuttle has decreased by 40 percent.Improvements to the main engines and other systems have reduced the

estimated risks during launch by over 80 percent. And the number of allactual problems experienced by the Shuttle in flight has decreased by 70percent. Although they have flown for almost 20 years, the Space Shuttlefleet has used only about a quarter of the lifetime for which it was designed.Discovery, the most flown Shuttle, has completed 27 trips to space out of100 flights originally designed for each Shuttle.


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SSPPAACCEE SSHHUUTTTTLLEEADITYA ASERKAR (002) RAHUL BARANWAL (004)

PARIJAT BHANGALE (006) VAIBHAV BHOSLE (008)

NRUPA CHITLEY (010) ANKIT DAGADU (011)

KUNAL KADAM (028) ARCHIT SHETTY (060)


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SPACE SHUTTLE

For

THE HUMANITIES AND SCIENCE SECTION

By

ADITYA ASERKAR (002) RAHUL BARANWAL (004)

PARIJAT BHANGALE (006) VAIBHAV BHOSLE (008)

NRUPA CHITLEY (010) ANKIT DAGADU (011)

KUNAL KADAM (028) ARCHIT SHETTY (060)

FR. CONCEICAO RODRIGUES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI

NOVEMBER 2010


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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

15 November, 2010

Mrs. Abha Jha

The Humanities & Science Section

Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College of Engineering

Bandra, Mumbai 400050

Dear Maam

We feel pleased to present our formal report on our topic for presentation

SPACE SHUTTLE. The report focuses on the valuable information about

the Space Shuttle and the system that makes each of its three main

components.

The main objective of this report was to draw attention and to open doors to

arguably mans most incredible invention.

We would like to thank you for your expertise and furnishing us with

instructions regarding the layout and design of our report.

Yours truly,

Aditya Aserkar

Rahul Baranwal

Parijat Bhangale

Vaibhav Bhosle

Nrupa Chitley

Ankit Dagadu

Kunal Kadam

Archit Shetty


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages

Cover Page I

Title Page II

Letter of Transmittal III

Table of Contents IV

Summary V

1. Introduction 1

2. Space Shuttle 4

2.1. The Orbiter 6

2.2. Space Shuttle Main Engine(SSME) 8

2.2.1. Main Engine: Fuel 9

2.2.2. Main Engine: Oxidizer 10

2.2.3. Main Engine: Producing Thrust 11

2.2.4. Main Engine: Additional information 11

2.3. OMS 13

2.4. RCS 14

2.5. ECLSS 15

2.6. SRB 16

2.7. External Tank 17


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2.7.1. External Tank : Oxygen Tank 18

2.7.2. External Tank : Internal Tank 19

2.7.3. External Tank : Liquid Hydrogen Tank 20

2.8. Launch 21

2.8.1. First Stage Ascent 22

2.8.2. Second Stage Ascent 22

2.9. Landing 23

3. Space Shuttle Improvements 25

4. CONCLUSION 28

5. GLOSSARY 30


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5. GLOSSARY

TERMINOLOGY

External Tank ET

Kennedy Space Center KSC

Launch Control Center LCC

Orbiter Processing Facility OPF

Shuttle Landing Facility SLF

Space Transportation System STS

Vertical Assembly Building VAB

Rotating Service Structure RSS

Orbiter Weather Protection OWP


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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.howstuffworks.com/spacesiphealthyself

www.wikipedia.com/spaceshuttles

www.nasa.gov.org

www.google.com

www.ksc.nasa.gov

www.oposite.stsci.edu/pubinfo/pictures.html

www.spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/elements/index.html
http://www.howstuffworks.com/spacesiphealthyselfhttp://www.howstuffworks.com/spacesiphealthyselfhttp://www.wikipedia.com/spaceshuttleshttp://www.wikipedia.com/spaceshuttleshttp://www.nasa.gov.org/http://www.nasa.gov.org/http://www.google.com/http://www.google.com/http://www.ksc.nasa.gov/http://www.ksc.nasa.gov/http://www.oposite.stsci.edu/pubinfo/pictures.htmlhttp://www.oposite.stsci.edu/pubinfo/pictures.htmlhttp://www.spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/elements/index.htmlhttp://www.spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/elements/index.htmlhttp://www.spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/elements/index.htmlhttp://www.oposite.stsci.edu/pubinfo/pictures.htmlhttp://www.ksc.nasa.gov/http://www.google.com/http://www.nasa.gov.org/http://www.wikipedia.com/spaceshuttleshttp://www.howstuffworks.com/spacesiphealthyself

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