14
SPACEFLIGHT LIFE SUPPORT AND BIOSPHERICS
SPACEFLIGHT LIFE SUPPORT AND BIOSPHERICS
Author
PETER ECKART Research Fellow at the Institute of Astronautics
Technical University of Munich, Germany Graduate of the International Space University
Summer Session, Kitakyushu, Japan, 1992 Research Fellow at the NASA Johnson Space Center
Crew and Thermal Systems Division, Houston, TX 1994/95
Drawings: Herbert Utz, Munich, Germany Layout: Thomas R. Neff, Munich, Germany
SPACE TECHNOLOGY LIBRARY
Editorial Board
Managing Editor: JAMES R. WERTZ, Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, CA
Editors: LANDIS MARKLEY, NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center WILEY J. LARSON, United States Air Force Academy ROLF E. MUNCH, European Space Operations Center JOSEPH F. SHEA, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Also in the Space Technology Library
An Introduction to Mission Design for Geostationary Satellites, J. J. Pocha
Space Mission Analysis and Design, James R. Wertz and Wiley J. Larson
Handbook of Geostationary Orbits, E. M. Soop
Spacecraft Structures and Mechanisms, Thomas P. Sarafin
Spaceflight Life Support and Biospherics
by
Peter Eckart
Revised and Expanded from Life Support & Biospherics, Herbert Utz Publishers, Munich, Germany, 1994
Space Technology Library
Published Jointly by
Microcosm Press Torrance, California
....
'' Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN 978-90-481-4659-8 ISBN 978-94-017-3038-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-3038-9
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved © 1996 Springer Science+ Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1996 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1996
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
While the publishers and author have taken every reasonable care to ensure that the information contained in this book
is accurate and up-to-date, there shall be no liability for, nor responsibility to, any person or entity with respect to any loss
or damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by the information contained in this book.
ToNuschin
CONTENTS
PREFACE .................................................................................................... XIII FOREWORD ................................................................................................ XV
RATIONALE ............................................................................................ 1
II BIOSPHERE 1 - THE LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM OF THE EARTH .... 9
11.1 THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................. 9 11.1.1 Geology ................................................................................ 9 11.1 .2 Atmosphere ........................................................................ 1 0 11.1.3 Gravity ................................................................................ 12 11.1 .4 Radiation ............................................................................ 12 11.1.5 Magnetic Field .................................................................... 13
11.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF ECOLOGY ................................................. 13 11.2.1 Levels of Ecological Hierarchy ........................................... 15 11.2.2 Ecosystems and Ecosystem Models ................................. 17 11.2.3 Energetics and Photosynthesis .......................................... 22 11.2.4 Material Cycles ................................................................... 28 11.2.5 Recycling Pathways and Limiting Factors ........................... 33 11.2.6 The Gaia Hypothesis .......................................................... 34
11.3 EARTH'S ENDANGERED LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM ................... 35
Ill THE EXTRATERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT .................................... 39
111.1 RADIATION IN FREE SPACE ........................................................ 39 111.1.1 Electromagnetic Radiation in Space .................................. 40 111.1.2 Ionizing Radiation Sources in Space .................................. 41
111.1.2.1 Solar Wind and Solar Cosmic Rays (SCR) .............. 42 111.1.2.2 Galactic Cosmic Radiation (GCR) ........................... 44 111.1.2.3 The Van Allen Belts .................................................. 45
111.1.3 The Concept of Radiation Dose ......................................... 47 111.1.4 Radiation Monitoring and Dosimetry .................................. 50 111.1.5 Radiation Effects ................................................................ 51 111.1.6 Radiation Protection ........................................................... 54
VIII Spaceflight Life Support & Biospherics
111.2 GRAVITY ................................................................................. 57 111.2.1 Gravity on the Planets and in Free Space ........................... 57 111.2.2 Effects of Lower Gravity ..................................................... 58 111.2.3 Artificial Gravity .................................................................. 59
111.3 VACUUM ................................................................................. 62 II 1.3.1 Temperature Effects ............................................................ 62 111.3.2 The Necessity of a Pressurized Environment ..................... 64 111.3.3 Material Effects .................................................................. 64
111.4 MAGNETIC FIELDS ....................................................................... 65
111.5 LOCAL PLANETARY ENVIRONMENTS ......................................... 66 111.5.1 Moon ................................................................................. 66
111.5.1.1 Lunar Parameters ..................................................... 66 111.5.1.2 Environment of the Lunar Surface ............................ 67 111.5.1.3 Physical Properties of the Lunar Surface .................. 69 II 1.5.1.4 Lunar Resources ...................................................... 70
111.5.2 Mars ................................................................................. 71 111.5.2.1 Martian Parameters .................................................. 71 111.5.2.2 Environment of the Martian Surface ......................... 72 111.5.2.3 Physical Properties of the Martian Surface .............. 73 111.5.2.4 Martian Resources ................................................... 74
IV FUNDAMENTALS OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS ................................ 79
IV.1 DEFINITIONS ................................................................................. 79
IV.2 CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS ........................ 80
IV.3 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT CONSIDERATIONS ...................... 81 IV.3.1 Human Requirements ......................................................... 87
IV.3.1.1 Environmental Aspects ............................................. 89 IV.3.1.2 Food and Nutritional Aspects .................................... 95 IV.3.1.3 Waste Production and Waste Categories ................. 103
IV.3.2 Subsystem Interfaces and Integration .............................. 104 IV.3.3 Mission Related Aspects .................................................. 108
IV.3.3.1 Mission Duration and Location ................................ 109 IV.3.3.2 Mass and Cost Aspects ......................................... 110
IV.3.4 Development Phases ........................................................ 118 IV.3.5 Trade Studies and Simulation Models ............................... 120
IV.4 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL VS. BIOREGENERATIVE LIFE SUPPORT ............................................................................... 125
IV.5 PAST AND PRESENT LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS ..................... 127 IV.5.1 Spacebound Systems ....................................................... 127 IV.5.2 Earthbound Systems ........................................................ 140
Contents IX
IV.6 SPACE SUITSAND EXTRA-VEHICULAR ACTIVITIES (EVA) ..... 155 IV.6.1 Working Outside a Spacecraft or Space Habitat ............... 155 IV.6.2 Extra-Vehicular Mobility Units (EMU)- Requirements,
Design, and Operations .................................................... 157 IV.6.3 Cabin Pressure vs. Space Suit Pressure .......................... 163 IV.6.4 Past and Present Space Suits and EVA Experiences ....... 167 IV.6.5 Trends for Future Extra-Vehicular Mobility Units ................ 168
V PHYSICO-CHEMICAL LIFE SUPPORT SUBSYSTEMS ...................... 175
V.1 ATMOSPHERE MANAGEMENT ................................................... 176 V.1.1 Air Revitalization Technologies .......................................... 178
V.1.1.1 Gas Storage Systems ............................................ 179 V.1.1 .1.1 Chemical Compounds ...................................... 181 V.1.1.1.2 High Pressure Storage ..................................... 181 V.1.1.1.3 Cryogenic Storage ........................................... 182
V.1 .1 .2 Carbon Dioxide Removal ........................................ 182 V.1 .1 .2.1 Regenerable Processes ................................... 182
V.1.1.2.1.1 Molecular Sieves ................................ 182 V.1.1.2.1.2 Solid Amine Water Desorption
(SAWD) .............................................. 184 V.1.1.2.1.3 Electrochemical Depolarization
Concentration (EDC) ........................... 188 V.1.1.2.1.4 Air Polarized Concentrators (APC) ...... 189 V.1.1.2.1.5 Membrane Removal and Other
Regenerative Technologies ................. 191 V.1.1.2.2 Non-Regenerable Processes ........................... 192
V.1.1.2.2.1 Lithium Hydroxide (LiOH) .................... 192 V.1.1 .2 .2.2 Sodasorb ............................................ 193 V.1.1 .2 .2 .3 Superoxides ....................................... 193
V.1.1.3 Carbon Dioxide Reduction ....................................... 193 V.1.1.3.1 Bosch .......................................................... 193 V.1 . 1 .3.2 Saba tier .......................................................... 196 V.1.1.3.3 Advanced Carbon-Formation Reactor System
(ACRS) .......................................................... 198 V.1.1.3.4 C02 Electrolysis .............................................. 198 V.1 .1.3.5 Superoxides .................................................... 201
V.1 .1.4 Oxygen Generation ................................................. 201 V.1.1.4.1 Static Feed Water Electrolysis (SFWE) ........... 202 V.1.1.4.2 Solid Polymer Water Electrolysis (SPWE) ........ 203 V.1.1.4.3 Water Vapor Electrolysis (WVE) ....................... 204 V.1.1.4.4 C02 Electrolysis .............................................. 205 V.1.1.4.5 Superoxides .................................................... 205 V.1.1.4.6 Artificial Gill ..................................................... 205
V.1.1.5 Nitrogen Generation ................................................ 205 V.1 .1.6 Trace Contaminant Control (TCC) ............................ 206
X Spaceflight Life Support & Biospherics
V.1 .2 Atmosphere Monitoring and Control .................................. 210 V.1.2.1 Temperature and Humidity Control (THC) ................ 211 V.1.2.2 Contaminant Monitoring .......................................... 212
V.1.2.2.1 Gas Chromatograph I Mass Spectrometer (GC/MS) .......................................................... 213
V.1.2.2.2 FourierTransform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) .......................................................... 215
V.1.2.2.3 I on Trap Mass Spectroscopy I Mass Spectroscopy (MSIMS) ................................... 215
V.1 .2.3 Fire Detection and Suppression .............................. 216
V.2 WATER MANAGEMENT .......................................................... 218 V.2.1 Urine Recovery .......................................................... 220
V.2.1.1 Vapor Compression Distillation (VCD) ..................... 221 V.2.1.2 Vapor Phase Catalytic Ammonia Removal
(VAPCAR) .......................................................... 223 V.2.1.3 Thermoelectric Integrated Membrane Evaporation
System (TIMES) ..................................................... 225 V.2.1.4 Air Evaporation Systems (AES) ............................. 226 V.2.1.5 Aqueous Phase Catalytic Oxidation Post
Treatment System (APCOS) ................................... 226 V.2.1.6 Super Critical Water Oxidation (SCWO) .................. 229
V.2.2 Hygiene Recovery and Potable Processing ....................... 229 V.2.2.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO) ........................................... 230 V.2.2.2 Multifiltration (MF) ................................................... 231 V.2.2.3 Electrodialysis ........................................................ 234
V.2.3 Water Recovery from Condensate ..................................... 234 V.2.4 Water Quality Monitoring ................................................... 236
V.3 WASTE MANAGEMENT .......................................................... 237 V.3.1 Feces Collection and Storage ........................................... 240 V.3.2 Solid Waste Treatment ....................................................... 241
V.3.2.1 Super Critical Wet Oxidation ................................... 241 V.3.2.2 Wet Oxidation ......................................................... 243 V.3.2.3 Combustion I Incineration ....................................... 244 V.3.2.4 Electrochemical Incineration ................................... 245 V.3.2.5 Waste Management- Water Systems (WM-WS) ..... 245
VI BIOREGENERATIVE LIFE SUPPORT CONCEPTS ............................ 249
Vl.1 BIOREGENERATIVE LIFE SUPPORT AND CELSS .................... 249 Vl.1.1 Rationale .......................................................................... 249 Vl.1.2 Modeling and Design ........................................................ 254 Vl.1.3 System Level Problems .................................................... 261
Contents XI
Vl.2 MICROBIAL SYSTEMS .......................................................... 267
Vl.3 ALGAL SYSTEMS ........................................................................ 270 Vl.3.1 Algal Species and Attributes ............................................. 271 Vl.3.2 Algae for Provision of Food ............................................... 272 Vl.3.3 Algal Growth in Space ...................................................... 274
Vl.4 HIGHER PLANTS ........................................................................ 275 V1.4.1 Plant Physiology .......................................................... 279
Vl.4.1.1 Basic Plant Processes and Requirements .............. 279 Vl.4.1.1.1 Plant Physiological Parameters ....................... 280 Vl.4.1.1.2 Photosynthesis ................................................ 283 Vl.4.1.1.3 Gravitropism and Phototropism ....................... 284
Vl.4.1.2 Effects of the Extraterrestrial Environment ............. 286 V1.4.1.2.1 Gravity .......................................................... 289 V1.4.1.2.2 Radiation ......................................................... 290 Vl.4.1.2.3 Biological Experiments in Space ..................... 292
V1.4.2 The Plant Selection Process ............................................ 296 Vl.4.2.1 Selection Criteria .................................................... 296 Vl.4.2.2 Attributes and Nutritional Values ............................. 300
Vl.4.3 Plant Growth in a CELSS- Design Considerations ........... 303 Vl.4.3.1 Growth Area .......................................................... 308 Vl.4.3.2 Growth Media ......................................................... 309
Vl.4.3.2.1 Soil .................................................................. 311 Vl.4.3.2.2 Hydroponics .................................................... 311 Vl.4.3.2.3 Aeroponics ...................................................... 312
Vl.4.3.3 Atmosphere Requirements ..................................... 315 Vl.4.3.3.1 Atmosphere Composition ................................. 315 Vl.4.3.3.2 Temperature and Humidity ............................... 316
Vl.4.3.4 Lighting Analysis .................................................... 317 Vl.4.3.4.1 Lighting Requirements ..................................... 317 Vl.4.3.4.2 Solar Light ....................................................... 318 Vl.4.3.4.3 Artificial Light .................................................. 321 Vl.4.3.4.4 LightTransportation and Distribution ................ 323 Vl.4.3.4.5 Hybrid Concepts .............................................. 324
Vl.4.4 Microorganisms ................................................................ 325 Vl.4.5 Atmosphere Regeneration ................................................. 326 Vl.4.6 Water Recovery ................................................................ 327 Vl.4.7 Waste Processing ............................................................. 327 Vl.4.8 Nutrient Supply ................................................................. 330 Vl.4.9 Crew lime Requirements .................................................. 334 Vl.4.10 Higher Plant Growth Facilities ........................................... 335
Vl.5 FUNGI AND CONVERSION OF INEDIBLE PLANT MATERIAL FOR FOOD PROVISION ............................................ 341
XII Spaceflight Life Support & Biospherics
Vl.6 ANIMALS AS HUMAN FOOD ................................................. 343
VI.? AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS ................................................... 345
Vl.8 FOOD MANAGEMENT AND PROCESSING ............................. 348 Vl.8.1 Food Production ............................................................ 350 Vl.8.2 Food Storage ................................................................. 351 Vl.8.3 Food Processing ............................................................ 352
VII BIOSPHERE 2- LESSONS LEARNED FOR FUTURE CELSS RESEARCH .••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••.••.••.••.••...•••••.•••••••.•••.•••••.•.• 365
Vll.1 THE RATIONALE OF BIOSPHERE 2 ........................................ 365
Vll.2 DESCRIPTION OF BIOSPHERE 2 ............................................ 367
Vll.3 THE BIOSPHERE 2TEST MODULE ......................................... 378
Vll.4 FIELDS OF RESEARCH ........................................................... 383
Vll.5 INITIAL RESULTS ..................................................................... 387
VIII FUTURE LIFE SUPPORT IN SPACE ................................................. 397
Vlll.1 FUTURE MANNED SPACE EXPLORATION ............................. 397
Vlll.2 SPACE STATION ...................................................................... 400
Vlll.3 LUNAR BASE ........................................................................... 402
Vlll.4 MARTIAN BASE ...................................................................... 408
IX POTENTIAL TERRESTRIAL APPLICATIONS DERIVED FROM THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS ..................... 413
IX.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 413
IX.2 BASIC ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH ........................................... 413
IX.3 ATMOSPHERE, WATER,ANDWASTE REGENERATION ......... 417
IX.4 BIOMASS PRODUCTION AND RESEARCH ............................. 423
IX.5 SUPPORT OFTERRESTRIALANALOGS ................................ 424
INDEX •••..••••.•.•..••.•.••.••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•.••••..•..•..•..•.•.••.••.••.••.•.••.•..•.•.•.• 429
PREFACE
Arthur C Clarke. cBE
Ll:FE SYPPORT SYSTEMS BY PETER ECKART
I would like to congratulate Peter Eckart on his monumental study 1 Life Support & Biospherics 1 on human life in extraterrestrial environments. (In fact many of his conclusions are applicable to terrestrial environments as well!)
Although there is now a certain hiatus in manned exploration of space, beyond close-to-earth-orbits, this is only a temporary state of affairs. Early in the next century, the developement of more efficient and completely reusable space transportation systems will once again open up the path to the Moon- and then, to Mars, and the worlds beyond .....
It is not generally realized that the cost in energy of sending a man into space is less than $100: the fact that we now have to pay millions of times as much is merely a measure of our present incompetence. The time will come when space flight will be as affordable as jet transportation is today.
I hope that Mr Eckart - who I am happy to note is a graduate of the International Space University - will live to see that day. When it arrives his book may well become a standard textbook, for the pioneers of our first homes beyond the Earth.
Arthur C Clarke, CBE
Fellow of King's College, London Chancellor: International Space University Chancellor: University of Moratuwa
23 May 1994, Colombo, Sri Lanka
FOREWORD
I am not an expert in anything. I am the person who keeps my eyes open, watches from the sides and becomes aware of where things might come together that otherwise might not come together.
Jacques Cousteau
About two years ago I was looking for a book summarizing the basic knowledge on life support systems- their history, requirements, components. Furthermore, I was interested in a book that discusses the links between life support systems and biosphere research. I wanted to find out what kind of life support systems for application in space could be expected in the future. Also, I was interested to learn to which extent the research on ecological questions and on the development of future life support systems for spaceflight are related. After visits and discussions at ESA-ESTEC, NASA-MSFC, Boeing and other institutions I knew that such a book did not exist.
Thus, I decided to write "Life Support & Biospherics", which was published in late 1994 with Herbert Utz Publishers. Only one year later and thanks to the success of the first edition and Kluwer Academic Publishers I Microcosm Inc., you hold "Spaceflight Life Support & Biospherics" in your hands, now - the revised and updated edition of "Life Support & Biospherics". The book is intended to be the "Introduction to Life Support Systems" that has been lacking. The structure of this book is such that it, step by step, answers the basic questions concerning life support systems of any scale - from small microbial systems to the Earth's biosphere. The questions relate to the chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 Chapter2
Chapter3
Chapter4
ChapterS
ChapterS
Chapter?
Chapter a
Chapter9
Why life support system development and biosphere research? How does our natura/life support system, the biosphere, work?
What are the environmental conditions for life support systems in space?
What are the fundamental terms and requirements of life support?
Which physico-chemica/life support subsystems do currently exist?
Which are the potential bioregenerative life support technologies of the future?
What are the experiences of the largest artificial ecosystem -Biosphere 2?
What are life support systems of future planetary habitats going to look like?
What are the potential terrestrial benefits of life support development?
XVI Spaceflight Life Support & Biospherics
"Spaceflight Life Support & Biospherics" is intended to be a source of information for everyone involved in the life support system design and development process, and for all those who are simply interested in this exciting disciplin. I hope, that it will not only be a useful tool, but that it may also be enjoyed by everyone who is interested in the preservation of planet Earth and the future exploration of our extraterrestrial environment.
Like everything created by a human, this volume cannot be perfect. I am convinced that somewhere on our planet very exciting research projects are underway that should be mentioned here. I want to apologize at this point to have not been aware of those. Also, I want to encourage everyone to submit his I her comments and suggestions how any future edition of this book could be improved.
Of course, I cannot end this foreword without saying 'Thank you !'-it would have been impossible to complete this work without the invaluable help and support of several institutions, acquaintances, and friends all over the world. I am very much indebted to all of them and, thus, I want to express my deep gratitude to:
Prof. Dr.-lng. Harry 0. Ruppe- my teacher and promoter, Head of the Chair of Astronautics of the Technische Universitat Munchen, Germany, for his continuous support and for giving me maximum freedom in my work.
Herbert Utz- Managing Director, Herbert Utz Publishers, and Research Fellow at the Chair of Astronautics of the Technische Universitat Munchen, Germany, for his endless patience in drawing all the figures, reading and rereading the script over and over again, and for being my friend in every respect.
Thomas Neff - Director of Finances, Herbert Utz Publishers, and Research Fellow at the Chair of Lightweight Construction of the Technische Universitat Munchen, Germany, for doing all the layout work for this book plus an endless amount of further major and minor jobs, helping to give birth to our "baby".
Ursula Kiening - our wonderful secretary at the Institute of Astronautics, a special thanks for all her support.
Susan Doll- Life Support Engineer, Boeing, Huntsville,AL, for being a wonderful host, supporter, and friend- our "Woman in the U.S.".
Dr. James Wertz- Microcosm Inc., CA, for the chance to publish "Spaceflight Life Support & Biospherics", and for being a very cooperative publisher.
Dr. Wiley Larson- U.S. Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, CO, for initiating the contact with Jim Wertz that led to the publication of this book.
Bernd Zabel - "Biospherian" and General Manager of Construction of Biosphere 2 for also being my host and showing me around the Biosphere 2 complex.
Dr. Christian Tamponnet - Life Support Division, ESA-ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, for inspiring my work and taking his time to support.
Dr. Arthur C. Clarke, CBE- for encouraging our work and submitting the preface.
All of my friends of the International Space University Community, at the Lehrstuhl fUr Raumfahrttechnik, and the Johnson Space Center for their inspiration.
And to my Nuschin. Peter Eckart Munchen, Germany, August 1995
