span of development

7/28/2019 span of development

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Chapter 4

From Birth to Death: Life-Span

Development

Table of Contents Exit
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Life Events

Developmental Tasks: These must be

mastered for optimal development (e.g.,

learning to read and adjusting to sexualmaturity)

Developmental Milestones: Notable events,

markers, or turning points in personal

development

Psychosocial Dilemma: Conflict between

personal impulses and the social world

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Erik Eriksons Eight Stages of

Psychosocial DilemmasStage One: Trust Versus Mistrust (Birth-1): Children

are completely dependent on others

Trust: Established when babies given adequate warmth,touching, love, and physical care

Mistrust: Caused by inadequate or unpredictable care and by

cold, indifferent, and rejecting parents

Stage Two: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (1-3)

Autonomy: Doing things for themselves

Overprotective or ridiculing parents may cause children to

doubt abilities and feel shameful about their actions



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Psychosocial Dilemmas (cont.)Stage Three: Initiative Versus Guilt (3-5) Initiative: Parents reinforce via giving children

freedom to play, use imagination, and ask

questions

Guilt: May occur if parents criticize, prevent play, ordiscourage a childs questions

Stage Four: Industry Versus Inferiority (6-12) Industry: Occurs when child is praised for

productive activities

Inferiority: Occurs if childs efforts are regarded asmessy or inadequate



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Psychosocial Dilemmas (cont.)Stage Five (Adolescence): Identity Versus RoleConfusion Identity: For adolescents; problems answering,

Who am I?

Role Confusion: Occurs when adolescents areunsure of where they are going and who they are

Stage Six (Young adulthood): Intimacy Versus

Isolation Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to share

experiences with them

Isolation: Feeling alone and uncared for in life



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Psychosocial Dilemmas (cont.)Stage Seven (Middle adulthood): Generativity Versus

Stagnation

Generativity: Interest in guiding the next generation

Stagnation: When one is only concerned with ones own

needs and comforts

Stage Eight (Late adulthood): Integrity Versus

Despair

Integrity: Self-respect; developed when people have livedrichly and responsibly

Despair: Occurs when previous life events are viewed with

regret; experiences heartache and remorse.



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Normal Childhood Problems

Sleep disturbances

Specific fears of the dark, dogs, school, or aparticular room or person

Most children will be overly timid at times, allowingbullying

Temporary periods of dissatisfaction, when nothingpleases the child

General negativism

Clinging to a parent(s) or caregiver

Reversals or regressions to more infantile behavioroccur with almost all children (Chess, Thomas, &Birch, 1976)



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Rivalry and Rebellion

Sibling Rivalry: Competition among

brothers and sisters

Childhood Rebellion: Open defiance ofadult authority



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Serious Childhood Problems

Toilet Training Problems: Average agefor completion is 30 months; some

children will take up to six monthslonger

Enuresis: Lack of bladder control;bedwetting. May be physical problem.

Much more common in males Encopresis: Lack of bowel control; soiling.

Not as common as enuresis



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Serious Childhood Problems:

Feeding DisturbancesOvereating: Eating in excess of daily caloric needs;

significant problem because of convenience and fast

foods

Anorexia Nervosa: Self-starvation or sustained loss

of appetite that is assumed by some to have

psychological origins

Pica: Eating or chewing inedible objects or

substances such as lead, chalk, paint chips, clay and

so on. Note: Eating inedible foods on occasion is not

uncommon among young toddlers



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CNN Sleep Disorders

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Fig. 4.1 Dramatic differences in physical size and maturity are found in adolescents of the same age. The

girls pictured are all 13, the boys 16. Maturation that occurs earlier or later than average can affect the

search for identity. (Reprinted with permission of Nelson Prentiss.)



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Speech Disturbances

Delayed Speech: Speech that begins well

after the normal age for language

developmentStuttering: Chronic hesitation or stumbling in

speech. Seems to involve speech timing

mechanisms in brain; NOT parents fault

Four times more common in males

May be partially inherited



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Learning Disorders

Includes problems with reading, math or

writing. Exists when academic achievement

is significantly lower than expected for childsintellectual level and age

Dyslexia: Inability to read with understanding.

Classic example is reversing letters

Affects about 10-15% of all school-age children



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CNN Dyslexia Study

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Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity

Disorder (ADHD)Behavioral problem characterized by shortattention span, rapid speech, impulsivity, andrarely finishing work. Much more commonamong boys than girls

Treatment Methods: Drugs: Ritalin (methylphenidate): Stimulant; seems to

lengthen attention span and reduce impulsiveness

Behavior Modification: Application of learningprinciples to change or eliminate maladaptive orabnormal behavior

Reward child for being calm and paying attention



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CNN Hyperactive Brains

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Conduct Disorder

Affected children are aggressive and harmothers

Engage in vandalism, lying, or stealing

Persistently violate rules

Usually in trouble at school, at home, and inthe community

Generally have low self-esteemOutlook for successful treatment is poor;parents need to seek professional help forsuch children



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Autism

Severe disorder involving mutism (silence),

sensory spin-outs (watching a faucet drip for

hours), sensory blocking (not responding toan extremely loud noise), tantrums, and

unresponsiveness to others, among other

symptoms

Echolalia: When an autistic child parrots backeverything said, like an echo

Rain Man is a decent example on film



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Child Abuse

Physical or emotional harm caused by violence,

mistreatment, or neglect

3.5 to 14 percent of all children are physically abused

by parents

Abusive parents typically have high level of stress

and frustration in their lives

About 1/3 of all parents who were abused as children

mistreat their own children

One method to prevent child abuse is to change

attitudes; not a parents right to hit or slap their child



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Adolescence

Culturally defined period betweenchildhood and adulthood

Puberty: Hormonal changes promoterapid physical growth and sexualmaturity

Puberty tends to increase body awarenessand concerns about physical appearance

Growth Spurt: Accelerated growth rate



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Adolescence (cont.)

Social Markers: Visible or tangible signsthat indicate a persons social status or

role, e.g., drivers license or weddingring

Imaginary Audiences: Peopleadolescents imagine are watching them

Peer Group: People who share similarsocial status



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CNN Heroin Addiction

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Lawrence Kohlberg and Stages

of Moral DevelopmentMoral Development: When we acquire values, beliefs,

and thinking abilities that guide responsible behavior

Three Levels

Preconventional: Moral thinking guided by

consequences of actions (punishment, reward,

exchange of favors)

Conventional: Reasoning based on a desire to

please others or to follow accepted rules and values

Postconventional: Follows self-accepted moral

principles

Stage theorist, like Freud and EriksonTable of Contents Exit


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Developmental Challenges for

North American Adults (Gould)

Escape From Dominance (Ages 16-18)

Leaving the Family (Ages 18-22)Building a Workable Life (Ages 22-28)

Crisis of Questions (Ages 29-34)



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Developmental Challenges for North

American Adults (Gould)(cont.)

Crisis of Urgency (Ages 35-43)

Attaining Stability (Ages 43-50)

Mellowing (Ages 50 and up)



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Middle Age Issues: Mid-Life Crises?

Menopause: Menstruation ends and a woman is no

longer able to bear children. Estrogen levels also drop,

sometimes causing mood or appearance changes. Hot flashes: Sudden uncomfortable sensation of heat; symptom

of menopause in some women

Climacteric: When men experience a significant change in vigor

or appearance; may be psychological in origin

Andropause: Reduced testosterone levels; can lead to

decreased sex drive, fatigue, and obesity

Empty Nest Syndrome: A woman may become

depressed after her last child leaves home



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Fig. 4.8At what point during life are people most productive? On average, when do people make their

greatest contributions to fields such as science, literature, philosophy, music, and the visual arts? No matter

how achievement is tallied, productivity tends to rise rapidly to a single peak that is followed by a slow

decline. The graph you see here is typical of contributions to the field of psychology. Fields such as poetry,

pure math, and theoretical physics have earlier peaks, around the early 30s or even the late 20s. Other fields,

such as novel writing, history, philosophy, medicine, and scholarship are marked by peaks in the late 40s,

50s, or even 60s. (After Simonton, 1988.)



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Gerontology and the Study of

AgingGerontologists study aging and its effects

Intellectual Abilities:

Fluid Abilities: Abilities requiring speed or rapidlearning; based on perceptual and motor abilities;

may decrease with age

Crystallized Abilities: Learned (accumulated)

knowledge and skills; vocabulary and basicfacts



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Gerontology and the Study of

Aging (cont.)Disengagement Theory: Assumes that itis normal and desirable for people to

withdraw from society as they ageActivity Theory: People who remainactive physically, mentally, and sociallywill adjust better to aging

Ageism: Discrimination or prejudicebased on age



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Fig. 4.6 Longer life expectancy will produce an unprecedented increase in the percentage of the populationover age 65. The boom is expected to start at the turn of the century and peak by about 2030 to 2050

(Taebuer, 1993).



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Fig. 4.7 Physical aging,

which is biologically

programmed, progresses

steadily from earlyadulthood onward. Regular

exercise, good health

practices, and a positive

attitude can help minimize

the impact of physical

aging.



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Fig. 4.7Average performance at various ages for verbal, numeric, spatial, and reasoning abilities all fall

within the blue area of this graph. Notice that, in general, mental abilities show modest gains from youngadulthood to early middle age. After that, they begin a slow decline. Notice, too, that most abilities at age 70

return to about the same levels found at age 25. Only after age 80 do declines become large enough to

make a practical difference in mental abilities. One exception is perceptual speed (black line). This fluid

ability declines steadily after age 25. (Adapted from Schaie, 1994.)



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Four Psychological Characteristics of

Healthy, Happy Older People (Vailant, 2002)

Optimism, hope, and interest in the future

Gratitude and forgiveness; an ability to focus

on what is good in lifeEmpathy; an ability to share the feelings of

others and see the world through their eyes

Connection with others; an ability to reach

out, to give and receive social support



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Fig 4.4 Negative

emotions are more

common before age50 than after. The

frequency of positive

feelings tends to

increase from midlife

on into old age.



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CNNAlzheimers Babies

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Death and Dying; Elizabeth

Kubler-RossRoss is a thanatologist: One who

studies emotional and behavioral

reactions to death and dyingRoss described five basic reactions to

death that occur, not necessarily in the

following order or experienced byeveryone



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Five Basic Reactions to Death

(Kubler-Ross)Denial and Isolation: Denying deaths reality andisolating oneself from information confirming that deathwill occur. Its a mistake; the doctors are wrong.

Anger: Asking why me? Anger may then beprojected onto the living

Bargaining: Terminally ill will bargain with God or withthemselves. If I can live longer Ill be a better person.

Depression: Feelings of futility, exhaustion and deepsadness

Acceptance: If death is not sudden, many will acceptdeath calmly. Person is at peace finally with theconcept of death



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Bereavement and Grief

Bereavement: Period of adjustment thatfollows death of loved one

Grief: Intense sorrow and distress following

death of loved oneShock: Emotional numbness experiencedafter death of loved one

Pangs of Grief: Intense and anguished

yearning for one who has diedResolution: Acceptance of loss and need tobuild a new life



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CNN The Grieving Process

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Happiness

Subjective Well-Being: Feelings of well-beingoccur when people are satisfied with theirlives, have frequent positive emotions, and

have relatively few negative emotionsHappier people tend to be Married

Comfortable with their work

Extraverted

Religious

Generally optimistic and satisfied with their lives



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Attitudes Toward Death

Hospice: Medical facility or program that

provides supportive care for terminally

ill; goal is to improve persons final daysLiving Will: Written statement that a

person does not wish to have his/her life

artificially prolonged if terminally ill; aDo Not Resuscitate order to doctors



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Euthanasia

Passive: Death allowed to occur but not

actively caused

Active: Steps taken, at patients request, todeliberately speed death; usually by injecting

drugs that painlessly cause death

Physician-assisted dying: Doctor provides

lethal dose of drug that patients take to endlife



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CNN Assisted Suicide

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Cryonics

Cryonic Suspension: Freezing body (or

head) immediately after death

Idea: Keep person frozen until medicineperfects ways to thaw, restore, and revive

person
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