Step 1. Identify the Target Skill/Behavior Web viewThe ultimate goal of reinforcement is to help...

A u t i s m I n T h e C l a s s r o o m - R e i n f o r c e m e n t P a g e | 1

Autism In The Classroom

Reinforcement

Overview

Reinforcement describes a relationship between learner behavior and a consequence that follows

the behavior. This relationship is only considered reinforcement if the consequence increases the

probability that a given behavior will occur in the future, or at least be maintained. For example,

a learner may be having difficulty completing independent work in math class. However, when

the teacher offers fun activities to students who have completed their work, the student is much

more likely to finish his work independently. In this example, the teacher has increased the

likelihood that the learner with ASD will complete his independent work activities by offering

reinforcing activities after he is finished with them.

The ultimate goal of reinforcement is to help learners with ASD learn new skills and maintain

their use over time in a variety of settings with many different individuals. As such, teachers and

other practitioners must identify the appropriate reinforcers that motivate individual learners with

ASD. In this module, three reinforcement procedures will be discussed: (a) positive

reinforcement, (b) negative reinforcement, and (c) token economy programs. Steps for

implementing each of these procedures is provided as well as information on how reinforcement

can be used across the age range from preschool through adolescence.

Module Objectives

Participants will:

o Identify the three reinforcement procedures that can be used with learners with ASD;


o Describe the steps for implementing positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and

token economy programs;

o Describe how to fade the use of reinforcement programs while still helping learners

generalize and maintain the use of newly acquired skills; and

o Identify the challenges associated with implementing reinforcement programs with

learners with ASD.

What is Reinforcement?

Reinforcement is based upon the principles of applied behavior analysis, particularly the work of

B.F. Skinner. Through his work, Skinner (1956) outlined the major theoretical constructs of

reinforcement and argued that reinforcement should be individualized based upon learner

preference. The main reason is that what is reinforcing to one person may not be reinforcing to

another. Therefore, reinforcement is most effective when it is individualized for a particular

learner and when it is immediately presented in response to a learner's use of a target behavior.

When using reinforcement, it is essential that learners with ASD understand what behavior is

required to earn the reinforcer. Research on reinforcement has shown that it is a highly effective

practice that can be used to increase and strengthen a variety of behaviors and skills (cf., Cicero

& Pfadt, 2002; Grindle & Remington, 2005; Higbee, Carr, & Patel, 2002; Kay, Harchik, &

Luiselli, 2006; Kern, Carberry, & Haidara, 1997; Koegel, O'Dell, & Dunlap, 1988; Lee &

Sturmey, 2006; Pelios, MacDuff, & Axelrod, 2003; Sidener, Shabani, Carr, & Roland, 2006;

Todd & Reid, 2006).

When implementing reinforcement, the following three basic principles should be followed:


◦Reinforcement immediately follows the target behavior.

◦Reinforcement fits the target behavior and is meaningful to the learner with ASD.

◦Multiple reinforcers are more effective than a single reinforcer (Alberto & Troutman, 2008).

Three reinforcement procedures can be used to help learners with ASD acquire and maintain

target skills: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and token economy programs. A

description of each of these procedures is included in the following section.

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement refers to the presentation of a reinforcer after a learner uses a target

behavior. Positive reinforcers can be either primary (e.g., food, liquids, comfort) or secondary

(e.g., verbal praise, highly preferred activities, stickers, toys). Because primary reinforcers are

often naturally reinforcing to learners with ASD, the value of secondary reinforcers must be

learned by pairing primary reinforcers with other types of reinforcement (e.g., pairing "Good

job" with getting a sticker).

Positive reinforcement is generally the strategy that teachers/practitioners use first when trying to

teach new skills (e.g., teaching a replacement behavior for an interfering behavior) or to increase

appropriate behaviors (Alberto & Troutman, 2008). When using any type of reinforcement

procedure, it is important to keep in mind that reinforcers should be individualized to meet the

needs of each learner with ASD. For example, one learner may respond well to a pat on the back,

while another learner may need something more concrete such as being given the opportunity to

play with play dough after engaging in a nonpreferred activity.

Example of Positive Reinforcement


A teacher wants to teach Matthew, a learner with ASD, to greet peers when he arrives at school

in the morning. To teach this skill, the teacher gives Matthew a sticker and pats him on the back

each time he greets a peer when he enters the classroom.

Token Economy Programs


A token economy program is another type of positive reinforcement strategy that can be used

effectively with learners with ASD. Token economy programs are referred to as such because

they are based upon a monetary system in which tokens are used to acquire desired reinforcers,

also known as backup reinforcers. For example, learners with ASD receive tokens when they use

target behaviors appropriately. When they acquire a certain number of tokens, these can be

exchanged for objects or activities that are reinforcing to the learner (i.e., backup reinforcers).

Token economies are generally comprised of the following three components:

o The target behavior/skill is identified and defined.

o A medium of exchange is selected (i.e., a token or symbol that the learner receives after

using the target skill).

o Backup reinforcers (e.g., items, activities) may be "purchased" after acquiring a certain

number of tokens.

Token economy programs can be used in a variety of settings (e.g., classroom, community,

home) to help learners with ASD acquire target skills. Teachers/ practitioners may find them

particularly useful because tokens (a) can be administered immediately following the target

behavior, (b) do not interrupt the flow of an activity or lesson, (c) maintain a learner's behavior


over long periods of time, and (d) can be used with several learners at the same time (Alberto &

Troutman, 2008).

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is the removal of a stimulus (i.e., something that is aversive to the

learner) after a learner with ASD uses a target behavior or skill. That is, learners work to get rid

of something that is unpleasant to them. Negative reinforcement often is used to alter interfering

behaviors (e.g., repetitive, stereotypical, disruptive). When used effectively, negative

reinforcement increases a learner's use and/or maintenance of the target behavior (Alberto &

Troutman, 2008; Zirpoli, 2005). Negative reinforcement is often used to teach self-help skills

and replacement behaviors to take the place of interfering behaviors (e.g., repetitive,

stereotypical, disruptive); however, it also can be used to teach all skills. Negative reinforcement

is often used only after other reinforcement strategies, such as positive reinforcement and

differential reinforcement, have not been effective in increasing the target behavior.

Example of Negative Reinforcement

A teacher wants to increase the length of time that Molly, a learner with ASD, stays on task

during individual work time. Molly does not like staying seated for long periods of time.

Therefore, her teacher decides to use negative reinforcement to increase the length of time that

Molly stays on task (i.e., work independently without prompting from the teacher). If Molly

works independently without teacher prompts, she will be allowed to get out of her seat for 5

minutes.

Are Any Assessments Needed Prior to Using Reinforcement?


Before implementing a reinforcement program using positive reinforcement, negative

reinforcement, or token economy programs, teachers/practitioners should conduct a reinforcer

sampling to identify objects, items, or activities that are reinforcing or have been reinforcing in

the past for individual learners with ASD. A reinforcement program will not be successful unless

the learner with ASD is highly motivated by the reinforcers. This process will vary according to

the reinforcement procedure being used (see Step-by-Step Instructions for positive and negative

reinforcement). Reinforcers can be identified by:

o Conducting reinforcer assessments;

o Creating preference lists (e.g., reinforcer checklists, reinforcer menus);

o Interviewing the learner;

o Interviewing family members; or

o Interviewing other teachers/practitioners.

Through this process, teachers/practitioners identify a variety of reinforcers that can be used to

motivate learners with ASD to increase their use of target skills. Reinforcers are generally

categorized as either primary or secondary. Primary reinforcers satisfy a physical need by

making the individual feel good (e.g., food, liquids, sleep). Secondary reinforcers are objects or

activities that individuals have grown to like, but that do not meet basic biological needs.

Potential reinforcers include the following:

Social reinforcers are found in virtually any setting. Social reinforcers often must be taught to

learners with ASD because they may not be inherently reinforcing.


EXAMPLES: facial expressions (e.g., smiles), proximity (e.g., sitting next to teacher), words and

phrases (e.g., "Good job!" "Way to go!"), and seating arrangements (e.g., sitting alone, sitting

next to favorite peer)

Material/activity reinforcers can be motivating to learners with ASD; however,

teachers/practitioners should vary these kinds of reinforcers with others so that learners do not

grow tired of them.

EXAMPLES: play activities, access to computer games, stickers, "cool" school supplies (e.g.,

Spiderman erasers)

Tangible/edible reinforcers include objects that a learner with ASD can acquire.

EXAMPLES: toys, magazines, pencils, candy, popcorn

Sensory reinforcers are often motivating to learners with ASD. However, these types of

reinforcers should be used only when (a) the teacher can control access to them, (b) the

reinforcer is deemed acceptable and appropriate for the setting, and (3) no other reinforcer is as

motivating to the learner with ASD.

EXAMPLES: looking at a kaleidoscope, blowing bubbles, playing with a squishy ball, sitting in a

rocking chair, rubbing hand lotion

Natural reinforcers are ordinary results of a behavior and occur naturally in the environment.

EXAMPLES: receiving a good grade after studying, getting milk after asking for it, and having

more friends as a result of good social skills

Reinforcement Schedules


The goal of reinforcement is to increase skills while gradually fading reinforcement strategies to

promote maintenance and generalization through the use of reinforcement schedules (i.e.,

schedules of reinforcement). Schedules of reinforcement refer to the frequency or timing of the

delivery of reinforcement following a target behavior. For example, a reinforcer can be delivered

either on a continuous or on an intermittent schedule.

A continuous reinforcement schedule is used when learners with ASD are reinforced every time

they use the target behavior. This type of reinforcement schedule is most often used when first

teaching learners new skills. As learners become more proficient at using target skills,

teachers/practitioners fade reinforcement by systematically applying intermittent reinforcement

schedules, which can be either ratio or interval.

With ratio reinforcement schedules, teachers/practitioners deliver reinforcement after a learner

with ASD uses the target behavior a certain number of times. Interval reinforcement schedules,

on the other hand, are time related. That is, reinforcement is provided after a certain amount of

time.

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Both types of intermittent reinforcement schedules can be either fixed or variable. Fixed and

variable schedules often result in higher rates of performance than continuous schedules because

learners do not know when reinforcement will be provided so they continue to work for it. Most

teachers/practitioners naturally use fixed ratio or interval schedules. For example, most teachers

and other practitioners do not provide reinforcement each time a learner uses a target skill simply

because their attention is divided among several students at one time.

Reinforcement schedules are often used for different purposes. For instance, fixed schedules are

more effective at shaping behaviors; whereas, variable schedules are useful when

teachers/practitioners want to help a learner with ASD maintain a newly acquired skill. Different

Types of Reinforcement Schedules, available in the module documents section, or by clicking the

link, provides a description of the reinforcement schedules that can be used to fade reinforcement

with learners with ASD.

When selecting reinforcers, teachers/practitioners should focus on selecting reinforcers that are

inexpensive, do not take a lot of staff time to use, and, whenever possible, are natural (Alberto &

Troutman, 2008; Henry & Myles, 2007; Reichle & Johnson, 2007).

It is important to note that negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment. The

difference between the two is that negative reinforcement is used to increase the target

behavior, whereas punishment is used to decrease a behavior.


Why Use Reinforcement?

Correct use of reinforcement is one of the most important components of effective educational

services for learners with ASD (Aspy & Grossman, 2007; Henry & Myles, 2007). Positive and

negative reinforcement as well as token economy programs can be used to teach a variety of

skills, such as learning toilet training, expanding speech production, decreasing interfering

behaviors (e.g., drooling, disruptive), increasing on-task behavior, and increasing physical

activity. Although reinforcement is an essential component of instructional programs and

activities, the following factors may make implementing reinforcement with learners with ASD

challenging.

o Attention problems. A potential solution is to increase the rate of reinforcement when

initially teaching a new skill to learners with ASD to promote engagement and increase

their success during a teaching activity.

o Narrow and unusual interests and decreased interest in social praise. This can make the

identification of potential reinforcers particularly challenging. Sensory reinforcers (e.g.,

squishy balls, playing with beans, white noise machine) may be motivating for learners

who seek sensory input. The important consideration is that reinforcers must be

individualized and sufficiently motivate learners to take part in learning activities that

focus on the development of target skills (Aspy & Grossman, 2007).

Who Can Use Reinforcement and Where Can It Be Used?Reinforcement can be used by a variety of professionals, including general education

teachers, special educators, therapists, classroom assistants, parents, peers, and

siblings in a variety of educational and community-based environments.


With What Ages Is Reinforcement Most Effective?

Reinforcement can be used effectively with learners with ASD across the age range, regardless

of cognitive level and/or expressive communicative abilities. The evidence base identified by the

National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders shows that

reinforcement is an effective practice that can be used with learners with ASD ranging from 3 to

22 years of age.

What Other Factors Should Be Considered Before Using Reinforcement?

When implementing a reinforcement program, teachers/practitioners should consider four

additional factors: (a) principles of reinforcement, (b) satiation, (c) deprivation, and (d)

habituation.

Principles of Reinforcement

When implementing reinforcement, teachers/practitioners should keep in mind several

principles.

Reinforcement should be delivered according to a planned reinforcement schedule.

Initially, teachers/practitioners immediately provide learners with reinforcement after they use

the target skill. As learners become more proficient, teachers/practitioners gradually fade the use

of reinforcement.

Reinforcement should be delivered frequently.


This principle is particularly important when a learner with ASD is first learning a new skill. If

the target skill is not reinforced frequently, the learner may not use the skill enough for it to

become well established.

Reinforcement should be delivered enthusiastically.

When teachers/practitioners provide reinforcement with enthusiasm, learners with ASD begin to

realize that they have done something important.

Teachers/practitioners establish eye contact when providing reinforcement.

Teachers/practitioners should look learners in the eye when delivering a reinforcer even if the

learner is not looking at them. Making eye contact suggests to learners that they have done

something important and that they have a teacher's undivided attention. Eye contact itself may

become reinforcing over time if used consistently.

Teachers/practitioners describe the target skill when reinforcement is provided.

By describing the skill, teachers/practitioners identify the behavior that is being reinforced. This

is particularly important for learners with ASD because they may not know what behavior or

skill resulted in the reinforcement.

Teachers/practitioners pair any reinforcement with social reinforcement, whenever possible.

Because learners with ASD are generally not motivated by social reinforcers such as praise,

teachers/practitioners should provide social reinforcement in conjunction with other types of

reinforcement (e.g., tangible, activity). When this is done, learners with ASD learn that

interacting with other individuals is fun, and social reinforcement becomes more motivating to

learners with ASD.


A variety of reinforcers are used.

Over time, learners with ASD may grow tired of the same reinforcer. As a result, they may stop

using the target skill because they are no longer motivated to do so. Reinforcers should be

changed frequently so that reinforcement continues to be effective.

Reinforcers are age appropriate.

Teachers/practitioner should identify reinforcers that are appropriate for the age of the learner.

For example, it may not be appropriate to use stickers with a high school-aged learner with ASD

who receives services in an inclusive setting (Rhode, Jensen, & Reavis, 1992).

Satiation

The term satiation is generally used to identify a situation in which a selected reinforcer is no

longer motivating to a learner with ASD. Satiation generally occurs if the same reinforcer is used

over an extended period of time or if too much reinforcement is delivered. When satiation

occurs, learners become less motivated to use target skills and generally stop using them. It is

also important to note that a particular reinforcer may be reinforcing one day and not the next.

Having a menu of reinforcers helps prevent satiation by providing a variety of reinforcers from

which teachers/practitioners and learners with ASD can choose. Steps for preventing satiation

are included in the positive reinforcement Step-by-Step Instructions section of this module

(Alberto & Troutman, 2008; Reichle & Johnson, 2007).


Habituation

Habituation describes instances where the learner does not respond to or stops responding to a

reinforcer. For example, some learners with ASD do not respond at all to a particular reinforcer.

Other learners may use the target skill when presented with reinforcers, but then stop using the

skill after a certain period of time. Often, this occurs because the reinforcer is not strong enough

to motivate learners with ASD to use target skills, or the learner has grown tired of a particular

reinforcer.

One way to address habituation is to conduct a reinforcer sampling to identify preferred items

and activities for individual learners with ASD. Teachers/practitioners may also try using a

variety of reinforcers during teaching activities to determine which one is most motivating for

the learner with ASD. When habituation occurs, it is mostly likely because the learner is not

motivated by the reinforcer that is offered.

An additional consideration is that teachers/practitioners may need to teach learners with ASD

the "if-then" contingency. That is, learners need to be taught, "If I do this, I get this in return." If

a learner with ASD still does not use the target skill after this concept has been taught, then the

reinforcer most likely is not motivating enough.

Deprivation

Deprivation describes the process of systematically withdrawing the use of reinforcement.

Teachers/practitioners can assess whether or not learners with ASD use target skills with other

individuals and in a variety of settings even when reinforcement is not provided. Deprivation is

also an effective way to increase the potency of a reinforcer. That is, a learner may be more


motivated to acquire a reinforcer that is not frequently available. Finally, deprivation may be

used to address satiation.

Step-by-Step Instructions

In this module, separate sets of Step-By-Step Instructions are provided for each reinforcement

procedure: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and token economy programs.

Positive Reinforcement

This module outlines nine steps for developing positive reinforcement for the individual with

ASD. These include:

o Identifying the target behavior or skill that you want to change.

o Collecting baseline data which will show where the individual is NOW with the behavior

or skill.

o Establishing program goals or performance criteria to help define when the individual has

reached your expectation for the behavior or skill.

o Identifying specific reinforcers that will work with this specific individual.

o Creating a way for the individual to make choices, or select those reinforcers through at

reinforcement menu.

o Selecting a schedule of reinforcement; how often you will reinforce the individual.

o Implementing continuous reinforcement

o Planning for prevention of satiation on one reinforcer, and finally


o Monitoring the learner progress.

Step 1. Identify the Target Skill/BehaviorTeachers/practitioners identify a target skill/behavior for a learner with ASD that they would like

to increase.

Teachers/practitioners define the target skill/behavior in observable and measurable terms.

Example: Sarah will stay seated during English class for 30 minutes.

Describing the target skill/behavior in measurable and observable terms allows teachers and

other practitioners to collect accurate and reliable baseline data, deliver reinforcement when the

learner uses the target skill/behavior correctly, and ensures that all staff members understand

what the target skill/behavior looks like so that reinforcement can be delivered consistently

across classes and activities.

Step 2. Collect Baseline Data

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Once the target skill/behavior has been identified, teachers/practitioners collect baseline data to

determine how often the learner with ASD is using the target skill/behavior.

Teachers/practitioners measure a learner's use of the target skill/behavior before

implementing reinforcement by collecting one of the following:

Frequency data. Frequency data measure how often a learner engages in a particular behavior.

Two methods are used to collect frequency data: time sampling and event sampling. With time

sampling, data on a particular behavior are collected after a certain amount of time (e.g., every

five minutes). If a learner is engaging in the behavior at that time, then teachers/practitioners

record this on the data sheet. This sampling technique is best used to monitor high frequency

behaviors such as engagement and parallel play. Event sampling is used to record every instance

of the behavior and typically focuses on low frequency behaviors such as taking a toy from a

peer, putting on a coat, and saying, "Hello" to a peer when coming into the classroom. Both

sampling techniques are used to evaluate patterns of behavior over a period of days or weeks.

The tables provide examples of both frequency data collection methods.

Duration data. Duration data are used to record how long a learner engages in a particular

behavior. For example, a teacher might collect data on how long a learner with ASD stays in his

seat or how long a young child stays engaged in parallel play. The table provides an example

duration data collection sheet.

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Baseline data give teachers/practitioners a starting point from which they can evaluate whether

the target skill/behavior increases as a result of reinforcement.

Teachers/practitioners collect baseline data for a minimum of four days or until a trend

occurs before implementing reinforcement.

A trend is generally used to evaluate intervention effects. Teachers/practitioners can begin

implementing reinforcement when data indicate that the trend during baseline is stable; that is,

there is no clear pattern to the learner's behavior. This is important because teachers/

practitioners need to be able to determine whether the learner's use of the target skill is

improving as a result of reinforcement. If a learner's use of the target skill is increasing during

baseline without the use of reinforcement, then no intervention is needed. However, if there is no

clear pattern to the learner's behavior, teachers/practitioners will be able to make clear decisions

about the effectiveness of the intervention after it is implemented.

Step 3. Establish Program Goals and Performance Criteria

Teachers/practitioners now identify goals for the target skill/behavior and identify the criteria

that will be used to evaluate whether positive reinforcement is effective.

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Teachers/practitioners establish a program goal for each target skill/behavior that is age

and developmentally appropriate for the learner with ASD.

The following are two examples of program goals for learners with ASD.

Example: Mike will say "hello" to three peers each time he enters a classroom.

Example: Sarah will stay seated in English class every day for 30 minutes.

Performance criteria are also established for each target skill/behavior so that

teachers/practitioners can monitor learner progress and adjust reinforcement strategies as learners

gain mastery of target skills/behaviors. The initial criterion should be easily attained so that

learners can be successful without much effort and can acquire the identified reinforcer more

easily. This also helps the learner establish a clear connection between the target skill/behavior

and subsequent reinforcement. For example, a teacher might decide that an initial criterion for

"staying seated in English class" is 5 minutes for three consecutive days. The teacher would then

collect duration data to monitor progress. When the learner meets this criterion, the teacher

gradually increases the amount of time that the learner is required to stay seated in English class

until the program goal is accomplished. As the learner with ASD gradually masters the target

skill/behavior, the criteria are adjusted so that reinforcement is gradually faded.

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Teachers/practitioners establish at least three performance criteria for each program goal

to monitor progress.

The table at the right outlines a program goal and performance criterion developed for a learner

with ASD.

Trends typically are identified by viewing data points on a graph. The tables to the right are two

examples of graphed baseline data. The first provides an example of a stable trend; the other

example illustrates a clear trend in the learner's use of the target skill. When analyzing these data,

teachers/practitioners would only implement the intervention based on the first example.

Teachers/practitioners collect baseline data in numerous settings and/or activities.

Collecting data in a variety of settings and/or activities provides valuable information about a

learner's use of the target skill. For example, a learner may request more frequently during one

activity than another. Another learner may consistently raise his hand during one class but not

during another. Such data provide teachers/practitioners with information about where and when

reinforcement should be used to increase or strengthen use of a target skill. It is often useful to

have more than one practitioner collect baseline data over the course of several days to compare

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findings. Also, by collecting data across several days in multiple settings, teachers/practitioners

can potentially recognize patterns of behavior. For example, does the learner use the target

skill/behavior more often in one setting than in another? This kind of information helps identify

activities or settings in which reinforcement can be used to increase the target skill/behavior.

Step 4. Identify Positive Reinforcers

Teachers/practitioners identify positive reinforcers for learners with ASD. Positive reinforcers

are anything that increases the likelihood that the target skill/behavior will be used in the future.

This is important because learning will not take place unless reinforcers are motivating to the

learner with ASD and are delivered effectively. Teachers/practitioners should keep in mind that

many of the reinforcers used with typically developing students may not be motivating to

learners with ASD (e.g., social praise, high fives). It is essential that teachers/practitioners

identify reinforcers for each learner with ASD so that they are sufficiently motivating and lead to

an increase in the target skill/behavior.

Reinforcers are generally categorized as either primary or secondary. Primary reinforcers satisfy

a physical need by making the individual feel good (e.g., food, liquids, sleep). Secondary

reinforcers are objects or activities that individuals have grown to like, but do not need

biologically. Potential reinforcers include the following:

Social reinforcers are found in virtually any setting. Social reinforcers often must be taught to

learners with ASD because they are not inherently reinforcing.

EXAMPLES: Facial expressions (e.g., smiles), proximity (e.g., sitting next to teacher), words and

phrases (e.g., "Good job!" "Way to go!"), seating arrangements (e.g., sitting alone, sitting next to

favorite peer)


Material/activity reinforcers can be motivating to learners with ASD; however,

teachers/practitioners should vary these kinds of reinforcers with others so that learners do not

grow tired of them.

EXAMPLES: Play activities, access to computer games, stickers, "cool" school supplies (e.g.,

Spiderman erasers)

Tangible/edible reinforcers include objects that a learner with ASD can acquire.

EXAMPLES: Toys, magazines, pencils, candy, popcorn

Sensory reinforcers often are motivating to learners with ASD. However, these types of


reinforcer is deemed acceptable and appropriate for the setting, and (c) no other reinforcer is as

motivating to the learner with ASD.

EXAMPLES: Looking at a kaleidoscope, blowing bubbles, playing with a squishy ball, sitting in

a rocking chair, rubbing hand lotion on hands

Natural reinforcers are ordinary results of a behavior and occur naturally in the environment.

These types of reinforcers naturally occur as a direct result of using the target behavior.

EXAMPLES: Receiving a good grade after studying, getting milk after asking for it, having more

friends as a result of demonstrating good social skills, getting a break after asking for it.

All of these reinforcers can be powerful tools to help learners acquire and maintain the use of

target skills. With learners with ASD, in particular, motivation can be a central concern for

developing new skills. By using reinforcers such as these, teachers/practitioners increase the

likelihood that learners will use target skills more consistently. The key is to identify reinforcers


that are motivating for individual learners. If a learner with ASD is not motivated by a particular

reinforcer, he will be less likely to use the target skill now and in the future.

The following activities may be used to identify reinforcers for individual learners with ASD.

Teachers/practitioners take into consideration the age of the learner with ASD.

It is particularly important to take into account the learner's age when identifying potential

reinforcers. For example, it would probably not be appropriate for a sixth grader with ASD to

play with toy trains in an inclusive classroom. This kind of reinforcement might best be saved for

times when the learner receives services in a resource room with other learners with ASD or

similar disabilities.

Teachers/practitioners consider the target skill/behavior and natural reinforcers that could

be used to teach the skill.

This activity allows teacher/practitioners to identify potential reinforcers that naturally go with

the target skill/behavior. For example, a learner with ASD might be given free time after

engaging in a nonpreferred task. Typically developing students are often allotted free time after

completing an assignment in class; therefore, it seems logical that learners with ASD would be

given the opportunity to choose a preferred activity after completing a difficult or challenging

task. With a young child, a teacher might use the learner's favorite food at snack to reinforce

requesting. Food, in this instance, is a natural reinforcer because it is typically included in this

activity.

Natural reinforcers offer several advantages. First, they can be provided more easily than other

reinforcers such as edibles (other than at meal times) and material reinforcers. Second, natural

reinforcers are more likely to be available to the learner with ASD after the target skill/behavior


has been learned. For instance, teachers often use praise after learners complete an assignment or

activity correctly. Alternatively, typically developing peers may engage in more prolonged social

interactions with learners with ASD as they use newly acquired skills appropriately during social

activities. As learners acquire new skills, naturally occurring reinforcers (e.g., praise, prolonged

social interactions, receiving something after asking for it) motivate learners with ASD to use the

skills they have learned in a variety of situations and with many different individuals. Finally,

natural reinforcers automatically occur on a contingent basis. For example, a teacher will not

praise a learner for staying seated in class if he does not exhibit this behavior.

Teachers/practitioners observe the learner in natural settings and identify:

o activities, objects, and foods that the learner selects when allowed free choice.

o phrases and gestures that seem to produce a pleasant response (e.g., smiling, laughing,

clapping) from the learner with ASD.

Teachers/practitioners identify potential reinforcers by asking the learner what he would

like to work for (if appropriate).

Teachers/practitioners identify potential reinforcers by interviewing parents or other staff

to identify reinforcers that have worked in the past.

Step 6. Select a Schedule of Reinforcement

Teachers/practitioners establish a reinforcement program by selecting a schedule of

reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcement refer to the frequency or timing of the delivery of

reinforcement following a target skill/behavior. For example, a reinforcer may be delivered

either on a continuous or on an intermittent schedule. A continuous reinforcement schedule is

used when learners are reinforced each time they use the target skill/behavior. Continuous


reinforcement schedules are best used when a learner is first learning a target skill/behavior and

has not yet made a clear association between the target skill/behavior and the reinforcement.

Teachers/practitioners select continuous reinforcement when a learner with ASD is first

learning the target skill/behavior.

Once a learner with ASD makes the association between the target skill/behavior and the

reinforcement, an intermittent schedule of reinforcement may be employed. This is particularly

important because learners can easily grow tired of a particular reinforcer and have difficulty

generalizing and maintaining use of the target skill/behavior. With intermittent reinforcement,

learners are reinforced after some occurrences of the target skill/behavior, but not each and every

time they use it. The table at the right outlines two intermittent reinforcement schedules.

Teachers/practitioners select an intermittent reinforcement schedule when a learner with

ASD has met the initial performance criterion for the target skill/behavior (see Step 3).

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Teachers/practitioners identify potential reinforcers by conducting a reinforcer sampling.

Reinforcer sampling helps teachers/practitioners identify activities and materials that are

motivating to the learner and might be used to teach new skills. This type of procedure usually

takes about 5 minutes and involves the steps listed below.

o Sit in front of the learner; hold up two items and say to the learner, "Pick one."

o Wait 10 seconds for the learner to indicate her choice in whatever manner is appropriate

to the learner (e.g., reaching, pointing, verbalizing, using a switch or augmentative

communication device).

o Place the selected and nonselected objects in their appropriate containers (i.e., one to hold

the learner's selections, one to hold the materials not selected).

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o Continue the first three steps until half the objects presented are chosen (Mason & Egel,

1995).

Teachers/practitioners complete a reinforcer checklist to identify potential reinforcers for a

learner with ASD.

The table to the right provides an example reinforcer sampling menu that may be used to identify

reinforcers for individual learners with ASD.

Step 5. Create a Reinforcement Menu

Teachers/practitioners create a menu of possible reinforcers listed by name (if the learner

with ASD can read) or by picture (or real item) for an individual learner with ASD.

This allows teachers/practitioners to organize potential reinforcers in an orderly manner.

Potential reinforcers may be organized according to categories such as social reinforcers, activity

reinforcers, and sensory reinforcers.

The table to the right illustrates an example of a pictoral reinforcer menu that may be used with

learners with ASD. Below that, is an example of a written reinforcer menu. Either can be used

depending of the needs of the individual learner.

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Teachers/practitioners allow the learner with ASD to select a desired object, activity, or

food from the reinforcer menu before or after the activity/class begins.

Learners may also be given a "my choice" option on the reinforcer menu whereby they are able

to engage in desired activities after using the target skill/behavior. This is particularly useful in

instances in which learners select a reinforcer before the activity but change their minds after the

activity is complete. Including this option on the reinforcer menu may combat problems that

might arise in these situations.

Step 7. Implement Continuous Reinforcement

When first teaching a behavior, teachers/practitioners often use continuous reinforcement.

Teachers/practitioners immediately deliver reinforcement each time the learner with ASD

uses the target skill/behavior.

When teachers/practitioners provide reinforcement in this manner, learners with ASD begin to

associate their behavior with the reinforcement quickly and efficiently.

Teachers/practitioners describe the target skill/behavior after the learner has used it

correctly.

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EXAMPLE: A teacher might say, "You stayed in your seat for 5 minutes. Now you can play

computer games."

Teachers/practitioners deliver identified reinforcers only when the learner with ASD uses

the target skill/behavior.

The learner with ASD begins to associate the reinforcer with the target skill/behavior when it is

delivered contingently. That is, learners do not have access to the reinforcer until they display the

target behavior. If learners with ASD have access to the identified reinforcer at other times, it

becomes less motivating to them, and they are less likely to use the target skill/behavior.

Teachers/practitioners provide small amounts of the identified reinforcer after the learner

with ASD has used the target skill/behavior.

If the learner with ASD receives too much of the identified reinforcer, it becomes less

motivating. For example, if a learner gains access to a preferred activity after completing a more

challenging task, the teacher/practitioner should limit the amount of time the learner stays

engaged in the activity.

When using activity or material reinforcers (e.g., tangible, activity, sensory),

teachers/practitioners pair them with social reinforcement (e.g., praise, teacher attention).

Because many learners with ASD have not yet learned the value of social reinforcers,

teachers/practitioners must teach them to like these types of reinforcers by initially pairing a

social reinforcer with a secondary reinforcer. As learners with ASD become more motivated by

social reinforcers, teachers/practitioners fade the use of other secondary reinforcers (e.g., edible,

sensory).


When using primary reinforcers (e.g., food, drink), teachers/practitioners also deliver a

secondary reinforcer (e.g., praise, sticker, computer time)

EXAMPLE: A teacher might say, "Good job" when giving a learner with ASD play dough after

completing five math problems.

The combined use of primary and secondary reinforcers is called pairing. When pairing is used,

learners become less dependent upon primary reinforcers and learn the value of secondary

reinforcers. This is particularly important for learners with ASD. Once learners with ASD

become motivated by secondary reinforcers (e.g., praise, computer time), the use of primary

reinforcers should be withdrawn.

Step 8. Prevent Satiation

Teachers/practitioners focus on preventing satiation so that the identified reinforcers do not lose

their effectiveness. Reinforcers often become less effective when the same reinforcement is used

too frequently. It is also important to note that a particular reinforcer may be reinforcing one day

and not the next day. Having a menu of reinforcers helps prevent satiation by providing a variety

of reinforcers from which teachers/practitioners and learners with ASD can choose.

Teachers/practitioners vary reinforcers for a target skill/behavior or use different

reinforcers for each target skill/behavior.

Example: A teacher uses two identified reinforcers during a teaching activity: stickers and verbal

praise. The teacher alternates her use of the reinforcers so that the learner does not grow tired of

one or the other.


Example: A teacher uses only edible reinforcers during snack when a child with ASD requests

"more" and only activity reinforcers when trying to get the same child to increase time spent in a

non-preferred activity.

Teachers/practitioners teach the target skill/behavior during several short instructional

sessions.

Shorter instructional sessions decrease the chances of satiation. Several short instructional

sessions should be implemented throughout the day during ongoing classroom routines and

activities rather than one long instructional session.

Example: Requesting is the target of instruction during snack (using favorite foods), at circle

time (requesting favorite song), and during free play (placing preferred toys out of reach).

Teachers/practitioners avoid using edible reinforcers. If they must be used,

teachers/practitioners use them minimally and offer a variety.

Edible reinforcers should be used sparingly because they are primary reinforcers.

Teachers/practitioners should focus on using edible reinforces only if other reinforcers have not

been identified for a particular learner with ASD. Further, when they are used, they should be

used minimally (e.g., teachers/practitioners can use smaller portions so that learners "savor" their

five M&M's) and are paired with other types of reinforcement (e.g., praise, pats on the back).

Teachers/practitioners shift from using primary to secondary reinforcers as soon as

possible.

This is particularly important for learners with ASD, who often do not find secondary reinforcers

such as stickers and praise motivating. However, when teachers pair the use of secondary

reinforcers with primary reinforcers, learners with ASD are increasingly motivated by things


other than food and liquids. As learners with ASD become increasingly motivated by secondary

reinforcers, teachers/practitioners should gradually withdraw the use of primary reinforcers.

If satiation does occur, teachers/practitioners start using a different reinforcer.

Often, teachers/practitioners can identify if satiation is occurring because learners with ASD stop

using target skills they have previously mastered. For example, a learner with ASD may stop

raising his hand during class because he is no longer motivated by a reinforcer that he receives

frequently. The solution may be as simple as choosing another reinforcer from the reinforcer

menu. The important point is that the reinforcer must be motivating to the learner with ASD or

increases in the target skill/behavior will not occur.

Step 9. Monitor Learner Progress

Teachers/practitioners monitor learner progress so that reinforcement can be gradually reduced

to promote generalization and maintenance of skills. Progress monitoring data are also used to

adjust the reinforcement plan when the target skill/behavior is not increasing.

Teachers/practitioners use progress monitoring data to determine the learner's mastery of


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The data collection sheets that were used before the intervention began are also used to monitor

learner progress. By using the same data collection sheets, teachers/practitioners are able to track

a learner's use of the target skill/behavior before and after positive reinforcement is implemented.

The sample data collection sheets provide examples of how teachers/ practitioners can use these

data sheets before, during, and after intervention.

As learners with ASD meet performance criterion for a target skill/behavior, teachers/

practitioners move from a continuous reinforcement schedule to intermittent schedules of

reinforcement (i.e., ratio, interval schedules).

EXAMPLE: A learner with ASD has reached the criterion of "staying seated during English class

for 30 minutes every day." The teacher decides to provide reinforcement using a variable interval

schedule of 10. Therefore, the teacher now reinforces the learner's behavior, on average, every 10

minutes. Sometimes she reinforces the learner's use of the target skill/behavior after 7 minutes.

At another time, she may reinforce the learner staying seated after 13 minutes.

Fading of reinforcement schedules is beneficial in a number of ways. For example, when

teachers/practitioners move from continuous to intermittent schedules of reinforcement, learners

with ASD use the target skill/behavior more frequently and are able to maintain the use of the

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behavior over long periods of time. Furthermore, target skills/behaviors are increasingly

reinforced in ways (e.g., teacher praise, attention) that are more readily available in natural

environments such as the classroom and in the community.

Teachers/practitioners use progress monitoring data to adjust reinforcement strategies if

the target skill/behavior is not increasing.

If a target skill/behavior is not increasing, teachers/practitioners must try to identify potential

reasons. Seeking answers to the following questions may be helpful during this problem-solving

process.

o Is the target skill/behavior well defined? That is, is it observable and measurable?

o Are there too many reinforcers?

o Are there too few reinforcers?

o Are the reinforcers motivating to the learner with ASD?

o Are all staff using reinforcement in a consistent manner?

o Is reinforcement occurring at a sufficient level to maintain the behavior?


This module outlines seven steps for developing a token economy program for the individual with ASD. These include:

o Identifying the target behavior or skill that you want to change.o Collecting baseline data which will show where the individual is NOW with the behavior or

skill.o Identifying specific reinforcers that will work with this specific individual.o Creating a way for the individual to make choices, or select those reinforcers through at

reinforcement menu.


o Establishing a token economy program.o Implementing the token economy program, and finallyo Monitoring the learner progress on the target behavior or skill you wanted to change.

Step 1. Identify the Target Skill/Behavior Teachers/practitioners identify a target skill/behavior

for a learner with ASD that they would like to increase.


The following is an example of target skills/behaviors that may be addressed using token

economy programs.

EXAMPLE: Sarah will raise her hand during English class to request/answer a question four out

of five times for at least three days.

Describing the criterion in measurable and observable terms allows teachers and other

practitioners to collect accurate and reliable baseline data, distribute tokens when the learner uses

the target skill/behavior correctly, and ensure that all staff members know what the target

skill/behavior looks like so that tokens can be provided consistently across classes and activities.

Furthermore, a clearly described target skill/behavior helps learners understand exactly what

behavior is expected of them in certain settings and situations.


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implementing a token economy program by collecting one of the following:

Frequency data. Frequency data document how often a learner engages in a particular behavior.


sampling, data on a particular behavior are collected after a certain length of time (e.g., every 5

minutes). If a learner is engaging in the behavior at that time, teachers/practitioners record this

on the data sheet. This sampling technique is best used to monitor high-frequency behaviors such

as drooling and staying seated during class. The table at the right provides an example of time

sampling.

Event sampling is used to record every instance of the behavior and typically focuses on low-

frequency behaviors such as taking a bite of food, hitting, and using the toilet. Both sampling

techniques are used to evaluate patterns of learners' behavior over a period of days or weeks. The

table at the left provides an example of event sampling another method of frequency data

collection.

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seat or how long a young child stays engaged in parallel play. The table to the right provides an

example of a duration data collection sheet.

Baseline data give teachers/practitioners a starting point from which to evaluate whether the

target skill/behavior increases as a result of a token economy program.

Teachers/practitioners collect baseline data for a minimum of four days before

implementing a token economy program.


It often is useful to have more than one practitioner collect baseline data over the course of

several days to compare findings. Also, by collecting data across several days in multiple

settings, teachers/practitioners can potentially recognize patterns of behavior. For example, does

the learner use the target skill/behavior more often in one setting than another? This kind of

information helps identify activities or settings where a token economy program can be used to

increase the target skill/behavior.

Step 3. Identify Reinforcers

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Teachers/practitioners identify reinforcers for learners with ASD. Reinforcers are anything that

increases the likelihood that the target skill/behavior is used in the future. This is important

because learning will not take place unless reinforcers are motivating to the learner with ASD.

Teachers/practitioners should keep in mind that many of the reinforcers used with typically

developing students are not motivating to learners with ASD (e.g., social praise, high fives). It is

essential that teachers/practitioners identify reinforcers for each learner with ASD that are

sufficiently motivating and lead to an increase in the target skill/behavior.

Potential reinforcers that may be used with a token economy program include the following:

o Activity reinforcers: could includeplay activities, access to computer games, additional

free time, and outings.

o Tangible/edible reinforcers: include objects that a learner with ASD can acquire, such as

stickers, toys, magazines, pencils, candy, and popcorn.

o Sensory reinforcers are often motivating to learners with ASD. However, these types of


reinforcer is deemed acceptable and appropriate for the setting, and (c) no other

reinforcer is as motivating to the learner with ASD. Examples include looking at a

kaleidoscope, blowing bubbles, playing with a squishy ball, sitting in a rocking chair, or

rubbing hand lotion on hands.

The following activities may be used to identify reinforcers for individual learners with ASD.

Teachers/practitioners consider the age of the learner with ASD.

It is particularly important to take into account the learner's age when identifying potential

reinforcers. For example, it would probably not be appropriate for a sixth grader with ASD to


earn a Thomas train when he acquires enough tokens. This kind of reinforcer might best be saved

for times when the learner receives services in a resource room with other learners with ASD or

disabilities.

Teachers/practitioners observe the learner in natural settings and identify activities,

objects, and foods that the learner selects when allowed free choice.

Teachers/practitioners identify potential reinforcers by asking the learner what she would

like to work for (if appropriate).

Teachers/practitioners identify potential reinforcers by interviewing parents or other staff

to identify reinforcers that have worked in the past.

Teachers/practitioners identify potential reinforcers by conducting a reinforcer sampling.

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Reinforcer sampling helps teachers/practitioners identify activities and materials that are

motivating to the learner and that might be used to teach new skills. This type of procedure

usually takes about 5 minutes and involves the steps listed below.

o Sit in front of the learner and hold up two items and say to the learner, "Pick one."

o Wait 10 seconds for the learner to indicate his choice in whatever manner is appropriate

(e.g., reaching, pointing, verbalizing, using a switch or augmentative communication

device).

o Place the selected and nonselected objects in their respective containers (i.e., one to hold

the learner's selections, one to hold the materials not selected).

o Continue the first three steps until half the objects presented are chosen (Mason & Egel,

1995).

Teachers/practitioners complete a reinforcer checklist to identify potential reinforcers for a

learner with ASD.

A reinforcer checklist may be used with children and youth with ASD across the age range to

identify their least and most desirable reinforcers. Teachers/practitioners simply check "yes" or

"no" next to a variety of reinforcers. Results can then be used to create a reinforcer menu. The

table to the right provides an example reinforcer sampling menu that may be used to identify

reinforcers for individual learners with ASD.

Step 4. Create a Reinforcer Menu


Teachers/practitioners create a menu of possible reinforcers listed by name (if the learner

with ASD can read) or by picture for an individual learner with ASD.

This allows teachers/practitioners to organize potential reinforcers in an orderly manner.

Potential reinforcers may be organized according to categories such as social reinforcers, activity

reinforcers, and sensory reinforcers.

The graphic at the right illustrates two different reinforcer menus that could be used with learners

with ASD.

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Step 5. Establish a Token Economy Program

Teachers/practitioners identify the medium of exchange. That is, they determine what will serve

as tokens for the program.

Teachers/practitioners identify tokens that are:

o attractive,

o easy to carry, and

o easy to dispense.

Virtually anything that is visible and countable may be used as a token in this type of

reinforcement program. Examples include poker chips, stickers, tally marks, pennies, marbles in

a jar, pictures of the target skill/behavior on a Velcro board, and play money.

The identified token is age and developmentally appropriate for the learner with ASD.

It is particularly important to take into account the learner's age and developmental level when

identifying tokens. For example, it might be more appropriate to use a checklist or play money

with a higher functioning learner with ASD. On the other hand, a teacher might use a chart

where learners place pictures of the target skill/behavior on Velcro pieces each time he uses the

target skill/behavior with learners who do not yet understand the concept of money.

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Teachers/practitioners set up a system for exchanging tokens that includes:

o "a bank" to keep track of tokens earned and spent,

o a time and place for purchasing reinforcers from the reinforcer menu, and

o the monetary value of each item on the reinforcer menu.

It is often useful to create a "store" in an area of the classroom that contains the "bank," the

reinforcer menu, and the desired items. For example, a teacher could set up an area in the back

corner of the classroom where a poster-sized reinforcer menu is hanging on the wall and displays

the "business hours" (e.g., when tokens can be exchanged for an item on the reinforcer menu). A

teacher might decide that learners can exchange tokens daily, weekly, or as soon as the

designated number of tokens has been acquired. Again, this should be based upon a learner's age

and developmental level. It is often beneficial to provide learners with frequent opportunities to

purchase reinforcers at the beginning of the program to establish a clear understanding of how a

token economy program works and to maintain motivation.

A small table in the designated area may display the desired items and/or pictures of potential

outings that the learner with ASD wants to work for. The teacher might also include the "price"

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next to each item on the reinforcer menu. The token value of each reinforcer should be based

upon its monetary value or demand. For example, if the reinforcer is expensive (e.g., new

computer game) or highly attractive (e.g., trip to pizza shop), the token value should be higher.

When first setting up the program, it is important to balance the learner's demand for the item

with his/her ability to acquire the skill quickly and efficiently. For instance, it would be wise to

initially include a number of items on the reinforcer menu that can be easily acquired based upon

the learner's current skills. As learners gain mastery of the target skill/behavior, more expensive

and highly attractive items that might take some time to acquire can be added to the reinforcer

menu.

Step 6. Implement a Token Economy Program

Teachers/practitioners clearly describe to learners with ASD:

o the target skill/behavior,

o how the token economy program works, and

o how many tokens must be earned before they receive an item from the reinforcer menu.

Teachers/practitioners clearly describe the behavior to learners with ASD in simple terms so that

they know what is expected of them. Learners must also be told when and where the token

economy program will be in effect. For instance, will it be used only in English class and the

resource room? Or will it be used in all settings across the day (for learners who receive services

in inclusive programs)?


Teachers/practitioners display the rules for earning and exchanging tokens.

This posting should include a clear description of the target skill/behavior, rules for appropriate

behavior, and how tokens can be earned. The graphic to the right offers an example of a rules

poster.

It also might be necessary to engage in a role play with learners so that they more fully

understand what is expected of them by going over the rules and acting out the sequence of

engaging in the target skill/behavior, getting a token, and choosing an item from the reinforcer

menu.

When first starting the token economy program, teachers/practitioners immediately

provide a token to the learner with ASD each time the target skill/behavior is displayed.

Initially, teachers/practitioners use a continuous schedule of reinforcement in which each

instance of the target skill/behavior is immediately rewarded with a token. This helps the learner

with ASD establish a relationship between using the target skill/behavior and receiving a token.

Teachers/practitioners describe the target skill/behavior after the learner uses it correctly.

EXAMPLE: A teacher might say, "You stayed in your seat for 5 minutes. Now you can get a

token."

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Teachers/practitioners pair giving the token to the learner with ASD with social

reinforcement (e.g., praise, teacher attention).

Because many learners with ASD have not yet learned the value of social reinforcers,

teachers/practitioners must teach them to like these types of reinforcers by initially pairing a

social reinforcer with the token. As learners with ASD become more motivated by social

reinforcers, teachers/practitioners fade the use of the tokens.

Teachers/practitioners allow the learner with ASD to select a desired object, activity, or

food from the reinforcer menu when the designated number of tokens has been acquired.

Learners may also be given a "my choice" option on the reinforcer menu whereby they are able

to engage in desired activities after using the target skill/behavior. This is particularly useful in

instances in which learners often select a reinforcer before the activity but change their minds

after the activity is complete. Including this option on the reinforcer menu may combat potential

problems that might arise in these situations.

Teachers/practitioners make adjustments to a learner's reinforcer menu to maintain

motivation.

To maintain a learner's interest and motivation, teachers/practitioners periodically adjust prices

and rotate items on the reinforcer menu to reflect a learner's acquisition of the target skill/

behavior as well as demand for a particular item. For example, a learner might become less

motivated by a lower-priced item because he is able to gain access to it easily as he becomes

more proficient at using the target skill/behavior. Therefore, a teacher might include some

additional lower priced items or increase the price of all of the items so that the learner stays

motivated to acquire some of the higher priced items.


Teachers/practitioners reward the target skill/behavior consistently across settings.

The success of the token economy program is dependent upon a number of factors, including

teacher/practitioner implementation. It is essential that all teachers/practitioners who have

frequent contact with the learner with ASD be familiar with the token economy program and

how to implement it in a variety of settings. This will ensure that learners are being reinforced

appropriately and thus acquiring the target skill/behavior.

Teachers/practitioners fade the use of tokens as the learner starts using the target

skill/behavior independently.

As learners with ASD begin to use the target skill/behavior more frequently,

teachers/practitioners gradually decrease the availability of the tokens. This is done by not

reinforcing every instance of the target skill/behavior. For example, a teacher might provide the

learner with ASD with a token every third time he uses the target skill/behavior. The target

skill/behavior is reinforced on other occasions by providing social reinforcement (e.g., verbal

praise, pat on the back, high five).


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Changes in behavior are recorded daily on the data collection sheets that were used during the

baseline data collection phase. Progress monitoring data are used to measure a learner's

acquisition of the target skill/behavior as well as the effectiveness of the token economy

program.



Teachers/practitioners use progress monitoring data to adjust the program when problems

arise or if the target skill/behavior is not increasing.



a learner's use of the target skill/behavior before and after a token economy program is

implemented. The data collection sheets in the tables to the right provide examples of how

teachers/practitioners can use these data sheets before, during, and after intervention.

Negative Reinforcement

This module outlines seven steps for developing negative reinforcement for the individual with

ASD. These include:

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o Identifying the target behavior or skill that you want to change.

o Collecting baseline data which will show where the individual is NOW with the behavior

or skill.

o Establishing program goals or performance criteria to help define when the individual has

reached your expectation for the behavior or skill.

o Identifying specific reinforcers that will work with this specific individual.

o Selecting how you will deliver instructions to the individual.

o Implementing negative reinforcement, and finally

o Monitoring the learner progress.

Step 1. Identify the Target Skill/Behavior Teachers/practitioners identify a target skill/behavior

for a learner with ASD that they would like to increase.


The following is an example of target skills/behaviors that may be addressed using negative

reinforcement.

EXAMPLE: Taylor will take five bites of food at meals before leaving the table.

Describing the target skill/behavior in measurable and observable terms allows teachers and

other practitioners to collect accurate and reliable baseline data, remove reinforcement when the

learner uses the target skill/behavior correctly, and ensure that all staff members understand what

the target skill/behavior looks like so that reinforcement can be removed consistently across

classes and activities.


The table at the top displays a list of potential problems and solutions when using token economy

programs.





implementing negative reinforcement by collecting one of the following:

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Frequency data. Frequency data measure how often a learner engages in a particular behavior.


sampling, data on a particular behavior are collected after a certain length of time (e.g., every 5

minutes). If a learner is engaging in the behavior at that time, teachers/practitioners record this

on the data sheet. This sampling technique is best used to monitor high-frequency behaviors such

as drooling and staying seated during class.

Event sampling is used to record every instance of the behavior and typically focuses on low-

frequency behaviors such as taking a bite of food, hitting, and using the toilet. Both sampling

techniques are used to evaluate patterns of learners' behavior over a period of days or weeks.

Tables 22 and 23 provide examples of both frequency data collection methods.



seat or how long a young child stays engaged in parallel play. Table 24 provides an example of a

duration data collection sheet.

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Baseline data give teachers/practitioners a starting point from which they can evaluate whether

the target skill/behavior increases as a result of negative reinforcement.

Teachers/practitioners collect baseline data for a minimum of four days before

implementing negative reinforcement.


It often is useful to have more than one practitioner collect baseline data over the course of

several days to compare findings. Also, by collecting data across several days in multiple

settings, teachers/practitioners can potentially recognize patterns of behavior. For example, does

the learner use the target skill/behavior more often in one setting than another? This kind of

information helps teachers/practitioners identify activities or settings where reinforcement may

be used to increase the target skill/behavior.

Step 3. Establish Program Goals and Performance Criteria

Teachers/practitioners identify goals for the target skill/behavior and determine what criteria will

be used to evaluate whether negative reinforcement is effective.

Teachers/practitioners establish a program goal for each target skill/behavior that is age

and developmentally appropriate for the learner with ASD.

The following are examples of program goals for learners with ASD.

EXAMPLE: Taylor will take five bites of food before leaving the table at meal times.

EXAMPLE: Mike will trace his name five times each day without adult assistance.


Performance criteria also are established for each target skill/behavior so that teachers/

practitioners can monitor learner progress and adjust/fade negative reinforcement as learners

acquire target skills/behaviors. The initial criterion should be easily attained so that the learner is

successful without much effort and acquires the identified reinforcer more easily. This also helps

the learner establish a clear connection between the target skill/behavior and subsequent

reinforcement. For example, a teacher might decide that an initial criterion for "taking five bites

of food" is one bite of food for three consecutive days. The teacher would then collect frequency

data to monitor learner progress. When the learner with ASD meets this criterion, the teacher

gradually increases the number of bites the learner must take until the program goal is acquired.

Teachers/practitioners establish at least three performance criteria for each program goal

to monitor learner progress.

The table to the right outlines a program goal and performance criteria developed for a learner

with ASD.

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Step 4. Identify Negative Reinforcers

Teachers/practitioners identify activities, events, or items that are mildly aversive and can be

used as negative reinforcers for learners with ASD. It is important to note that mildly aversive

stimuli often occur naturally in the environment and do not cause harm to learners with ASD.

For example, a learner with ASD may be bothered by bright lights in a classroom or a

nonpreferred activity. When using negative reinforcement, identification of mildly aversive

stimuli for individual learners is imperative because learning will not take place unless they are

motivated to use the target skill/behavior to get rid of the aversive stimulus that is serving as the

negative reinforcer.

When beginning a negative reinforcement program, teachers/practitioners conduct a negative

reinforcement assessment of preferred and nonpreferred activities and items. Through this

process, teachers/practitioners identify negative reinforcers that can be used during teaching

activities.

Teachers/practitioners conduct a negative reinforcement assessment that identifies

preferred/nonpreferred:

o Activities, events, and items.

To identify preferred and nonpreferred activities and items, teachers/practitioners identify the

types of activities that produce positive and negative reactions in the learner with ASD.

To identify preferred/nonpreferred activities, teachers/practitioners:


o Select a variety of daily activities that are demanding for the learner (e.g., washing hands,

turning on water faucet, buttoning shirt, writing name, staying seated) and say to the

learner, "(Learner's name), time to (activity)."

o Wait 15 seconds for the learner to initiate engagement in the activity.

o Repeat the instructions if the learner does not begin the activity, waiting an additional 15

seconds until the learner initiates the activity, makes evasive movements/negative

vocalizations (e.g., turning away, physically resisting, crying, screaming, dropping to the

floor, yelling), or engages in interfering behaviors (e.g., self-injury, aggression,

disruption, trying to leave).

o Allow the learner to leave the activity if she makes evasive movements/negative

vocalizations or engages in interfering behaviors.

To identify preferred/nonpreferred items, teachers/practitioners:

o Select a variety of classroom items and objects (e.g., computer, comic books, squishy

ball, pencils) and say to the learner, "Here, (learner's name)" while handing the object to

the learner.

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o Wait 15 seconds for the learner to take the item.

o Repeat the instructions if the learner does not take the item, waiting an additional 15

second until the learner takes the item, makes evasive movements/negative vocalizations

(e.g., turning away, physically resisting, crying, screaming, dropping to the floor,

yelling), or engages in interfering behaviors (e.g., self-injury, aggression, disruption,

trying to leave).

o Take the item away if she makes evasive movements/negative vocalizations or engages in

interfering behaviors.

o Observe if the behavior decreases when the aversive event is removed.

The table to the right provides an example data collection sheet that can be used when

conducting a negative reinforcement assessment.

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With preferred activities/items, the learner initiates engagement with them without making

evasive movements/negative vocalizations or engaging in interfering behaviors. On the other

hand, if the learner engages in an interfering behavior or makes evasive movements/negative

vocalizations with a particular activity/item, it is identified as nonpreferred. Nonpreferred

activities/items can then be used as potential negative reinforcers during teaching activities that

focus on the learner's use of the target skill/behavior or skill (Reichle, Drager, & Davis, 2002;

Zarcone, Crosland, Fisher, Worsdell, & Herman, 1999). The table to the left provides a list of

potential items and activities that may be used during a negative reinforcement assessment.

Step 5. Select Instructions

When using negative reinforcement, teachers/practitioners select appropriate instructions that

signal the learner with ASD to use the target skill/behavior.

Teachers/practitioners select one of the following types of instruction to begin the teaching

activity:

Pictorial. Presenting the learner with a picture depicting the target skill (e.g., person sitting in his

seat raising his hand);

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When using pictorial instructions, teachers/practitioners also verbally state the instructions for

the learner with ASD. For example, the teacher would say, "Stay in seat. Raise hand." while

presenting the learner with the picture card.

Written. Providing the learner with written instructions telling him to use the target

skill/behavior; or

Verbal. Verbally telling the learner what is expected of her (e.g., staying seated until work is

completed, taking a bite of food before leaving the table).

Example of verbal instruction: "You have to stay at the table until you take a bite."

Instructions should be clear, complete, specific, and aimed at learners' skill and interest levels.

When providing instructions, teachers/practitioners should also ensure that the information

conveys the following information: "If you want X, then you have to Y." In the written

instruction above, for example, it essentially tells the learner with ASD than if he wants to leave

his seat, he needs to finish his work. When learners understand that there will be a reinforcer for

completing something unpleasant, they are more likely to finish the task.

Step 6. Implement Negative Reinforcement

Teachers/practitioners implement negative reinforcement by providing the identified instructions

to the learner with ASD while simultaneously delivering the negative reinforcer. Teachers/

practitioners do not remove the negative reinforcer until the learner with ASD uses the target

skill or behavior.

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Teachers/practitioners use one of the following types of instructions to cue the learner to

use the target skill/behavior:

o pictorial,

o written, or

o verbal.

EXAMPLE: Teacher says to a learner with ASD, "You must stay in your seat until you finish

five math problems" when the learner sits down in his chair at the beginning of individual work

time.

EXAMPLE: Teacher presents a picture showing a child taking a bite of food to the learner with

ASD while saying, "Stay at table. Take a bite."

EXAMPLE: Teacher hands a broom to the learner with ASD while saying, "No yelling. Ask for

break."

Teachers/practitioners simultaneously deliver the identified negative reinforcer with the

instructions.

EXAMPLE: When a learner sits down in his seat for individualized instruction, the practitioner

says, "You must stay in your seat until you finish five math problems."

In this instance, finishing five math problems is the target skill/behavior and the negative

reinforcer is being allowed to leave after completing his work.

EXAMPLE: A young child with ASD sits down at the table for snack time. The teacher says,

"Stay at table. Take a bite" while pointing to the food on the learner's plate.


In this example, the target skill/behavior is to stay at the table and take a bite of the food. The

negative reinforcer is being allowed to leave after eating snack.

EXAMPLE: A teacher hands the learner with ASD a broom and says, "Sweep floor without

yelling. Ask for break."

In this example, the target skill/behavior is to ask for a break. Getting a break after asking for it

is the negative reinforcer.

If the learner uses the target skill/behavior, teachers/practitioners immediately remove the

negative reinforcer.

EXAMPLE: The learner with ASD raises her hand instead of talking out in class (target

skill/behavior). At the end of the 5 minutes, the teacher removes the negative reinforcer (i.e.,

staying seated) and tells the learner she can take a break.

EXAMPLE: A young child with ASD takes a bite of food on his plate (target skill/behavior). As

soon as the learner takes a bite, the teacher removes the negative reinforcer (i.e., sitting at the

table) and says, "All done."

EXAMPLE: The learner with ASD asks for a break (target skill/behavior) while sweeping the

floor (negative reinforcer). The teacher immediately allows her to take a break.

If the learner with ASD does not use the target skill/behavior or engages in the interfering

behavior, teachers/practitioners ignore the interfering behavior, repeat the instructions,

and do not remove the identified negative reinforcer.


EXAMPLE: A young child with ASD tries to leave the snack table without taking a bite of food.

The teacher redirects the child back to his seat and repeats the instructions, "Stay at table. Take a

bite."

EXAMPLE: The learner with ASD tries to leave his seat before he has completed five math

problems. The practitioner directs him back to his seat and says, "You must stay in your seat

until you finish five math problems."

If the learner with ASD uses the target skill/behavior/behavior, teachers/practitioners

immediately remove the negative reinforcer. If the learner does not use the target

skill/behavior/behavior or begins engaging in an interfering behavior, teachers/ practitioners

repeat the instructions and do not remove the identified negative reinforcer until the learner uses

the target skill/behavior/behavior.

Extinction, another evidence-based strategy, is often used in conjunction with negative

reinforcement when learners engage in interfering behaviors during nonpreferred activities. With

extinction, teachers/practitioners ignore the interfering behavior while still placing demands on

the learner to use the target skill/behavior. For example, a learner with ASD might start

screaming while sweeping the floor instead of asking for a break. The teacher would repeat the

instructions, "Sweep floor without yelling. Ask for break" while still requiring the learner with

ASD to sweep the floor. The negative reinforce (i.e., sweeping the floor) is not removed until the

learner uses the target skill/behavior (i.e., asking for a break).

Please access the lesson on extinction to learn more about this practice and how to use it in

classrooms and other settings.



Teachers/practitioners monitor learner progress so that negative reinforcement can be faded to

promote generalization and maintenance of skills.



The data collection sheets that were used to collect baseline data can also be used to track learner

progress.

As learners with ASD meet performance criteria for a target skill/behavior, teachers/

practitioners fade the use of negative reinforcement.

This is often accomplished by increasing the performance criteria for a target skill/behavior (see

Step 3). For example, the teacher may gradually increase the length of time that the learner

sweeps the floor before a break is granted. Alternatively, a teacher could increase the number of

bites of food the learner with ASD must take or the number of math problems that the learner

with ASD must complete before being allowed to leave the table.

Teachers/practitioners use progress monitoring data to adjust reinforcement strategies if

the target skill/behavior does not increase.

If a target skill/behavior is not increasing, teachers/practitioners must try to identify potential

reasons. Seeking the answers to the following questions may be helpful during this problem-

solving process.

o Is the target skill/behavior well defined? That is, is it observable and measurable?

o Are there too many reinforcers?


o Are there too few reinforcers?

o Are the reinforcers aversive enough so that the learner with ASD wants to get rid of

them?

o Are all staff using reinforcement in a consistent manner?



a learner's use of the target skill/behavior before and after negative reinforcement is

implemented. The graphic to the right provide examples of how teachers/practitioners can use

these data sheets before, during, and after intervention.

Next Steps

Reinforcement is often used to teach target skills by gradually shaping learner behavior,

particularly when a learner infrequently or never displays a target skill. With shaping (also

known as successive approximations), teachers/practitioners reinforce progressively closer

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approximations of the target skill rather than the lesser approximations. Approximations refer to

any behavior that resembles the target skill and should be reinforced. Prompts are often used and

then systematically faded when shaping new behaviors or skills. Please refer to the lesson on

prompting for more information about prompting.

When using reinforcement to shape behaviors, teachers/practitioners should follow a series of

steps to ensure that the closer approximations of the skill are reinforced appropriately. The first

steps are similar to those outlined in the Step-by-Step Instructions for positive reinforcement.

They include (a) selecting the target behavior, (b) collecting baseline data, and (c) selecting

reinforcers.

Once these steps have been completed, teachers/practitioners identify successive approximations

of the target skill, or the steps toward the target behavior. For example, a target skill for a learner

with ASD may be to use two-word phrases to request. The learner's teacher decides to teach him

to say, "More, please." at snack to request more food. The example to the right illustrates the

successive approximations that might be reinforced using shaping.

Next, teachers/practitioners implement shaping by reinforcing successive approximations of the

target skill each time it occurs. Initially, teachers/practitioners use a continuous schedule of

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reinforcement by providing an identified reinforcer each time the learner uses an approximation

successively. After the learner uses an approximation successfully three times,

teachers/practitioners implement intermittent schedules of reinforcement (e.g., interval, ratio) to

help learners maintain the use of newly acquired skills. The following example illustrates how

reinforcement can be used to shape learner behavior.

Case Study: Tommy

Tommy is a 4-year-old with ASD, who receives services in an inclusive preschool classroom.

Currently, Tommy grunts to get his needs met and has no verbal language. A goal for Tommy is

to use two-word phrases. His parents have expressed that they would like him to be able to

verbally request rather than grunt to get his needs met. Tommy's teacher, Ms. Miller, has decided

to use reinforcement to shape this behavior. Tommy is particularly motivated by food, so Ms.

Miller is going to teach Tommy how to use two-word phrases at meals. She plans to give him

small portions of food so that he must request to get more.

At snack the next day, Ms. Miller gives Tommy a small portion of goldfish crackers and fills his

cup about full with juice. As he finishes his crackers, Tommy reaches for the box in front of Ms.

Miller, who holds the box up and says, "What do you want, Tommy?" Tommy grunts. Ms.

Miller then says, "More, please." Tommy vocalizes, "Uh." Since Ms. Miller identified any

vocalization as the first approximation, she immediately provides him with more goldfish. Ms.

Miller completes this process two more times and immediately provides Tommy with more food

each time he vocalizes.

After Tommy successfully vocalizes three times, Ms. Miller no longer provides him with

reinforcement when he vocalizes. Instead, she teaches a closer approximation by saying, "More,


please. Say, More'." Initially, Tommy gets upset because Ms. Miller does not provide him with

more goldfish after he vocalizes. Ms. Miller continues to model the target skill until Tommy

says, "Muh." As soon as Tommy uses the next approximation, Ms. Miller immediately provides

more goldfish. This process is repeated for each approximation until the target behavior is

acquired.

Case Study Examples

This module provides three extensive case examples each focusing on one aspect of

reinforcement. The first case example describes how positive reinforcement is used with 4-year-

old Marley. The second highlights 9-year-old Zack and the use of negative reinforcement.

Finally, the third shows how a token economy program was used with 15-year-old Max.

Positive Reinforcement - Marley

Case Study: Marley

Marley is a 4-year-old girl with ASD, who receives services within an inclusive preschool

program. Although Marley has good verbal communication skills, she does not interact much

with her peers. Marley's teacher, Ms. Martin, often observes Marley lining up animals in the

block area or wandering the room during free play. Ms. Martin and Marley's parents would like

Marley to talk and play more with peers at school. Ms. Martin decides to use positive

reinforcement to increase Marley's peer interactions because she has responded well to

reinforcement in the past.


Before implementing the intervention, Ms. Martin and Marley's parents identify the following

target behavior: Marley will exchange materials with peers three times during free play without

prompting from classroom staff for three consecutive days.

Once the target behavior has been identified, Ms. Martin begins collecting baseline data. Over

the course of four days, Ms. Martin collects event sampling data during free play to determine

Marley's current use of the target skill. The data reveal that Marley only exchanged materials

with peers one time and was prompted by the teaching assistant to do so.

Next, Ms. Martin establishes the following performance criteria, which will be used to monitor

Marley's progress.

After determining the performance criteria, Ms. Martin identifies positive reinforcers that will be

used to motivate Marley to exchange materials with peers during free play. To accomplish this

step, Ms. Martin completes a series of activities.

First, she thinks about items or activities that motivate other children in the class. For example,

most of the children are excited to receive stickers, praise from adults, extra time on the

computer, and pats on the back. She also knows that many of the children get excited when they

are able to use toys and other materials that are not accessible all of the time, such as bubbles and

flashlights. She wonders if some of these items might be motivating to Marley as well.

Second, Ms. Martin considers possible natural reinforcers for exchanging materials with peers

during free play. She knows how important these types of reinforcers are because they make

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generalization of skills easier. She decides that Marley might be motivated by the following

natural reinforcers: longer, more positive interactions with peers and receiving a desired item in

return.

Third, Ms. Martin observes Marley during free play to identify preferred toys and areas of the

classroom. She also wants to see if Marley responds positively to any phrases or gestures used by

peers or adults in the classroom. Through her observations, Ms. Martin determines that Marley

plays with small, plastic animals in the block area most often. Marley also spends a large amount

of time watching as peers build towers and knock them down. Marley often laughs and claps her

hands as the blocks fall to the floor.

Next, Ms. Martin talks with Marley's parents about the kinds of reinforcers that have worked in

the past. They tell Ms. Martin that Marley has not responded well to verbal praise and other

social reinforcers such as pats on the back and thumbs-up. Instead, Marley tends to be motivated

by food items such as candy and popcorn.

After talking with Marley's parents, Ms. Martin decides to conduct a reinforcer sampling to

identify activities and materials that might motivate Marley to use the target skill. During free

play, Ms. Martin gathers a variety of objects and food items that she has identified as possible

reinforcers for Marley, such as M&M's, popcorn, plastic animals, blocks, stickers, bubbles, and a

flashlight. Ms. Miller takes them to a quiet area of the classroom where a table is set up and

places them on the floor next to her chair. Ms. Martin then calls Marley over to the table and

asks her to sit down in the chair across from her. As soon as Marley is seated, Ms. Martin holds

up two items and says, "Pick one." Ms. Martin completes the reinforcer sampling in this manner

until all of the items have been used. Through this process, Ms. Martin determines that Marley

prefers the food items, bubbles, and the plastic animals. She uses this information to create a


reinforcer menu; however, she decides that it will be used only to communicate with other

classroom staff about potential reinforcers for Marley. Ms. Martin plans to embed the reinforcers

within the teaching activity so that they are more natural, making it easier to generalize use of the

target skill across settings and activities.

Before implementing reinforcement, Ms. Martin plans her teaching activity and how the

reinforcement will be delivered. To teach the target skill, Ms. Miller will engage typically

developing peers in a block-building activity and then bring Marley to the area. As the children

are completing their block tower, Ms. Martin will prompt Marley to give the final block to one of

the children. Since Marley seemed to enjoy the falling tower, Ms. Martin hopes that this will be

reinforcing for her. As Marley begins to use the target skill independently, Ms. Martin will

prompt her less often so that she does not become dependent on Ms. Martin's prompts to

exchange materials with peers.

Ms. Martin also plans to work on exchanging materials during snack time using popcorn as the

reinforcer. During this activity, Ms. Martin will prompt Marley to say, "Popcorn, please." to the

peer seated next to her. When she does so, Marley will be able to take the bowl of popcorn from

the peer and put some popcorn on her plate. Ms. Martin will then prompt Marley to pass the

popcorn to the peer seated on the other side of her. At the beginning of the intervention, Ms.

Martin plans to reinforce Marley each time she passes the bowl to the peer sitting next to her by

saying, "Good job, Marley." while also patting Marley on the back. As Marley begins to

exchange snack materials with peers independently, Ms. Martin will provide reinforcement less

often. For example, she will praise Marley every 3 to 5 times she exchanges materials at snack

time. Ms. Martin also plans to vary the reinforcer during snack time so that Marley does not

grow tired of popcorn. Ms. Martin knows that Marley also likes goldfish and cheese crackers.


Therefore, she will alternate the food provided during snack so that Marley continues to be

motivated to use the target skill.

Finally, Ms. Martin is going to focus on the target skill during circle time. Each day at the

beginning of circle time, Ms. Martin plans to pass a bubble jar from peer to peer. Each peer will

have a chance to blow bubbles. When the bubbles get to Marley, Ms. Martin will prompt her to

say, "Bubbles, please." to the peer sitting next to her. When she does this, Marley will receive the

bubbles as the reinforcer. Ms. Martin will also prompt Marley to pass the bubbles to the peer

sitting on the other side of her and provide reinforcement when she does so (e.g., "Good job,

Marley."). As Marley begins to pass the bubbles independently, Ms. Martin will reinforce

Marley's use of the skill more sporadically. For example, she will reinforce the behavior every 3

to 5 times rather than every time. Because many of these reinforcers are related to the activities

in the classroom, Ms. Martin feels that they will be naturally motivating to Marley and will

encourage her to interact more independently with peers.

Negative Reinforcement - Zack

Case Study: Zack

Zack is a 9-year-old with ASD, who receives services in a self-contained classroom for learners

with ASD. His teacher, Mr. Nelson, and his parents are concerned that Zack does not stay at

activities long enough to learn new skills or eat a nutritious meal. They have determined that

Zack finds it extremely aversive to stay seated for longer than approximately 2 minutes at a time.

When Zack is directed to stay seated, he screams loudly and hits his head with his hand. Mr.

Nelson and Zack's parents agree that they would like Zack to stay seated for 5 minutes without


prompting from adults during meals, individual work time, or small-group activities. To

accomplish this, Mr. Nelson decides to implement negative reinforcement.

Prior to implementing the intervention, Mr. Nelson collects duration data during meal times,

individual work times, and small-group activities over the course of four days to establish a

baseline for the target skill. The data reveal that Zack is able to stay seated for approximately 1

minute and 30 seconds before getting up from the meal or activity.

Mr. Nelson establishes the performance criteria in the graphic/table to the right before

implementing the negative reinforcement intervention.

Because Mr. Nelson knows that Zack has considerable difficulty staying seated for extended

periods of time and that he finds it aversive, he decides to create picture instructions that will cue

Zack to use the target skill. He also acquires a kitchen timer that he can set for a certain number

of minutes so that Zack will know how long he needs to stay seated before he can get up.

The next day, Mr. Nelson implements the negative reinforcement intervention. During individual

work time, Mr. Nelson stands next to Zack's desk and waits for him to get up. After

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approximately one minute, Zack stands up to leave the area. As he does so, Mr. Nelson shows

Zack the card and says, "Sit in chair. Finish work." Zack starts screaming, but Mr. Nelson gives

Zack the instructions again and points to his chair. Zack sits down. As soon as Zack sits down,

Mr. Nelson sets the kitchen timer for one minute. If Zack gets up at any time during the one-

minute time period, Mr. Nelson resets the kitchen timer so that Zack stays seated for the required

amount of time. When the kitchen timer beeps after one minute, Mr. Nelson tells Zack, "All

done. You can get up." Zack then gets up and walks away. After five minutes, Mr. Nelson directs

Zack back to his desk and repeats the process again. When Zack is able to sit independently for 1

minute during three consecutive trials, Mr. Nelson moves to the next performance criterion (i.e.,

sit for two minutes). At this point, Zack will not be allowed to get up until he can sit

independently for two minutes during individual work time. Mr. Nelson completes this process

until Zack can sit independently for five minutes. After Zack has acquired the target skill at

individual work time, Mr. Nelson plans to implement the intervention during meal times and

small-group activities as well to increase Zack's ability to sit during a variety of activities. Zack's

parents have expressed interest in using negative reinforcement at home, which will also promote

generalization of the target skill.

Token Economy Programs - Max

Case Study: Max

Max is a 15-year-old with ASD, who is educated primarily within the general education setting.

Recently, Max has begun having difficulty staying on task in math class. Specifically, he often

stares out the window or looks at pictures in the classroom when he is supposed to be completing

individual seatwork. His math teacher, Mr. Brown, has talked with the resource teacher, Ms.


Kelly, about ways to help Max complete his work independently. Ms. Kelly has decided that a

token economy program might be the best way to increase Max's on-task behavior. Mr. Brown

and Ms. Kelly decide that they would ultimately like Max to complete his seatwork assignment

without prompting from the teacher or other classroom staff.

Before setting up and implementing the token economy program, Ms. Kelly collects baseline

data during individual seatwork in math class over the course of four consecutive days. The data

indicate that Max was prompted 15 times during a 5-minute period to complete his work. During

this time, Max looked out the window or at the pictures in the classroom and needed nearly

continuous prompting to stay on task.

Next, Ms. Kelly identifies potential reinforcers by having Max select desirable items on a

reinforcer menu. The identified items (e.g., extra time on the computer, skipped homework

assignment, listen to music) will be placed in the "store." Max will be able to "purchase" these

items once he has acquired enough tokens.

After the reinforcers have been identified, Ms. Kelly establishes the token economy program.

She does this by identifying the token (i.e., poker chip) and by setting up the system for

exchanging tokens. Ms. Kelly decides that Max will carry the "bank" with him. She plans to give

him a wallet that he can keep in his book bag. As Max earns chips, he can place them in the

wallet. Next, Ms. Kelly decides that the "store" will be in the resource room. At first, Max will

have an opportunity to "purchase" items from the reinforcer menu every other day. Ms. Kelly

hopes that this will sufficiently motivate Max to work for the tokens. She plans to increase the

length of time between purchases as Max becomes more independent in completing his seatwork

in math class. Finally, Ms. Kelly assigns a monetary value to each item on the reinforcer menu.


She makes a poster that contains each item identified during the reinforcer sampling and its

"price." The poster hangs beside her desk in the back corner of the resource room.

Just before Ms. Kelly and Mr. Brown implement the token economy program, they sit down with

Max and describe how the system will work. They tell him that he needs to finish his seatwork

without Mr. Brown's help. Ms. Kelly explains that Mr. Brown will set a timer on his watch for 2

minutes. If Max does his work and does not look out window or at the pictures in the classroom

during this time, Mr. Brown will give him a token to put in his special wallet. Ms. Kelly also

explains that Max will be able to come to the "store" in her office to buy things on Mondays,

Wednesdays, and Fridays. As they explain the system to Max, they also give him a card that

outlines all the rules for receiving tokens (see the example to the right).

The next day, Mr. Brown begins implementing the token economy program. Ms. Kelly comes to

math class to coach him through this process if necessary. When Max comes into class, Mr.

Brown reminds him of the classroom rules by showing him the picture card. He places it at the

top of Max's desk so that it can serve as a reminder during seatwork time.

When Mr. Brown hands out the seatwork assignment, he briefly pauses at Max's desk and says,

"Remember the rules, Max," while pointing to the card on his desk. Mr. Brown then sets his

watch timer for two minutes. Max starts working on his assignment, but is looking out the

window after about one minute. Mr. Brown walks over to Max's desk and points to the rules

again and says, "Remember the rules, Max. Finish your work." Mr. Brown then sets his watch

timer again. This time, Max stays on task for two minutes. When the timer rings, Mr. Brown

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immediately gives him a token and says, "You did your work by yourself, Max. Now here's your

token." Mr. Brown repeats this process during the remainder of individual seatwork time. After

class, Max walks with Ms. Kelly to the resource room and "buys" an item off the menu. When

she was setting up the menu, Ms. Kelly made sure to include a variety of reinforcers at different

prices. This way, there are lower-priced items that Max can purchase immediately to keep him

motivated and to help him understand how the token economy program works. As Max increases

his time on task and is able to complete seatwork independently, Ms. Kelly will periodically

adjust the prices to maintain Max's motivation. Strategies will also be implemented to fade the

use of tokens (e.g., moving from continuous to intermittent schedule of reinforcement).

Summary

Reinforcement is an evidence-based practice used to increase target behaviors and skills. In the

evidence base, three reinforcement procedures have been used across the age range to teach a

variety of skills (e.g., self-help, language and communication, academic work skills): (a) positive

reinforcement, (b) negative reinforcement, and (c) token economy programs. The ultimate goal

of reinforcement is to help learners with ASD learn new skills and maintain their use over time

in a variety of settings with many different individuals. This is accomplished by systematically

fading reinforcement through the use of various reinforcement schedules. As learners begin to

independently use target skills, reinforcement is gradually reduced. Successful implementation of

reinforcement procedures often results in generalized skill use that is maintained over time.

Citation and References

Neitzel, J. (2010). Reinforcement for children and youth with autism spectrum disorders: Online training module (Chapel Hill, NC: National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, FPG Child Development Institute, UNC-Chapel Hill). In Ohio Center for


Autism and Low Incidence (OCALI), Autism Internet Modules, www.autisminternetmodules.org. Columbus, OH: OCALI.

ReferencesAlberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (2008). Applied behavior analysis for teachers, 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Aspy, R., & Grossman, B. G. (2007). The ziggurat model: A framework for designing comprehensive interventions for individuals with high-functioning autism and Asperger syndrome. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Company.

Cicero, F. R., & Pfadt, A. (2002). Investigation of a reinforcement-based toilet training procedure for children with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 23, 319-331.

Grindle, C. F., & Remington, B. (2005). Teaching children with autism when reward is delayed: The effects of two kinds of marking stimuli. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(6), 839-850.

Henry, S., & Myles, B. S. (2007). The Comprehensive Autism Planning System for individuals with Asperger Syndrome, autism, and related disabilities: Integrating best practices throughout the student's day. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Company.

Higbee, T. S., Carr, J. E., & Patel, M. R. (2002). The effects of interpolated reinforcement on resistance to extinction in children diagnosed with autism: A preliminary investigation. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 23, 61-78.

Kay, S., Harchik, A. E., & Luiselli, J. K. (2006). Elimination of drooling by an adolescent student with autism attending public high school. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8(1), 24-28.

Kern, L., Carberry, N., & Haidara, C. (1997). Analysis and intervention with two topographies of challenging behavior exhibited by a young woman with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 18(4), 275-287.

Koegel, R. L., O'Dell, M., & Dunlap, G. (1988). Producing speech use in nonverbal autistic children by reinforcing attempts. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18(4), 525-538.


Lee, R., & Sturmey, P. (2006). The effects of lag schedules and preferred materials on variable responding in students with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(3), 421-428.

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Reichle, J., Drager, K., & Davis, C. A. (2002) Using requests for assistance to obtain desired items and to gain release from nonpreferred activities: implication for assessment and Intervention. Education and Treatment of Children, 25, 47-66.

Reichle, J., & Johnson, L. (2007). Tip sheet: Positive reinforcement. Minneapolis, MN: Early Childhood Behavior Project, College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota.

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Zirpoli, T. J. (2005). Behavior management: Applications for teachers, 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.


Quiz

1. Reinforcement is used to increase and decrease target skills

True

False

2. Which type of reinforcer is most effective in helping learners with ASD generalize the use of skills?

Social reinforcers

Tangible reinforcers

Natural reinforcers

All of the above

3. Which of the following is NOT a reinforcement procedure?

Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Response cost

Token economy programs

4. When using a primary reinforcer, teachers/practitioners should always pair it with a secondary reinforcer to teach a learner with ASD a new skill.

True

False


5. Which of the following is not an example of positive reinforcement?

Token economy program

Extra time on computer after completing a non-preferred activity

Thumbs up

Being allowed to leave a non-preferred activity after staying seated for 5 minutes

6. Which of the following is NOT an example of a secondary reinforcer?

Food

Sticker

Verbal Praise

Highly preferred item or activity


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