Strategic Global Human Resource Management Research in the Twenty

7/21/2019 Strategic Global Human Resource Management Research in the Twenty

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Strategic global human resource management research in the twenty-frst

century: an endorsement o the mixed-method research methodology

Abstract Global competition is rapidly becoming the norm in which nearly all

business organizations must compete in one fashion or another. The complexity and

value of strategic global human resource management (SGH!" will continue to

compound in signi#cance as globalization becomes the predominate form of

business. $oth practitioners and researchers maintain the grapple with

understanding the global phenomena and the resulting impact on the entire human

resource management system. %reviously& researchers' maintained research

programmes utilizing estern)style theories and methods& which were

predominantly *uantitative& to explore phenomena that may now be inappropriate.

These methods and theories fre*uently do not capture the +fabric' of global

phenomena that include complex interactions of culture& institutions& societal norms

and government regulations& among a few concerns. The mixed methods approachis proposed to add the +fabric' re*uired& illustrating the depth and ,exibility needed

to explore the SGH! issues. !ixed methods are a combination of *ualitative and

*uantitative approaches that maintain methodological rigour as well as measures

for reliability and validity. This paper explores the current methods& the reasons for

their lac- of success in portraying the depth of the phenomena and why the mixed

methods approach appears to be a superior method for research for the SGH!

#eld. eywords Strategic global human resource management/ globalization/ mix)

method research/ global research issues. 0ross)cultural research can be tenure

threatening choice. (Steers et al.& 1223" 0ross)cultural research is not for the faint

hearted. (Teagarden et al.& 12245 1361"

7ntroduction $oth human resource practitioners and researchers ali-e are concerned

with the shift towards globalization of business and the resulting impact on strategic

global human resource management (SGH!" (!artin and $eaumont& 1228/ 9epa-

and Snell& 1222/

:owling et al.& 1222/ Harvey and ;ovicevic& 3<<3". Global competition is becoming

the norm and& at current growth rates& trade between nations will exceed totalcommerce within nations by 3<14 (:aft& 122=". 7n industries such as

semiconductors& automobiles& commercial aircraft& telecommunications& computers

and consumer electronics& it is impossible to survive and not scan the world for

competitors& customers& human resources& suppliers and technology (Gregersen et

al.& 1228". 7n this environment& the global human resource management becomes

more important to the success of the #rm& while at the same time becoming more

complicated and di>cult to administer (Grant& 1226/ amoche& 122=/ $oxall and



%urcell& 3<<</ Harvey and ;ovicevic& 3<<?". %ast research con#rms that the human

resources are a valuable component for an organization attempting to develop a

strategic competitive advantage (right et al.& 122@/ 9epa- and Snell& 1222". hen

human resources are employed strategically& #rms compete more eectively in this

new dynamic mar-etplace& especially when +the productivity of superior resources

depends upon the nature of their employment and the s-ill with which a strategybased on resource superiority is implemented' (%eteraf& 122?5 186". Bet& research

into global human resource management is increasingly di>cult to pursue& and

complicated& as culture and its alignment with strategy may be very di>cult to

research through strictly *uantitative methods. 7t would appear that organizations

must develop a cadre of managers who have a global mindset as a way of thin-ing

within the global mar-etplace (edia and !u-herCi& 1222/ %aul& 3<<</ $egley and

$oyd& 3<<?". These managers must develop a pluralistic management perspective

that encourages and maintains multiple perspectives in order to solve complex

global problems (Aguirre& 122=/ Harvey et al.& 1222/ eynolds& 122=". Two)thirds of

the world's 0DEs view the priorities within the intense change of the new global

mar-et place as5 foreign competition as a -ey factor in their #rm's future business

success& employment and revenues to be generated increasingly outside their #rm's

home country& and the eective management of human resources as critical to

global success (Hambric- et al.& 1282". This paper's focus is to develop a process for

conceptualizing SGH! utilizing a mixed)method research approach. First& the new

global hypercompetitive mar-et conditions and the problems for SGH! will be

explored. Second& previous types of research methods and their failure to provide

ade*uate insight in SGH! are examined. Then an examinationCusti#cation of a

mixed)method approach is considered as being a superior means for researching

SGH! issues in the twenty)#rst century. ;ext& an SGH! and a mixed)method

programme to assist in the development of a global human resource system aresuggested. Finally& barriers to the development of a SGH! programme are

examined to illustrate the types of research that will be needed utilizing the mixed)

method approach. The underlying foundation of the paper is that& given the

evolution of human resource management into a global networ- (e.g. SGH!"& new

problems will confront human resource managers and& therefore& new research

methods will be necessary. The evolution of a human resource management

perspective :omestic H! is typically de#ned as a broad typology that covers three

areas5 1" wor- relations (i.e. the way wor- is organized& the division of labour and

the deployment of wor-ers around technologies and production processes"/ 3"

employment relations (i.e. the arrangements governing such aspects ofemployment as recruitment& training& promotion& Cob tenure and the reward of

employees"/ and ?" industrial relations (i.e. the representational aspirations of

employees and the +voice systems' that may exist&

:owling et al.& 1222/ Harvey and ;ovicevic& 3<<3". Global competition is becoming

the norm and& at current growth rates& trade between nations will exceed total

commerce within nations by 3<14 (:aft& 122=". 7n industries such as



semiconductors& automobiles& commercial aircraft& telecommunications& computers

and consumer electronics& it is impossible to survive and not scan the world for

competitors& customers& human resources& suppliers and technology (Gregersen et

al.& 1228". 7n this environment& the global human resource management becomes

more important to the success of the #rm& while at the same time becoming more

complicated and di>cult to administer (Grant& 1226/ amoche& 122=/ $oxall and%urcell& 3<<</ Harvey and ;ovicevic& 3<<?". %ast research con#rms that the human

resources are a valuable component for an organization attempting to develop a

strategic competitive advantage (right et al.& 122@/ 9epa- and Snell& 1222". hen

human resources are employed strategically& #rms compete more eectively in this

new dynamic mar-etplace& especially when +the productivity of superior resources

depends upon the nature of their employment and the s-ill with which a strategy

based on resource superiority is implemented' (%eteraf& 122?5 186". Bet& research

into global human resource management is increasingly di>cult to pursue& and

complicated& as culture and its alignment with strategy may be very di>cult to

research through strictly *uantitative methods. 7t would appear that organizations

must develop a cadre of managers who have a global mindset as a way of thin-ing

within the global mar-etplace (edia and !u-herCi& 1222/ %aul& 3<<</ $egley and

$oyd& 3<<?". These managers must develop a pluralistic management perspective

that encourages and maintains multiple perspectives in order to solve complex

global problems (Aguirre& 122=/ Harvey et al.& 1222/ eynolds& 122=". Two)thirds of

the world's 0DEs view the priorities within the intense change of the new global

mar-et place as5 foreign competition as a -ey factor in their #rm's future business

success& employment and revenues to be generated increasingly outside their #rm's

home country& and the eective management of human resources as critical to

global success (Hambric- et al.& 1282". This paper's focus is to develop a process for

conceptualizing SGH! utilizing a mixed)method research approach. First& the newglobal hypercompetitive mar-et conditions and the problems for SGH! will be

explored. Second& previous types of research methods and their failure to provide

ade*uate insight in SGH! are examined. Then an examinationCusti#cation of a

mixed)method approach is considered as being a superior means for researching

SGH! issues in the twenty)#rst century. ;ext& an SGH! and a mixed)method

programme to assist in the development of a global human resource system are

suggested. Finally& barriers to the development of a SGH! programme are

examined to illustrate the types of research that will be needed utilizing the mixed)

method approach. The underlying foundation of the paper is that& given the

evolution of human resource management into a global networ- (e.g. SGH!"& newproblems will confront human resource managers and& therefore& new research

methods will be necessary. The evolution of a human resource management

perspective :omestic H! is typically de#ned as a broad typology that covers three

areas5 1" wor- relations (i.e. the way wor- is organized& the division of labour and

the deployment of wor-ers around technologies and production processes"/ 3"

employment relations (i.e. the arrangements governing such aspects of

employment as recruitment& training& promotion& Cob tenure and the reward of



employees"/ and ?" industrial relations (i.e. the representational aspirations of

employees and the +voice systems' that may exist&

nli-e the phenomena that exist in the many physical sciences& human resources

deals with essentially complex human phenomena. The use of *uantitative data to

research and understand human resource management is necessarily limited by theavailability of +hard' data on which to base decisions. To overcome this ,aw& global

research in particular has advocated a cross)fertilization of both *uantitative and

*ualitative research ($oyacigiller and Adler& 1221/ $rewer& 1223/ :aniels& 1221/

%ar-he& 122?". Iuantitative methods sometimes do not wor- well in the study of

global management due to the complexity and unstructuredness of the problems&

with multiple important interactive relationships that cannot be studied in a *uic- or

easy fashion (right& 1226". However& researchers must not overloo- or abandon

*uantitative analysis& but use it in concert with *ualitative research to grasp the

whole concept in explaining this new& dynamic& complex global mar-et. The impact

of globalization on 7H! The evolving global mar-etplace can be characterized as

one of uncertainty& diverse global competitors& rapid technological change&

widespread competitive wars and seemingly endless reorganizations (7linitch et al.&

1228". There is little doubt that to be viable during the twenty)#rst century in the

global environment& organizations& whether global or domestic& will need to be more

global in their outloo-& if not in their operations (hinesmith& 122?". The complexity

involved in operating in dierent countries and employing dierent nationalities of

employees is a -ey variable that dierentiates domestic and global H!. Four

additional variables (besides complexity" either diminish or accentuate dierences

between domestic and global H!5 the cultural environment/ the dierences in

industry structures between countries/ the extent of reliance on the home)country

domestic mar-et/ and the attitudes of senior management (:owling& 1222". Atwenty)year review by 0lar- et al.& (3<<<" of Cournal papers& published between

12== and 122= in twenty)nine maCor Cournals worldwide& that focused on

comparative or global H! found that the methods of data collection were5

*uestionnaires (@3 per cent"& case studies (?< per cent"& literature reviews (11 per

cent" and a very small number of studies used *uestionnaires in combination with

in)depth interviews and case studies (3 per cent". hat is most interesting is that

over @1 per cent of all the studies (total studies reviewed5 3<&38=" failed to oer any

explanation for their results and those that were explained simply stated cultural

(33 per cent"& institutional (12 per cent" or a combination of both. These variables

were explained ex post and typically were residual variables rather than

independent or explanatory variables (0lar- et al.& 3<<<". 7t would appear that

global research has not progressed in ?< years as the culturalsocietal setting +is still

a reality to be explained and as such cannot yet explain other realities' (oberts&

12=<5 ??<". esearchers are not alone in their slow)to)develop global mindset& as

practitioners from ;orth America also appear unprepared for this new mar-et

environment. Dightytwo per cent of non);orth American executives consider a

global outloo- as very important for the future versus 63 per cent for S 0DEs& and



=< per cent non);orth American 0DEs versus ?4 per cent of S 0DEs consider

experience outside their home country as very important (Hambric- et al.& 1282". 7t

would appear that S 0DEs are underestimating the importance of a global mindset

as the global organization must have managers who are prepared to manage a

diverse& cross)cultural wor-force (Scullion& 1221". This new breed of global

managers will need to be very professional& of high *uality& deployable& multi)s-illed& multidisciplinary and cross)cultural (Janderbroec-& 1223".

The traditional S7H! models have been developed to capture the in,uence of H

programmes (e.g. policies& practices and issues" on a multinational organization's

outcomes and vice versa. The most cited models ta-e either a contingency

perspective& emphasizing consistency between H! and the organization's strategy

(Schuler et al.& 122?"& or a universalistic perspective& emphasizing complementarily

between H! and strategy (Taylor et al.& 1226". The S7H! models seem to be

appropriate under the conditions of strategic stability supported by the hierarchicalstructure and strong organizational culture. 7n these models& it is assumed that

multinational organizations compete primarily under low ambiguity and within

clearly de#ned geographic and industry boundaries. 7n other words& it is assumed

that slow)cycle pressures for organizational renewal and corporate restructuring are

salient. 7n such an environment& organizations are assumed to compete for

economic surplus to achieve a structural competitive advantage by aligning their

competencies with these activities. 7n most S7H! models international variables&

li-e national culture (contingency" or employment systems (complementarily"

($oxall and %urcell& 3<<<"& are dominant. However& :e 0ieri and :owling (1222"

argue against further development of speci#c international models. !oreover&

:owling et al.& (1222" argue that the S7H! models fail to capture H eectiveness

within global networ-s. ather& models encompassing the evolution process form

S7H! to an SGH! system need to be developed as organizations globalize their

operations. The shift from an S7H! to an SGH! system is crucial for the evolution

of the processes and mechanisms found in H! systems in order to match the

personnel needs of global organizations. This shift is not a semantic one but rather

a very de#nite dierence in the manner of managing the human resource function

(see Table 1". The SGH! system shapes organizational culture in terms of co)

operative traits and practices (i.e. content" rather than in values and attitudes

(:enison and !ishra& 1224". Also& this in,uence is re,ected in terms of the extent to

which organizational culture is shaped across the organizational units (i.e. strength". The extent to which the content and strength of organizational culture are shaped

by the shift to the SGH! system is in,uenced by the managerial global leadership

mindset. 7f this in,uence is signi#cant& the organization's global performance is

li-ely to be improved. The SGH! perspective on human resource management

goes beyond the S7H! view by emphasizing that H eectiveness arises not only

from the aggregate talent of



Table 1 Transformation of intangible dimensions of human resource perspective

Traditional hierarchical S7H! Dvolving networ- heterarchy SGH! Agency

Stewardship 0ontrolmonitoring Trustcommitment build 7nformation asymmetry

nowledge sharing nidirectionality eciprocity Structure)oriented %rocess)oriented$ehavioural consistency 0ognitive reference Fit Flexibility Hierarchy Heterarchy

Eriented towards cost Eriented towards value Formal rules 7nformal norms HI

initiatives Subsidiary initiatives Functionalism 0ross)functionalism Administrative

spirit Dntrepreneurial spirit the organization's employees& but also from the co)

ordinated deployment of this talent across the global organization's networ- of

relationships. The e>ciency of this type of relational co)ordination is in turn a

function of the global organization's cultural context ($eer et al.& 1224". For the

global H manager to develop the leadership role& modesoptions and in,uence the

maCor transformation of the organization's cultural context& the role of human

resource management is to be refocused from the +traditional H focus on

attracting& selecting& and developing individuals to a new focus on developing an

organizational context which will attract and develop leaders as well as facilitate

teamwor-'. This new global leadership focus of H encompasses new approaches to

decision)ma-ing& as well as innovative approaches to organizing and managing

people within global networ-s (i.e. global team)based management& high

involvement of diverse employees and eective and meaningful communication

across cultures". 7n other words& the innovative global H leadership can succeed in

changing the organization's culture only by focusing more on the new strategic tas-

within global networ-s and less on modifying traditional H! programmes. The

focus on the new global strategic tas- re*uires both an eective leadership by the

global H manager and an e>cient design of the SGH! system. Speci#cally& theH manager's role transformation towards leadership within a global networ- is

contingent upon an e>cient SGH! system design. To yield an e>cient SGH!

system& the H! processes necessitate seamless interfaces across a variety of

dynamic relationships within a global networ-. The purpose of the seamless

interfaces is to mitigate dierent ris-s and uncertainties arising due to the

interaction among members within the global networ-. These human resource

processes must also contribute to the optimization of -nowledge integration within

the global networ- (Salbu& 1221". Therefore& it is proposed in this paper that the

architecture of the SGH! system depends upon the scope of the !;0 strategic

orientation relative to networ- members and the extent of the dynamics in the

global networ- environment. $y using the theoretical perspectives of relational

contracting (!ac;eil& 12=@& 12=8& 128<& 1284" and the -nowledge)based view of

the #rm (Grant& 1226"& a theoretical framewor- for an e>cient SGH! system

design supporting global H manager's leadership can be developed for global

organizations. :ue to the importance of human capital as one form of competitive

advantage in the new global mar-etplace& the SGH! manager's role will become

elevated (Gregersen et al.& 1228". The -ey to success in the global mar-etplace is



the ability to attract& train and retain a diverse wor-force (Harvey and ;ovicevic&

3<<3& 3<<?". A dedicated and talented wor-force may serve as a valuable& scarce&

non)imitable resource that can help #rms execute an appropriate positioning

strategy (9ado and ilson& 122@" and the human dimension has received a good

deal of conceptual attention from strategy scholars (Fiol& 1221/ 9ado et al.& 1223/

umelt et al.& 1221". The global organization must be ,exible enough to developproductsservices that attract consumers& yet maintain a #t of organization systems

and controls that maintain corporate culture and *uality. Global organizations are

more e>cient and eective when they achieve #t relative to when there is not #t

($aird and !eshoulam& 1288/ 9engnic-Hall and 9engnic-)Hall& 1288/ !illiman et al.&

1221" and yet a focus on maximizing #t can be counterproductive if the #rm has

adopted con,icting competitive goals to correspond to a complex competitive

environment (9engnic-)Hall and 9engnic-)Hall& 1288". SGH! will be an integral

part of the #rm's strategy to #nd organizational #t yet maintain employeecustomer

,exibility& or& as coined& to +thin- globallyact locally'. The mar-etplace and

employees are ever changing and new culturally speci#c SGH! procedures will

re*uire ,exible innovative solutions. Flexibility can be bro-en into two components5

resource and co)ordination. esource ,exibility is when a resource can be applied to

a larger range of alternative uses. This is measured by the di>culty of switching the

use of one resource to another and the amount of time to do so. For example& the

extent to which the #rm can re)synthesize strategy& recon#gure change of resources

and redeploy resources refers to co)ordination ,exibility (Sanchez& 1224". SGH!

managers will be re*uired to establish systems that are ,exible enough& but also

encourage strategic or organizational goal #t. 7n the current dynamic global mar-et&

this tas- is enormous& if not impossible. $oth the SGH! researcher and practitioner

have nearly insurmountable obstacles to obtain the relevant information necessary

to develop or study SGH! systems. Global studies are invariably more expensive&time consuming and di>cult to +sell' to management than domestic studies& and

can be a liability for global researchers in a competitive research funding

environment. 7n addition& global research ta-es more time& involves more travel and

fre*uently re*uires the co)operation of host)county organizations& government

o>cials and researchers. :evelopment of a stream of global human resource

management research is conse*uently much more di>cult (:owling and Schuler&

1223". The evolution to strategic global human resource management systems

SGH! uses as its focus the belief that people are a valuable resource and should

be managed strategically. Thus SGH! needs to be aligned to and support the

organization's strategic obCectives in order to obtain legitimacy (amoche and!ueller& 1228". 7nstitutional theory posits that H! practices develop and attain

legitimacy through the construction of reality (Eliver& 122=". H! becomes

institutionalized& whereby its social processes& obligations or actualities come to

ta-e on a rule)li-e status in social thought and actions (!eyer and owan& 12==".

hen individuals within the #rm come to accept shared de#nitions of what

comprises legitimate H! practices& or H! becomes institutionalized& the

li-elihood of signi#cant changes in those practices recedes (Scott& 128=/ right and



Snell& 1228". Therefore& research into SGH! must ta-e into account complex

interactions in how non)choice behaviours can occur and persist& through the

exercise of habit& convention& conveniences or social obligation (Eliver& 1221"&

reCecting the idea that organizational phenomena are the products of rational choice

based upon technical considerations (estney& 122?". !ore than Cust a complicated

uni*ue valuable resource& people are also a source of capabilities that are #rmspeci#c and more valuable than resources that are available and transferable.

These human capabilities are seen as developing& carrying and exchanging

information (Amit and Shoema-er& 122?". The integration and co)ordination of

personnel throughout the global system in SGH! has proved to be di>cult to

manage due to barriers of distance& language& time& culture& turf battles and

accountability& and the proliferation of communication channels& to name a few

($artlett and Ghoshal& 122<". The strategic eectiveness of the human organization

in the global mar-et is of considerable importance and both practitioners and

researchers have begun to explore the theoretical and empirical lin-ages between

SGH! and strategy (Adler and Ghadar& 122</ obrin& 1223/ !illiman et al.& 1221".

SGH! is seen as positioning its resources through vertical and horizontal #t. The

alignment of SGH! practices and strategic management is referred to as vertical

#t and is seen as directing human resources towards the primary initiatives of the

organization (Schuler and Kac-son& 128=". 0ongruence of SGH! practices is

referred to as horizontal #t and is viewed as instrumental for e>ciently allocating

human resources ($aird and !eshoulam& 1288".

SGH! is a relatively young profession and& because SGH! is of an applied

nature& there is tension between SGH! researchers and practitioners (Swanson&

122=& 1228/ uona& 1222/ Toracco& 122=/ Kacobs& 122=". :ue to this apparent

tension& the output by researchers is Cudged primarily by its usefulness to practice(9ynham& 3<<<". The research)practice)development)theory)cycle is both

epistemological (nature of -nowledge" and ontological (nature of reality" and assists

in a multi)paradigm view in SGH!. This view is more conducive to the multifaceted

nature of human and organizational realities& and to constantly transforming

contexts of human and organizational reality (Gioia and %itre& 122</ 9ynham& 3<<<".

SGH! research has become ever more di>cult as the focus repeatedly turns to

emerging mar-ets because they constitute the maCor growth opportunity in the

evolving world economic order. Their potential has already aected a shift in global

organizations& which now highlight emerging mar-et investments when

communicating with shareholders& as illustrated by 0oca)0ola. 0oca)0ola invested

L3 billion in 0hina& 7ndia and 7ndonesia (which together account for more than @<

per cent of the world's population" and predicts that it can produce sales in those

countries that double every three years for the inde#nite future& compared with

0o-e's @M4 per cent average annual growth in the S mar-et in the past decade

($usiness ee-& 1226". For SGH! research in particular& issues such as the

cultural environment& the industry with which the multinational is primarily involved&

the extent of reliance of the multinational on its home)country domestic mar-et and



the fact that attitudes of senior management will aect the global and local human

resource planning& sta>ng& performance management& training and development&

compensation and bene#ts& and labour relations& must all be included to understand

and develop an understanding of the #eld (:owling et al.& 1222". Iuantitative

analysis may not be e*uipped to consider all the underlying issues in SGH!. The

mixed)methods approach in researching the diering global institutional eects (i.e.social processes& obligations and complex interactions of non)choice behaviours"&

lin-ages between SGH! and strategy& the importance of the emerging mar-et and

the #eld's practitioner)oriented view appears a superior method of research.

7dentifying and de#ning the problem of re,ecting external reality with explanations

that best produce desired outcomes with nebulous relationships is di>cult& but a

tas- that researchers must endeavor. The results of academic study should also be

practitioner oriented but in researching in emerging mar-ets often there has been

little or no research which has proven successful. :ata collection and analysis

procedures that are ,exible but maintain integrity as to validity and reliability are

necessary in exploring complex interactions especially in attempting to integrate

SGH! and the #eld of strategy. A generalizable +story' that is developed to explain

the phenomenon under investigation will be eective as a bridge between an

academic researcher and the practitioner& as well as in understanding and

describing complex global interactions. Appropriate methodologies for research

related to SGH! issues Although there have been recent attempts to augment

*uantitative research techni*ues& *uantitative techni*ues still are the norm for

global research (Teagarden et al.& 1224". Iuantitative techni*ues focus on the

measuring of things that can be counted +using predetermined categories that can

be treated as interval or ordinal data and subCected to statistical analysis' (%atton&

122=5 3=?". %redetermined categories are developed& unavoidably so& through a

researcher bias. This type of research assumes that the predetermined categoriesalso encompass the construct that the statistical analysis is attempting to evaluate.

+To date& the academic community& by itself& has remained primarily dedicated to

single culture and comparative research which& while still necessary& is no longer

su>cient and therefore no longer relevant for the competitive environment of

today's transnational' (Adler and $artholomew& 12235 466". Iuantitative research

suggests of the universalist paradigm or that the universalist typically will research

through carefully designed *uestions leading to proof or disproof through

measurement and rigorous evaluation utilizing existing theory and literature

($rewster& 1222". The universalist paradigm (dominant in the SA" uses evidence to

test generalizations of an abstract and law)li-e character and tends towardsacceptance of convergence. The disadvantages of this viewpoint are that it ignores

other potential focuses& the research obCectives are too narrow (i.e. ethnocentric"

and it ignores other levels (i.e. culture" and other sta-eholders (i.e. institutional&

governmental and legal" (Guest& 122</ %ieper& 122<". $oth *uantitative and

*ualitative research& performed in concert& will provide researchers with the

evidence needed to evo-e an understanding within the global mar-etplace. The use

of *ualitative research is especially signi#cant in relation to dierent cultures whose



values& goals and morals vary signi#cantly. Iualitative research focuses on people's

experiences and the meanings they place on events& processes and the

environment of their normal social setting. Iualitative data +focuses on naturally

occurring& ordinary events in natural settings& so that we have a starting handle on

what Nreal lifeO is li-e' (!iles and Huberman& 122@5 1<& emphasis in original". Also&

management research trends suggest that researchers may be moving even furtheraway from rigour and limiting applicability due to their failure to triangulate. 9ower

internal validity& external validity and construct validity have been found in the

128<s and 122<s due to methodological approaches that do not use rigorous

triangulation (Scandura and illiams& 3<<<". Triangulation through the use of mixed

methods in global research will strengthen researchers' #ndings. Table 3 identi#es

#ve accepted steps applicable to research in the social sciences. Dach of these

steps will be compared and contrasted for *uantitative& *ualitative and mixed

methods for use with SGH! problemsissues. :e#ne problem and develop

hypothesis esearch of global social behaviour theories& problem de#nition and the

development of hypothesis have fundamental confounding problems5 1" culture

de#nition/ 3" identifying whether a phenomenon is culturally speci#c or universal/ ?"

determining how a researcher can mas- their own cultural bias in designing and

conducting a study/ @" determining which aspects of the study should be identical

and which e*uivalent across cultures/ and 4" identifying threats to interpretation

caused by interactions between cultural and research variables (Adler& 128@".

Further obstacles for researchers include5 selection of topic& how and who to

sample& translation& measurement& instrumentation& administration of the research&

data analysis and interpretation. The way in which one as-s the research *uestion is

important because it determines& to a large extent& the research methods that are

used to answer it. The goals and obCectives of the proCect must be identi#ed to

formulate the *uestions. Iuantitative methods develop highly speci#c hypothesesthat employ operational de#nitions and are clearly testable. Global research

conveys hidden nuances& the phenomena are often idiosyncratic and not

comparable to apparently similar domestic phenomena& and so rigid *uantitative

techni*ues may be inappropriate. !ixed methods attempt to de#ne the problem&

re,ecting external reality that is situational and culturally speci#c& with explanations

that may best produce desired outcomes. The #rst *uestion attempting to de#ne

the problem and to understand nebulous causal relationships starts out broadly and

becomes progressively narrowed and more focused during the research process as

concepts and their relationships are uncovered. 7n the development of the

evaluation *uestions& the researcher must be obCective and have an openness orwillingness to listen and to give voice to respondents& whether they are individuals

or organizations. This means having an understanding& while recognizing that

researchers' understandings are often based on the values& culture& training and

experiences they bring to the research situations and that they might be very

dierent from those of the respondents. Global research therefore becomes more

complicated and is often di>cult to coordinate or to maintain formal practices.

Global research theories and techni*ues are di>cult to impose upon foreign



management& and& if applicable& they must be culturally close to the countries

where those theories exist. 7n addition& it is argued& the application of management

models and theories developed in one country is inappropriate within another

(Azumi& 12=@/ Hofstede& 128<& 128?& 122?/ 9aurent& 128?& 1286". Further& national

cultures dier in the degree to which they enable managers to adopt non)

homegrown practices (ir-bride and Tang& 1223/ Tayeb& 1288& 1224"& althoughrecent research suggests that some contingency)type theories may be applicable

(alston et al.& 1222". esearch problems and theory development in SGH! are

often driven by the needs of the practitioner& not based upon domestic developed

theory and often tac-le vague issues. However& an impasse between the

practitioner and the researcher arises from a dierence in focus and goals& or

relevance versus rigour& or usefulness versus validity& especially in regard to those

researchers who are characterized by *uantitative techni*ues (:ubin& 12=6/

!arsic-& 122</ Jan de Jen& 1282". +The demand that theory be useful therefore&

characterizes an applied #eld' and re*uires that there +be a mar-et orientation (i.e.&

a practical real)world need" for the theory' (:ubin& 12=65 12". %roblem de#nition and

hypothesis development in SGH! research generally fall into three types of

models5 classi#catory (i.e. categorizing activities& entities or data for the purpose of

clarifying complex relationships"& descriptive (i.e. explaining a process and much

more complex than classi#cation" and causal (i.e. representations that attempt to

develop casual relationships according to some pre)speci#ed theoretical structure"

(%unnett and Shen-ar& 1226". $efore data collection& the researcher utilizing a

,exible mixed)method approach may be able to establish a line of reasoning and

identi#cation of anticipated results. The mixed)method techni*ue will provide a

means to address the multifaceted problems more eectively due to ,exibility and

unconstrained view. 0onstruct research design to help ensure internal and external

validity5 selection of sample& control or manipulation of subCects andinstrumentation The most fre*uently used research approaches to global issues

consist of5 1" comparative (i.e. comparisons of two or more countries and some

speci#c aspect of H!"& 3" international (e.g. H! within global organizations"& ?"

foreign national (e.g. singlecountry studies by non)indigenous researchers

attempting to draw conclusions with home)country implications"& and @" a

combination of the above (Adler& 128?/ Adler and $artholomew& 1223& 122=/ %eng

et al.& 122<". A estern ethnocentric bias permeates much of global research

literature& underpinning the universalistic approach that the instruments and

measures developed in one culture are believed to be e*ually appropriate and

applicable in other nations. This view fails ade*uately to specify the nature ofsocietalcultural dierences and how they aect the phenomenon under

investigation due to the use of instruments and measures that remove societal or

cultural dimensions from organizations (0hild& 1281/ 0lar-& 1226/ 0ray and !allory&

1228". Bet& the basic purpose of examining global perspectives is to contribute an

understanding of the extent to which there are dierences and similarities among

nations as well as between organizations and their members in dierent relational

settings (0lar- et al.& 3<<<". 7t is suggested that& when performing global research&



the #rm should not copy successful solutions that resulted from other cultural

traditions& but that the underlying goals adapted to that culture should be examined

(Albert& 1282". Another criticism of recent research is the need to move away from

the parochialism inherent within AngloAmerican research towards a more pluralistic

perspective based on openness to other perspectives ($oyacigiller and Adler& 1221/

edding& 122@/ 0lar- et al.& 3<<<". As the predominant current paradigm from aestern researcher's perspective utilizes both estern theories and *uantitative

research& it is apparent that in the very least a mixedmethods approach that

attempts to understand new global phenomena should be utilized. As !cGrath

(1283" noted& it is not possible to do an un,awed study/ the global un,awed study is

nearly impossible. So the primary manner in which to address the issue of research

trade)os is to obtain corroborating evidence from using a variety of methods&

-nown as triangulation. Simplistically& a triangulation method ta-en from navigation

and military history& which +usePsQ multiple reference points to locate an obCect's

exact position' (Kic-& 12=25 6<3"& may provide legitimate guidance to social science

researchers. Triangulation within mixed methods has developed into four

perspectives that combine both *ualitative and *uantitative research& and are used

according to the situation5 1" se*uential studies (i.e. the researcher conducts two

separate phases or *ualitative and *uantitative research"/ 3" parallelsimultaneous

studies (e.g. both types of research are conducted simultaneously"/ ?" e*uivalent

status designs (e.g. both approaches are used e*ually to understand the

phenomena under study"/ and @" dominantMless dominant studies (e.g. one or the

other method is used as the single dominant paradigm" (0reswell& 1224". A mixed)

method approach to designing a study that explores the underlying relationships

through *ualitative data in co)ordination with *uantitative data will assist the

researcher in the explanation of complex and seemingly ambiguous global

constructs. For example& seven cultural factors have been identi#ed that must beaddressed in global training design5 1" social systems and institutions& 3"

interpersonal relationships& ?" politics& @" polities& 4" religion& 6" economic systems

and =" educational and technological bases ($in Bahya& 1282". Specify data

collection procedures ich interaction is the sine *ua non of global research for

which *uantitative methods are mostly inade*uate (Teagarden et al.& 1224". Bet&

typical global research is performed through *uestionnaires with a estern)style

theory supporting the research #ndings. This disposition should be avoided& as

investigators should attempt to avoid prior commitment to any theoretical model

(Jan !aanen et al.& 1283". An evolving coherent theoretical framewor- rather than

one imposed a priori has been suggested& so the researcher will +be open to whatthe research site has to tell us' (Glaser and Strauss& 126=5 118". The mixed)method

approach will assist researchers due to its evolving and exploratory nature.

The estern)style*uantitativeuniversalist research approach to global research

may not be successful in these transitional and emerging mar-ets and must be

augmented through contextual research. For example& +few if any& estern

institutions actually -now how to achieve ... translation of successful estern



methods into African contexts' (!achlachlan& 122?5 1=</ Harvey& 3<<3". Global

research is di>cult outside ;orth America and Durope because archival sources are

rare and often incomplete& mass mailings are rarely successful and academia often

plays a dierent role in other countries. Also& in these countries less emphasis is

placed on contractual business relationships and more upon trust and interpersonal

relationships. 7n these settings& data collection will re*uire a non)traditionalapproach (Teagarden et al.& 1224". 7n the development of data collection procedures

the evaluator should ma-e use of non)technical literature such as reports&

videotapes& newspapers& periodicals and other materials to assist in the

development of the evaluation *uestions. This process will assist in providing a

source for comparison and sensitivity to nuances in the data& it can be used as a

secondary source of data& stimulate further elaboration during the research process

and can be used to supplement interviews and observations (Strauss and 0orbin&

1226". Simply identifying target respondents as a potential sample becomes

complicated& as the issues and *uestions to be discussedas-ed must be

understandable to the respondent. 7n global research& this becomes all the more

di>cult due to diering symbols& cultural understandings and language. The

*uestions must be translated forward and bac-ward with the meaning intact. se of

culturally speci#c symbols must be avoided and conceptual e*uivalence be

established. The design and format of the *uestionnaires should be ,exible in

comparison with the traditional experimental or longitudinal survey designs. The

*ualitative and mixed methods design allows a researcher to adCust the ongoing

data)collection methods and modes of analysis much more *uic-ly to respond to

context)speci#c constraints (9ee& 1222". 7n global research& this ,exibility allows the

researcher to delve more deeply into the underlying latent constructs not

observable through direct *uantitative techni*ues. :ata)collection strategies for the

mixed)method techni*ue typically fall within four general categories5 1" as-ingindividuals for information andor experiences/ 3" see-ing what people do& recording

what they do or ma-ing inferences/ ?" as-ing individuals about their relationships

with others/ and @" using data collected andor documented by others. Self)report

techni*ues or as-ing for information andor experiences are the most fre*uent

sources of data in traditional *uantitative and *ualitative research& yet are the

wea-est form of data)collection strategy (Tasha--ori and Teddlie& 1228". Dven more

so in global research& there are cultural biases (including within subgroups" that

ma-e this type of data)collection strategy even less credible& such as the

ac*uiescence bias (yes)saying"& extremity bias (tendency to pic- the end points of a

scale"& central tendency bias (middle of scale selections" and positivity bias(selection of positive bias" (%unnett and Shen-ar& 1226/ sunier& 1228". The

interview is a powerful method of data collection& which may have open) and

closed)ended interview formats& that typically results in copious amounts of

information& but is very expensive and time consuming (9avra-as& 122?/ Fowler and

!angione& 122<". 7t is also especially appropriate when a researcher re*uires in)

depth -nowledge of issues and relationships as found in SGH!. +0ross)cultural and

multicultural research is a prime example of such applications' (Tasha--ori and



Teddlie& 12285 1<?" and +personal interviews constitute the most prevalent

instrument' of obtaining data in global survey research (%unnett and Shen-ar&

1226". The observational method eliminates the need to use either the interview or

self)report techni*ues& thus avoiding the biases involved. nfortunately& this

method also has drawbac-s& such as +obCective self)awareness' (unintentional

changes of the subCect" and +actor)observer dierence' (subCects' action responsesare not the same as to what observer considers as stimulus". Although the bene#ts

of multiple methods are illustrated through the faults of each of the techni*ues

described (there are both more techni*ues and more faults of each"& time and cost

is a relevant part of any researcher's agenda. Several sources that will assist in data

collection and veri#cation are5 experts& personal -nowledge and archival data that

could support data collection in a well)designed study. Select data analysis

methodology The challenge faced by researchers in the global mar-etplace is how

to solve a multidimensional puzzle located at the crossroads of national and

organizational cultures (9aurent& 1286". nfortunately& estern researchers utilizing

their ethnocentric tools have performed much of the global research. +e cannot&

and should not& expect wholesale transfer of American ... concepts and tools'

(errigan and 9u-e& 128=5 1@" for management training theory and practices. 7n the

mixed)method techni*ue& the distinction between data collection and data analysis

may not be clear)cut. 7n practice& for example& the researcher will often be creating&

testing and modifying analytic categories as an iterative process& such that data

analysis may be considered +an organic whole that begins in the data)gathering

stage and does not end until the writing is complete' (%otter& 12265 13<". The

*uestions are developing empirical data that involve and derive from the

participants' experiences within a natural setting. The phenomena of interest rely

on the interpretations& sensema-ing and +lived' experiences of the organizational

participants. !ixed)method research is often not standardized& thus presentingproblems for the researcher who is accustomed to reliable and well)validated

measures. This type of research should be seen as a process of data reduction that

simultaneously enhances the data's meaning/ however& issues of reliability and

validity will still be applicable (!arshall and ossman& 1224". esearchers wish to

Custify their interpretations of the data in some way in order to assess rigour and

authenticity. The criteria used are5 1" applicability (the extent to which readers can

apply the #ndings to their own contexts"/ 3" empowerment (the extent to which the

#ndings enable readers to ta-e action"/ ?" rhetoric (the strength of the argument

presented"/ and @" resonance (the extent to which the research process re,ects the

goals of the research" (Guba and 9incoln& 1282". egardless of the nature& type orscale of measurement in regard to research data& both validity and measurement

reliability must be ascertained. $ecause attributes of global research& its constructs

or latent variables& may not be observable& it is not possible to observe the degree

of correspondence between a variable and the measure obtained. Although a

correlation coe>cient cannot be calculated for *ualitative observations&

triangulation of multiple data sources will su>ce (Tasha--ori and Teddlie& 1228". The

resultant data must have a +trustworthiness' *uality in regard to design and



measurement *uality and the four criteria that could be collectively combined to

establish this trustworthiness are5 credibility& transferability& dependability and

con#rmability (9incoln and Guba& 1284". :ierent methods for determining the four

criteria include5 prolonged engagement& persistent observation& triangulation

techni*ues& peer debrie#ng& negative case analysis& referential ade*uacy& member

chec-s& dependability audit&

con#rmability audit and re,exive Cournal (Tasha--ori and Teddlie& 1228". Global

research is very di>cult and time)consuming& and causes the researcher many

additional steps along the entire spectrum of the process of research design. Finally&

researchers (0aracelli and Greene& 122?" have established four mixed data analysis

strategies. 1 :ata transformation concerns the conversion of one data type into

another so that both can be analysed together& such as converting *ualitative data

into numerical codes and *uantitative data into narratives for analysis. 3 Typology

development is when a set of substantive categories are developed& then used as a

framewor-. ? Dxtreme case analysis includes the collection of additional data to

explain extreme cases in the hopes that issues previously not recorded are exposed.

@ :ata consolidationmerging is the process of creating a new data set by

consolidating data sets in either *ualitative or *uantitative form for further analysis.

Dvaluation of results and drawing conclusions 7n regard to the evaluation of results

and the researcher's drawing of conclusions& the researcher's sta-eholders and

constituents vary signi#cantly in their understanding of research methods&

terminology and application. Two issues are important in reaching closure5 when to

stop adding new information and when to stop iterating between theory and data

(Disenhardt& 1282". hen only incremental improvement occurs with each new

amount of data& closure should occur. As the scienti#c mission of organizational

researchers re*uires that they share their #ndings& the primary mechanism wouldbe to prepare the manuscript for a scholarly Cournal. Although there are no hard and

fast rules& and these would vary across Cournals& some suggested guidelines are

common to global research and are not so very dierent from purely *uantitative)

type research& except for the content. A non)traditional approach such as the

contextual*ualitative research view would complement *uantitative research& for it

searches for an overall understanding of what is contextually uni*ue and why. The

research is inductive (versus deductive for the universalist" and theory is drawn

from an accumulation of data collected or gathered. The maCor role of the

contextualist in global research and literature is to identify the way labour mar-ets

wor- and what the more typical organization is doing (as opposed to the universalist

and their research of +leading edge' companies and +best practices'" ($rewster&

1222". The contextual approach also focuses on the individuals within the

organization& the long)term health of the organization and or the community and

country within which the organization operates& rather than the declared corporate

strategy and approach laid down by senior management. ;either the universalist

nor the contextual paradigm is wrong or an inade*uate way to study global issues&

but research in this area will be +enhanced if we utilize the best of both' ($rewster&



1222". As SGH! has a strong applied tradition& a strong theoretical or conceptual

basis must be put forth to Custify whether the researcher did intend to solve a

distinct managerial problem or concern. A literature review that provides a

foundation for evaluation and subse*uent referral should be developed. Assuming

that either theory& problem)solving or hypothesis)testing is the researcher's goal&

the researcher must follow the tradition of falsi#ablity& level of analysis& unit of focusand operationalization. The sample and context of the sample would then include

the type of selection& information given to the subCects& subCects' emotional and

social states& and the researcher's rapport with the subCects (if direct contact was

made". :ata collection& analysis and veri#cation discussing reliability& validity&

generalizability& replication& types and -inds of data with steps in its collection

should all be supplied. Finally& a discussion in regard to the results& implications&

limitations& contribution and alternative explanations should be considered. 7n

evaluating the results of global research and drawing conclusions& the development

of procedures and guidelines often may dier widely. Transnational #rms no longer

have Cust one culture that inherently de#nes their organizational culture& as senior

executives are generally from numerous nationalities (Adler and $artholomew&

1223". The transition from multi)domestic to global creates the greatest challenge in

global research in regard to the internationalization process and thus must be ta-en

into account in the process of drawing conclusions. Summary and conclusion The

historic arrangement between researchers and the static domestic environment is

succumbing to a global mar-etplace fraught with uncertainty and new variables that

were previously unaccounted for. The tried and true *uantitative methods&

framewor-s and paradigms of estern researchers no longer seem ade*uate in

regard to global H! research. Global researchers are now confronted with complex

new issues that interact such as5 social systems and institutions& interpersonal

relationships& politics& polities& religion& economic systems and educational andtechnological bases. The demands for shared norms and values within a global

networ- pose a myriad of simultaneous challenges andor problems in the

development of SGH! systems5 1" fre*uent ambiguity about human resource

management authority/ 3" multiple interdependencies among subsidiaries/ ?"

increased uncertainty about the sustainability of networ- ,exibility and e>ciency/

@" possible discontinuities in securing top)level support for changes in human

resource management systems/ and 4" di>culties in ac*uiring the multiplicity of

s-ills and competencies re*uired for eective SGH! in -nowledge sharing

(;ona-a& 122</ ing and Jan de Jen& 1223". hich combination of these challenges

will be most salient at a particular time period or for a speci#c networ-con#guration will depend upon which aspect dominates the relational content in the

global networ-& these aspects being5 1" the communications aspect& 3" the

exchange aspect or ?" the normative aspect. The communications aspect of

relational content in a global networ- refers to the human resource management)

related information apprehension among networ- members. The exchange aspect is

related to operating human resource management aspects supporting the ,ow of

goods andor services& whereas the normative aspect re,ects shared expectations



that networ- members have of one another based on some social feature (i.e.

culture". The interplay of these aspects may pro#le the emergence of the following

potential barriers creating signi#cant problems for SGH! researchers. !ultiplicity

of networ- units The multitude of current and potential global networ- units

re*uires continuous managerial mental accounting and prioritization in selecting

actual collaborating units. This re*uires shifting the human resource managementselection criteria for personnel as well as practices as the #rm strategic orientation

changes. 7n other words& a global human resource manager needs to develop an

informed sense of which unit's human resource management systems are most

compatible with the obCectives of the networ-. !oreover& when operating

simultaneously in multiple vertical and horizontal networ-s& a global human

resource manager faces multiple actors with varying human resource management)

related tas-s& policies and resources instrumental for the #rm strategic goal

achievement. These multi)actor structures re*uire managerial multi)tas-ing

competence in the development of the #rm dynamic relational capabilities and

routines. Global networ- instability Though a global networ- oers the potential for

the #rm's rapid adaptation to changing conditions& ,exibility of adCustment and

capacity for innovation& an SGH! system must bridge the gaps of incomplete

-nowledge or goal con,icts in the networ- about human resource management

,exibility. Timely managerial action is re*uired to facilitate rapid human resource

management responses& in the global networ-& to emerging pro#table opportunities

and successful human resource management adaptation to the current and future

sets of its technologies& products and production capacities and to rapidly changing

mar-ets. The SGH! system must direct collaborative eort and operating needs

towards eective outcomes while maintaining networ- responsiveness& changing

networ- memberships and avoiding hierarchy. :iscontinuities in internal

organizational support The success of global networ-ing of human resourcemanagement systems re*uires prior attainment of internal organizational resource

co)ordination and top)level management support. 7n other words& external

networ-ing success depends upon a previous success in the internal management

coalition)building environment for human resource management ,exibility. The most

critical internal support mechanism for continuity of a global human resource

management success is the top management team headed by the 0DE. !ulti)

dimensionality of strategic human resource leadership tas- A manager developing

an SGH! system faces a complex tas- of multiple interdisciplinary dimensions5 1"

technical dimensions (technological options" of the global networ-/ 3" legal

dimensions (regulative restraints" aecting networ-ing/ ?" political dimensions(centrality bargaining" of networ- power distribution/ and @" economic dimensions

(value capturing" of value chain streamlining. This multidimensionality of the

strategic human resource management tas- imposes extraordinary time and

competency demands upon global human resource managers and their ability to

combine multiple dimensions into eective #rm actions. !ulti)s-ill leadership

demands for global networ- human resource management Global networ-s re*uire

,exible capacities& s-ills and -nowledge that go beyond those of hierarchical human



resource management. These multi)s-ill demands for managing within a SGH!

system include5 1" agile and decisive leadership behaviour expressed in continuing

engagement and assertive acting on a changing information base (i.e. thin-ing and

acting in options"/ 3" ability to identify& access and tap into the s-ills& -nowledge

and resources of internal and external networ- sta-eholders (i.e. global human

resource managers need to -now who possesses or controls the critical resources5capital& technology& information& expertise& time and the absorptive capacity

indispensable for ,exible human resource management designs"/ ?" capability to

formulate mutual bene#ts and engender purposeful interactions among the

identi#ed sta-eholders with the obCective of pursuing human resource management)

related aspects of a co)operative ideaproCectprogrammerelationshipmembership/

@" building trust with the sta-eholders who possess needed resources (i.e.

expertise"/ 4" multi)level co)ordination across many global human resource cultures&

procedures and divisions of labour incorporated into the global networ-/ and 6"

trans)disciplinary competence *uic-ly to ac*uire& utilize and apply -nowledge from

multiple disciplinary practices. :omestic H! has had to evolve along with the

global mar-etplace& as new employees such as expatriates& third)country nationals&

host)country nationals and inpatriates have provided a plethora of new and often

contradictory demands. SGH! demands new research tools eectively to

understand and evaluate this global phenomena. Dxacerbating this trend is the

predilection of estern researchers to continue using out)dated theories and

methods to evaluate methodologically the global issues whose applicability is in

doubt. A mixed)method research stream is considered the most appropriate method

to examine these new global issues in SGH!. nfortunately& both the time and the

cost of this type of research are either prohibitive or frighten researchers who are on

the +tenure cloc-'. A combination of *ualitative and *uantitative through a mixed)

method techni*ue provides the researcher with the ,exibility to adapt to uncertainglobal issues and the ability to delve deeply to discern the cultural& societal and

institutional nuances present. 7n essence& the uncertain global mar-etplace will only

continue to grow and& along with it& the many issues for SGH!. The human

element in global organizations becomes increasingly important in this setting and

both global co)ordination and control of their wor-force will aect corporations'

strategies. These global employees may also provide the necessary core

competency with which to maintain global competitiveness. As SGH! ta-es the

forefront in corporate strategy and practitioners recognize the complexity of a

global wor-force& the mixed)method techni*ue will be needed to develop both

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Strategic Global Human Resource Management Research in the Twenty

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