Summary of FE (S2)

Foundations of Educations Prepared by: Sim Siden Lecturer: CVR Class: M4.2

Semester 2

1

SUMMARY FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

Semester 2

Chapter 1 Education and Society

Unit 1

Understanding School and Society What is the role of the school?

1. Is it equipping our young to compete successfully in worldwide economic markets? 2. Is it promoting an equitable and stable society by educating all our students? 3. Is it equipping them with the skills and attitudes to live in a society that is increasingly

diverse and pluralistic? 4. Is it teaching them to respect and protect an increasingly endangered environment?

Tools of inquiry: Six analytical concepts/terms

1. Social theory an attempt to explain social phenomena and to answer the questions how and why something happens. Ex: The rise in public school attendance

# increase in democratic sentiment and greater potential for social mobility in the U.S. # (economic factor) decreased dependence on child labor both on farms and in factors. # the need for adult workers with specialized skills and work force behavior.

Criteria and procedures to accept or reject a theory 1. We ask if the theory is internally consistent. Any contradictions within

the theory itself? 2. The more data (i.e. facts) it can account for, the better the theory is. 3. A particular theory must well fit with other theories.

2. Schooling

the totality of experience that occur within the institution called school, not all of which are educational. Schooling includes:

- all the activities which take place with the curriculum of a school (courses and program).

- extracurricular - hidden curriculum

3. Training

1. the process used to teach specific practical skills or 2. a set of experience provided to some organisms (human or not) in an

attempt to render its responses predictable according to the goals of the trainer.

Behavioral psychology

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

2

- many astute social observers feel pessimistic regarding the future of creative individualism.

- anti-utopian writers fear is the vast potential for social control and manipulation inherent in training techniques.

- potential for indoctrination that doesnt mean training be stunned.

- Traffic light - Memorizing irregular verbs

4. Education

It is an intellectual and spiritual process. In a general sense, the formal and informal processes of teaching and learning used to develop a persons knowledge, skills, attitudes, understanding, etc., in a certain area or domain.

Education vs Training - Training connotes improved ability to do something, without deepened

understanding, widened sympathy, or heightened aspiration. - Training must precede education - Always training concerns itself with tools and devices, while education

concerns itself with something that has intellectual or spiritual content and motive.

- Training is means; education is end. Abraham Flexner in 1927 - Training tends to reproduce the responses of the trainers - Education produces responses which educator may not have even

contemplated. 5. Political Economy

the social, cultural, economic, political, and demographic arrangement in society. # to study the political economy of a particular society is to examine how that society is organized. # Schools are one of the institutions which make up the political economy. # when any part of the political economy experiences significant change, other parts of it will be affected.

6. Ideology

an interpretive lens that a society looks through in order to organize its experiences.

- ideology does not refer primarily to how individuals think; rather, it refers to the beliefs, value systems, and understandings of social group.

- it refers to the beliefs, values, and ways of understanding that guide policy formation in any society and that are intended to explain and justify the societys institutions and social arrangements.

- powerful people => dominant ideology - contradictory ideologies => social unrest and even revolution EX: Police force => good for the wealthy => not food for less privileged economic class

* The history of the term Ideology Two main categories

1. Ideology as false belief

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

3

distort their (people who have their own ideology) vision and prohibit understanding.

2. Ideology as a universal condition that underlies all social understanding ideologies that are embedded in all societies; that they

facilitate the organization of a societys perceptions and understanding; and that it is important to recognize ideologies, both our own and others.

to argue that ideologies are embedded in all societies is not to say that we cannot make judgments about ideologies or that the values of a given ideology are as good or as true as those of any other.

EX: The dominant ideology of Nazi Germany morally corrupt. schooling teach and legitimate a societys ideology at the heart of the democratic ideal children mature into

independently thinking adults who can analyze and criticize their own society and its dominant ideology.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Unit 2

Perspective on Literacy

A brief historical perspective It is difficult to compare literacy rates in contemporary society with literacy in earlier times.

1. There is lack of agreement about how to define literacy. 2. In the 18th and 19th centuries there were no widespread, systematic studies of literacy such

as exist today. => In the last two centuries, wealthier and men access to more forms of education. => Gender, race, and religion obstacles to education. Literacy as a social construction - In a predominantly agrarian society, literacy was not so essential to employment and the conduct of daily affairs. - Most people did not vote; only a small minority consisting of white, male property owners. => The increasingly close connection of illiteracy to marginality suggests two things about the meaning of literacy: => Social conditions 1. the values of literacy changes 2. the very definition of literacy changes 4 Contemporary Perspective on Literacy

1. Conventional Literacy The ability to read and write a simple message in any language. Whose interests are served?

- can see progress - less urgent to fund adult education - obscure the social and educational inequalities that other conceptions of

literacy might reveal.

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

4

2. Functional Literacy

=> The United Nations suggested the following definition in 1971, a person is literate when he has acquired the essential knowledge and skills which enable him to engage in all those activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning in his group or community => The Literacy Volunteers of America, Inc., Functional literacy relates to the ability of an individual to use reading, writing, and computational skills in everyday life situations. Limitations of the functional literacy perspective => Functional literacy shows how our society educates (in terms of literacy, at least) different social groups to different degrees. => Kozols basic objection: functional literacy denotes, as a goal, the competence to function at the lowest levels of mechanical performance. Kozols First limitation its tendency to frame desirable functions in very mechanical ways: 5 spheres of understanding and activity that are important for individuals to function effectively.

1. consumer 2. occupational 3. health 4. government and law 5. community resources

=> it is not indicated that effective functioning might include the ability to think critically and creatively about changes in such arenas. Lankshear Second limitation its tendency to locate the problem of illiteracy in the victims of social inequality personal deficiency rather than something about the world such as a shrinking or shifting labor market, or an economic crisis.

3. Cultural Literacy Hirsch is one among many who argue that education must provide people with a basic knowledge function to help them give meaning to the words they read. Basic information:

- historical names and events - geographical places - authors and works from national and world literature - patriotic sings - nursery rhymes, etc.,

=> De Castell, Luke, and Maclenan have called for a conception of literacy that takes into account particular cultural contexts and the broader literacy needs for social and political practice, as determined by the needs of any truly participatory democracy. Cultural Literacy: Whose interests are served? Some teacher - cultural literacy as a trivial pursuit

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

5

- pours facts into students heads - easily diverts teachers from the task of having students think critically and reflectively about the subject.

Henry, People who know lots of facts, but have little ability to think critically about public issues is educationally shortsighted, even dangerous in democracy. Henrys remark cultural literacy => Ss not active and critical in learning, but can absorb enough information => good communication. Jacques Ellul illiterate people are more willing to accept the propaganda. Cultural literacy => writers to make their point.

=> not clear that readers think very deeply or critically about the writers argument.

4. Critical Literacy / emancipatory literacy Literacy is a double-edged sword, Jacques Ellul.

Reading and writing have no inherent disposition to produce independent thinking literacy is usually intended to make me harmless, obedient, and productive, Robert Pattison. Literacy makes people believe that their being oppressed is correct, Henry => These comments illustrate several important features of the critical literacy

1. The critical literacy draws attention to power relations in society by focusing on oppression.

2. The critical literacy perspective particularly attends to how knowledge and power are interrelated.

3. For critical literacy theorists, the basis of literacy is the capacity to think and act reflectively, not the ability to read lines on a page.

=> The point of critical literacy is not reading words but understanding the world and acting to change the social relation of oppression to relation of liberation. => The critical literacy perspective redefines literacy as the ability to understand and act against the social relations of oppression.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Unit 3 Life in Schools

The Teacher as Gate keeper Educator concerned about school improvement have called attention to the inefficient use of time in school, claiming that we lose between one-quarter and one-half of the time available for learning through:

- attendance problems - noninstructional activities (such as class changes and assemblies), - administrative and organizational activities - and disruptions caused by student misbehavior

# Research shows that, when more time is allocated to subject-matter learning, student achievement increases. When this valuable resource is spent handing out supplies or reprimanding misbehavior, it is lost for learning. Gatekeeping

As gatekeepers, teachers must determine who will talk, when, and for how long, as well as the basic direction of the communication.

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

6

The rule of two-thirds Ned Flanders, Teachers is talking during two-thirds of the classroom time.

=> Students are forced into a passive role, which eventually results in negative attitudes, lower achievement, and a general dependency on the teacher.

Tracking the selection process in which students are continually evaluated by teachers and administrators. Some students find themselves steered toward honors classes, others to remedial sections; some students are on the way to colleges, while others are preparing for vocations. This occurs on the basis of individual ability, not race, class, ethnic background, or sex. Intelligence testing, grouping, and tracking are necessary if we are to educate students according to their ability and future potential. Talcott Parson, future roles in adult life are determined by student achievement in elementary school.

School norms and childrens culture clash Some racial and ethnic groups value cooperation and teamwork, yet school norms frequently stress individual, competitive modes of learning. => Such cultural clashes work to the detriment of certain groups, dismissing them to lower-ability classes and tracks.

Disadvantages of tracking badly biased does little to help

=> Teachers may use such criteria as physical appearance, socioeconomic status, and language usage to separate students into groups of fast learners and slow learners. => They spend more time with fast learners and give them more instruction and encouragement attitude of self-degradation and hostility toward one another.

Ability Grouping detrimental to low-ability students

teachers hold lower expectations of, offer fewer constructive comments to, and make fewer demands of students in low-ability groups. => these differences increase over time.

The Power of Peer Groups Adult ignorance is by far the most agonizing injustice.

The schools peer culture can produce overt racism; other times, the bias is more subtle and begins at an early age. Where the peer group become increasingly important in the childrens lives eventually competing with and even eclipsing parental influence.

Dominant male peer group For boys who are rejected because they are considered sissies, the consequences of being left out of the dominant male peer group are painful and severe => increasing number of social, emotional, and academic problems. Appearance becomes the key to social status.

Gender wall block boys and girls from interacting is stronger than barriers to racial integration.

Rejection by the childs peer group is a sensitive indicator of future problems, ranging from juvenile delinquency to mental breakdown.

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

7

=> An insightful teacher can structure a classroom to minimize negative and hurtful interaction and maximize the positive power of peer group relation group work.

High Schools Adolescent Society

Rock singer Frank Zappa said, High school isnt a time and a place. Its a state of mind. High schools are remembered as a caste system of innies and outies, a minutely detailed social register in which ones popularity or lack of it was continually analysed and contemplated. Those who are popular hold the highest status. David Owen likened adolescents to adults who are visiting a foreign country and a strange culture. No study shows any correlation between high status in high school and later achievement as a adult. One researcher speculates that it is those on the second tier, those who group just below the top are most likely to succeed after high school.

The Affective Side of School Reform Affective students needs psychological, emotional, and social needs of the students Delusion of uniqueness

a sense that no one knows how I feel, no one else faces these problems, no one cares about me.

The four world of childhood (1) family (2) friends (3) school and (4) work. When children are cut off from these four worlds, the situation can become serious and even life-threatening.

Alfie Kohn, an educator, claims that the social and affective sides of school must become an explicit part of the formal curriculum: It is possible to integrate prosocial lessons into the regular curriculum . Indeed to study literature or history by grappling with moral or social dilemmas is to invite a deeper engagement with these subjects. => Schools should provide a long-term effort in prosocial education, teach children to take responsibility and care for one another.

Adolescent Basic Human Needs caring relationships with adults, guidance in facing sometimes overwhelming biological and psychological changes, the security of belonging to constructive peer group, and the perception of future opportunity.

The Carnegie report recommendations to solve the problems of students trauma

- Divide large schools into smaller communities for learning. - Create a core curriculum. - Eliminating tracking. - Emphasize cooperative learning. - Develop stronger partnerships between schools and communities. - Assign teams of teachers and students, with an adult adviser for each

student. - Emphasize the link between education and good health - Strengthen teacher preparation for dealing with the adolescent age group.

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

8

What Makes a School Effective? Five-factor theory of effective schools Factor 1. Strong Leadership The school has competent teaching and non-teaching staff. The management is well structured, making students feel a sense of belonging to the school.

Students make significant achievement gains in schools in which principals: - articulate a clear school mission - are a visible presence in classrooms and hallways - hold high expectations for teachers and students - spend a major portion of the day working with teachers to improve

instruction - are actively involved in diagnosing instructional problems - create a positive school climate

Factor 2. A Clear School Mission Good principals

- develop a vision of what the school should be and share that vision with all members of the educational community. => teachers understand the school goals and all work together for achievements.

- articulate a specific school mission, and they stress innovation and improvement.

The need for the principal to share his or her vision extends not only to teachers but also to parents as well.

Teachers + parents => students achievement Less effective principals

- are vague about their goals => teachers lack a common understanding of the school mission

- focus on maintaining the status quo - make such comments as we have a good school and a good faculty, and I

wan to keep it that way.

Factor 3. Preventing School Violence: A safe and Orderly Climate

- focus on academic achievement - families and communities are involved in a meaningful way - students and staff treat each other with respect - student concerns and interests are supported - students problems are identified and attended to before they deteriorate

into violence - implement a variety of programs and social services such as school

psychologists, special education programs, family social workers, and school-wide programs instituted to increase communication and reduce tension.

Several warning signs: indicators of impending violence - social withdrawal, feelings of excessive isolation, or even rejection - victims of sexual or physical abuse, or are picked on and bullied by

others - emotional or psychological turmoil => poor academic performance

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

9

- impulsivity, anger, and a history of disciplinary problems - affiliation with gangs; prejudice and bigotry toward racial, ethnic, gay, and

lesbian groups; drug or alcohol use; and inappropriate access to firearms

Factor 4. Monitoring Student Progress

- profiles clearly documenting class and school progress - students have a clear sense of how they are doing in their studies - students keep their progress charts in their notebooks - students folders contain thorough records of student scores on

standardized tests, as well as samples of classwork, homework, and performance on weekly tests.

Effective schools carefully monitor and assess student progress in a variety of ways:

- Norm-referenced tests compare individual students with others - Objective-referenced tests whether a student has mastered a designed

body of knowledge - Teacher-made tests also objective-referenced more frequently than

assessments administered by the district or state at least every two weeks. - Recordkeeping students keep track of course objectives and their

progress toward meeting those objectives. Walberg and colleagues claim that the correlation between graded homework and student achievement is among the highest discovered in educational research.

Factor 5. High Expectations There is now extensive evidence showing that

- high teacher expectations => high student achievement - low teacher expectations => low achievement

Teachers expectations have negative impact. An inaccurate judgment about a student can be made because of

- error - unconscious prejudice - or stereotype

EX: 1. Good-looking, well-dressed students thought to be smarter than less attractive ones.

2. Male as brighter than female 3. Black students as less capable or intelligent 4. A poor performance on a single standardized test (bcos of illness)

=> teacher to hold an inaccurate assessment of a students ability for months and even years.

5. Even a casual comments in the teachers lounge can shape the expectations of other teachers.

Teachers offer students for whom they hold low expectations: - fewer opportunities to respond - less praise - less challenging work - fewer nonverbal signs (eye contact, smiles, positive regard)

In effective school, teachers who hold high expectations - set objectices

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

10

- work toward mastery of those objectives - spend more time on instruction - and actively monitor student progress - believe that they can deliver high-quality instruction - feel that no matter how well a class goes, next time it will be better

A Note of Caution on Effective School Research

Although research on what makes school effectives has had a direct impact on national reform movements, it has limitations. 1. There is disagreement over the definition of an effective school. 2. Much of the research has been conducted in the lower grade of elementary schools 3. findings are not specific enough to provide a blueprint for developing effective schools

Beyond Five Factors

- Early start - Focus on reading and math - Smaller schools - Smaller classes - Increased learning time - Assessment of students progress - Teacher training

To day, there is little evidence connecting technology with school effectiveness.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Chapter 2

Innovation in Education The Purpose of Innovation Good philosophical reasons for seeking to innovate in education.

1. One of these is all our efforts are largely wasted unless what we teach is relevant to the aims and objectives of our pupils, the values of our culture and the resources at our disposal.

2. Another is that, just as our knowledge changes in response to books we read, so our teaching must respond to these changes.

3. If ever education were to become so mummified that it did not change, the society itself would die. => Each country must discover for itself its own unique system one that suits its own particular needs and aspirations.

4. Just as knowledge changes, so does society, for it is a living, dynamic organism that exerts pressure on its members to conform to its ideals and standards.

At present the sociological goals that are influencing innovation in African education are the desire:

- to encourage traditional culture - to involve the community - to share education fairly - and make it more democratic

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

11

Improved Learning and Teaching More thought is being given to the problem of greater efficiency in teaching so that education for more people does not result in less education for everyone. One outcome of this has been that:

- new ways of doing familiar teaching jobs have been tried out - and greater responsibility has been given to the student for his learning. - renewed attention has been given to specific teaching skills and to applying

them in more flexible ways to the organization of both learning and teaching.

The Problem of Innovation Internal efficiency must come first since the high repetition and drop-out rates, which are a cause of ruinous wastage and a basic hindrance to quantitative expansion, originate in:

- the unsuitability of curricula and methods - the shortage of teaching equipment - teaching which is too theoretical - teachers who are underqualified - poor administration in the schools - overcrowded classes - all those factors that militate against serious teaching

External efficiency must be tackled too since education leads to alienation of the child and inability to adjust to his society or to work productively unless:

- it is closely linked to the childs environment - it enables him to imagine the world in which he is going to live - it prepares him for change - it prepares him for the working world

Four factors emerge as essential for successful innovation: 1. Adequate participation in planning by all those who will be involved

at various levels and stages in implementing a project. 2. Support in principle from those authorities who have responsibility

for education in the area in which an innovation will operate. 3. Sufficient preparation to ensure that the teachers who will be

involved and the facilities at their disposal will be capable of meeting the demands place upon them.

4. Clear identification of the limits within which an innovation may operate and the extent of the supporting services that can be provided.

Obstacles to Innovation Geographical factors

- Problems of distance - Poor transport links - Isolation - Poor climatic condition - Difficulty in communication

Historical factors - Colonial effects - Irrelevant curriculum - Traditions opposed to change

Economic factors - Lack of financial support - Inflationary effects

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

12

Procedural difficulties - Late delivery of materials - Lack of skilled manpower - Lack of adequate co-ordination and consultation - Insufficient materials - lack of agreement on the project

personal - Insufficient rewards - Persons in key roles unsympathetic to the change - Key persons not fully understanding the programme - personality conflicts

Evaluation If any innovation is to be successful, there must be a system by which its effects can be tested and the degree to which it has achieved its objectives can be assessed.

Formative evaluation The principle of formative evaluation requires that tests are made in small pilot projects and the findings fed back to the team devising the innovation

necessary changes + revised innovation launch on to a wider public

Summative evaluation in which the ultimate success of the innovation will be assessed.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Chapter 3

School Management

Unit 1 How the Past Has Shaped the Future

The Shaky Foundation of School System Structures

Three different, often competing and clearly contradictory, conceptions of the purpose of schools have shaped present thinking about the issues confronting those who would reform and improve our schools. => Early day promote republican/Protestant morality and develop the kind of literacy thought to be essential to fulfilling ones civic duties. => During the period following the Civil War to Americanize the immigrant child and to select, sort, and standardize students according to their ability fit into the urban factory system. => Another purpose to serve social reform purposes as well as political, economic, and cultural ends to remediate social ills. => By 1930s, - to serve as an engine of social reform a means by which the injustices inherent in an urban industrial society might be redressed.

The School as Tribal Center

- young people be literate enough to fulfill their civic duties - to induct the young into the traditions of the tribe. - Citizenship and cultural enlightenment became the basis for the school

curriculum

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

13

The School as Factory

- to serve economic as well as cultural and civic purposes - the image that educators came to hold of themselves and their enterprises

began to shift as well. - schools designed to select and sort began from the assumption that

standards must be established and the maintained => graded school system and the graded reader.

- The curriculum is an assembly line for students: a fast curriculum for fast students, a modified curriculum for the not so fast, and a vocational curriculum for others.

- Students viewed as products to be molded products of schooling - Students are products and a students background determines the quality of

the raw material. - Children from poor families are not good raw materials for educational

enterprise. Children of the affluent do quite nicely in school. Two conceptions of teachers

1.Teachers should be highly skilled technocrats: professionals - engineers, accountants, and architects. => emphasis on technique and technical training => the technical skills of teachers are sufficient to do things right 2.Teachers are not very skilled, not very insightful: like the factory workers at the assembly line. => tight supervision and product inspection => curriculum guides made simple for teachers as well as students => curriculum with tests to inspect the students

The role of the principal - manager of the industrial center ability to manage time effectively, to

coordinate complex schedules for others to follow - superintendent becomes the plant manager

The School as Hospital

- to redress the pain and suffering imposed on children by the urban industrial society

- Schools obligation is to ensure that injustice and inequity in society be eliminated and children receive an even break in life

- Poor or rich entitle to the same education - concentrate on the needs of the children - study each child so that every student receives precisely the treatment he or

he needs. - teaching occupation be professionalized. - teachers as service-delivery professionals much as physicians and lawyers

to meet the clients needs. - teachers have command of a body of skills and knowledge. - keep students in a dependent role - curriculum becomes a prescription, and the ideal prescription is highly

individualized - heavy emphasis is given to diagnostic testing and the use of scientific

instruments

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

14

- favour intervention strategies (treatments) based on research and derived from clinical trials.

The real problem is that schools have gotten away from their purposes to educate children and have taken on services that should be provided by other agencies. Three critical arguments of this image:

1. teachers do not have command of a special body of knowledge (as do physicians and lawyers) and that there is in fact no special body of knowledge available to teaching.

2. the professionalization of teaching, especially if it proceeded along the lines pursued by law and medicine, would be a threat to lay control.

3. the professionalization of teaching would lead to anarchy, since teachers would be in a position to prescribe whatever they think the student needs, regardless of the directives of administrators or the commandments of the school board.

The reformulation must contain elements of all three of the prior formulations tribal center, factory, and hospital.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Unit 2 Teacher Effectiveness

Is Teaching an Art or a Skill?

Behind even the most brilliant teaching performance, there is usually well-practiced skill at work. The teachers in the vignette used these proven skills structure, motivation, clarity, high expectations, and questioning.

The Mysterious Case of Teacher Effectiveness

Research helps us distinguish between what we think will work and what really works. Academic Learning Time # Research more time pursuing academic content achieve more. Allocated time

the time a teacher schedules for a subject for example 30 minute a day for math. Engaged time

part of allocated time in which students are actively involved with academic subject matter (intently listening to a lecture, participating in a class discussion, writing an essay, solving math problems). => daydream, doodle, writes notes to each other, talk with peers about nonacademic topics, or wait for instructions not involved in engaged time.

Academic learning time engaged time with a high success rate. # Studies a high success rate is positively related to student achievement. Classroom Management Classroom Rules:

1. Respect other peoples rights and feelings. Avoid teasing and making fun of others. 2. Raise your hand to talk. Also, raise your hand if you need help. Share your time and

efforts with others. Listening is as important as speaking.

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

15

3. Respect other peoples property and places. Move around the room safely, and do not disturb others.

4. If you think of a rule that will help us all live and work together more effectively, please share it with us at any time.

# Research effective classroom managers are nearly always good planners. => The more important rules of classroom behavior are posted, as are the consequences of not following them.

Three basic principles for setting class rules: 1. Rules should be few in number. 2. They should seem fair and reasonable to students. 3. Rules should fit the growth and maturation of the students.

=> Rule formation can be handle in several ways:

- develop the list of rules together with students - present a list of established rules and ask students to give specific examples

or provide reasons for having such rules. => Good mangers minimize disturbances, provide students with a sense of confidence and security, and make sure that instruction can proceed efficiently. They set up their rooms according to the following principles:

Teachers should be able to see all students at all times arranged desks, teachers cues to off-task students behavour.

Teaching materials and supplies should be readily available self-help area: Ss have direct access to supplies.

High-traffic areas should be free of congestion arranged desks Students should be able to see instructional presentations

# Research students who are seated far away from the teacher or the instructional activity are less likely to be involved in class discussions teach from different areas

Procedures and routines should be actively taught in the same way that academic content is taught more time for academic learning.

=> In well-managed classes where teachers keep the momentum going, students are more likely to be on task. The effective teachers use several strategies to avoid interruptions and to keep instruction proceeding smoothly: 1. Group Alerting By asking questions first and then naming the students to respond. 2. Withitness eyes in the back of the head teachers are aware of student behavior in all parts of the room at all times. 3. Overlapping

the ability to do several things at once reprimanding the students passing notes and help another child with a math problem without interrupting the flow of the lesson.

4. Least Intervention teachers use the simplest intervention that works nonverbal cues or praise students who are attending to the lesson: Im glad to see => If necessary, teachers just say a little bit.

5. Fragmentation

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

16

teachers manage the transition from one lesson to the next smoothly and effectively, avoiding a bumpy transition.

=> When students do not obey a simple reminder, the teacher should repeat the warning, clearly stating the appropriate behavior. If fails => stronger consequences such as sending Ss to school office or calling the parents => Teachers must understand and manage student anger and aggression. Several classroom strategies can help:

Choice provide appropriate options to give a student a sense of some control and freedom. Voice listen to young people => reduce the likelihood of misbehavour. Responsibility Ss are empowered => less likely to vent rage.

=> Effective teachers are good classroom managers and good organizers of academic content and instruction. The Pedagogical Cycle (85% of the cycles in the classroom interaction)

1. Structure T provides info, provides direction, and introduces the topics. 2. Question T asks a question. 3. Respond Ss answer the question, or try to. 4. React T reacts to Ss answer and provides feedback. => When T learn to enhance and refine each of the moves of the pedagogical cycle, Ss achievement is increased. Clarity and Academic Structure

Effective academic structure sets the stage for learning and occurs mainly at the beginning of the lesson. An Academic Structure usually consist of:

o Objective. Ss know the objective need a road map of where they are going and why.

o Review. Review prior learning reteach. o Motivation. Create an anticipatory set intriguing questions, an anecdote, a joke,

or a challenging riddle. o Transition. Provide connections to integrate old and new info. o Clarification. Break down a large body of info => chunking o Examples. o Directions. distinctly and slowly repeat or break info into small segments o Enthusiasm. Make it clear why the info is interesting and important. o Closure. close with a brief review or summary either by T or Ss.

Questioning Good questioning is at the very core of good teaching.

=> Many educators differentiate between factual, lower-order questions and thought-provoking, higher-order questions. Blooms taxonomy (intellectual level of questions)

From the lowest level of questions, knowledge, to the highest level, evaluation. A lower-order questions these questions can be answer through memory and recall. # Research 70 to 95 % of a teachers questions are lower-order. A higher-order questions

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

17

demands more thought and usually more time before Ss reach a response. ask for evaluation, comparisons, causal relationships, problem solving, or divergent, open-ended thinking. Look at the following:

1. Do you think that ? 2. What similarities in ? 3. Considering changes , what is the impact of ? 4. Considering what , how would you go about ? 5. What would happen if ?

=> Both lower-order and higher-order questions are important and should be matched to appropriate instructional goals: Ask lower-order questions when

o Ss are being introduced to new information. o Ss are working on drill and practice. o Ss are reviewing previously learned info

Ask higher-order questions when o You want Ss to manipulate already established info in more sophisticated way o Ss are working on problem-solving skills o Ss are involved in a creative or affective discussion o Ss are asked to make judgments about quality, aesthetics (appreciation), or ethics.

Wait Time Wait time 1 After asking a question, teachers wait for a student response. Wait time 2 After Ss complete the answer, teachers begin their reaction or next question.

=> Teachers need to remember to wait three to five seconds after asking a question (wait time 1) and before reacting to a student answer (wait time 2) => When wait time 1 and wait time 2 are increased, classroom interaction is changed in several positive ways.

Changes in Student Behavior Response increases dramatically Ss - more likely to support their statements with evidence More ss participate in discussion. Fewer discipline problems disrupt the class Ss achievement increases on written tests that measures more complex levels

of thinking. Changes in Teacher Behavior

Ts comments less disjointed and more fluent => discussion more logical, thoughtful, and coherent.

T ask more sophisticated, higher-order questions. T hold higher expectations for all Ss.

# Research T give more wait time to Ss for whom they hold higher expectation. => it is all too easy to slip into split-second question-and-answer patterns. => Two self-monitoring cues for teachers to slow themselves down:

1. put their hands behind his back and counts on his fingers 2. cover their mouth with their hand (in a thoughtful pose) to keep themselves from

talking and thereby destroying the pause that lets Ss think. Reaction or Productive Feedback Teachers generally use four types of reactions, Sadker and Sadker

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

18

1. Praise (positive comments Excellent, good job) 2. Acceptance (the most frequently used) (acknowledge that the answer is acceptable

Uh-huh, Okay) 3. Remediation (second most frequently used) (encourage a more accurate response or

encourage Ss to think more clearly, creatively, or logically Try again, Sharpen your answer, and check your addition)

4. Criticism (inaccurate or inappropriate terrible paper, wrong) => John Goodlad, learning is enhanced when students understand what is expected of them, get recognition for their work, learn about their errors, and receive guidance in improving their performances. Using Praise Effectively It is best when:

1. Praise is contingent upon student performance closely follow behavior. 2. Praise is specific state what behavior is noteworthy. 3. Praise is sincere reflect Ss experience, growth, and development. 4. Praise lets Ss know what their competence and the importance of their accomplishment. 5. Praise attributes success to ability or effort.

- Excellent you must have spent a long time doing it. (attribute to effort) - Fantastic youve got a real creative writing. (attribute to ability)

6. Praise uses past performance as a context for describing present performance. Last week, you were having problem with , but now youve mastered it.

=> Ss also need to know when their efforts are inadequate or incorrect:

1. Corrective feedback is specific and contingent upon Ss performance closely follow behavour.

2. Critical comments focus on Ss performance and are not of a personal nature. 3. Feedback provides a clear blueprint for improvement suggesting an approach for

attaining success. 4. An environment is established that lets Ss know it is acceptable to make mistakes. 5. Corrective feedback relates eventual success to effort I know you can do it if you give

yourself some more time. 6. Corrective feedback recognized when Ss have made improvements in their performance.

Last week, you were having problem with , but now youve mastered it. => An Okay classroom allows Ss error and misunderstanding to go uncorrected. Variety in Process and Content

When teacher fails to provide sufficient variety, lessons become monotonous and Ss get off task. Variety in content moving from one subject area to another

EX: switching from memorizing vocabulary to analyzing symbols in a short story. Variety in process 60-minute lesson 10 minute overview providing the structure for the class 15 minute Q and A session 25 minute video 10 minute discussion and closure There are a number of activities to maintain Ss interest, please see page 108.

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

19

Current Models of Effective Instruction Direct Teaching (Also called systematic, active or explicit teaching)

emphasize the importance of a structural lesson in which presentation of new information is followed by student practice and teacher feedback. The role of the teacher is that of a strong leader, one who structures the classroom and sequences subject matter to reflect a clear academic focus. Six principles of direct teaching: 1. Daily review: prior learning, assigned homework, clarify points of confusion 2. New materials: T present the objective new info is broken down into smaller steps

main points with concrete examples ask question frequently to check. 3. Guided practice: use new skills and knowledge under T supervision => 70 to 80 %

accuracy. 4. Specific feedback: acknowledge correct answer correct inaccurate responses 5. Independent practice: Ss do by themselves => 95% accuracy. 6. Weekly and monthly reviews.

Cooperative Learning

an approach to teaching and learning in which classrooms are organized so that students work together in small co-operative teams. Students work on activities in small, heterogeneous groups, and they often receive rewards or regconition based on the overall group performance. Such an approach to learning is said to increase students learning since:

a. it is less threatening for many students b. it increase the amount of student participation in the classroom c. it reduces the need for competitiveness, and d. it reduces the teachers dominance in the classroom.

=> Cooperative learning groups work best when they meet the following criteria: - Groups should be heterogeneous - small, perhaps two to six members - circular to permit easy conversation - shared group goal, shared division of labour, and shared materials =>

positive interdependence # Research cooperative learning promotes both intellectual and emotional growth:

Ss make higher achievement gains Ss have higher levels of self-esteem and greater motivation Ss have a stronger sense that classmates have positives regard for each other. Understanding and cooperation among Ss from different racial and ethnic background are

enhanced. Mastery Learning

an individualize and diagnostic approach to teaching in which students proceed with studying and testing at their own rate in order to achieve a prescribed level of success. Mastery learning is based on the idea that all students can master a subject given sufficient time.

- Requires specific and carefully sequenced learning objectives. - First identify a beharioural objective, a skill or academic task to be mastered

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

20

- Ss taught the skill or material in the objective - Ss are tested to determine if the objective has been reached. - Ss complete the test successfully => acceleration or enrichment - Ss who fail => receive corrective instruction and are retested

# Studies suggest that mastery learning is a powerful tool:

Ss achieve more and remember what they have learned longer. Ss seem at the elementary and junior high level seem to benefit most. Ss in language arts and social Studies classes benefit more than those in math and

science. In general, Ss have more positive attitude about learning and their ability to learn. Ts have more positive attitude toward teaching and higher expectation for their Ss.

Outcome-Based Education (OBE) (a variation of mastery learning) an approach to education and curriculum development which involves:

1. describing the learning outcomes that students should know at the end of a course of instruction.

2. devising a curriculum to help them achieve the outcomes 3. using the outcomes achieved as a measure of effectiveness.

Outcome-based education - focus on educational outcomes or results rather than on individual subjects and

topics. - include interdisciplinary subjects and broader ideas. - Ss need to make connections across topics and use interrelated skills.

=> However, the outcome may be in fact fuzzy, ill-defined, and political. Project-Based Instruction (PBI) (Also experience-based education, problem-based instruction, and anchored instruction)

- focus on real-life problems => A crucial aspect of the teachers role is to identify activities that fuel students interest, such as:

Desing a plan for protecting a specific endangered species. Formulate solutions to How can we stop (violence, etc.) How can be checked, or even reversed? Develop a set of (urban policies to halt the deterioration of a central city). How can the be eliminated?

=> Above is only one aspect of PBI. Other characteristics include:

Learner cooperation: small group or pairs of Ss de-emphasize competition. Higher-order thinking: Ss analyze, synthesize, and evaluate materials. Cross-disciplinary work: investigate how different academic subjects shed light on each

other Ss study variety of subjects not only ecological issues, but also economics, history, sociology, and political science.

Artifacts and exhibits: produce a traditional report, create a video, , or even presentation, such as a play or a debate => school exhibition.

Authentic learning: Ss pursue an actual unresolved issue. New Directions for Effective Teaching

Four constructs are fundamental to a substantial shift, offering the potential for future instructional reformation.

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

21

The Structure of Knowledge Each subject has its own patterns, facts, ideas, notations, and structure. The ways the Ss go through to gain knowledge in a subject do not look or feel like the ways Ss go through in other subjects.

=> Content-specific teaching skills are needed. Deep Teaching

Limit the amount of content they introduce but develop it sufficiently for Ss to gain in-depth understanding.

=> Emphasize problem solving and critical thinking rather than memory. Prior Knowledge

Plan a structure for a lesson that assumes all Ss enter the class with precisely the same level of information and the same kind of experiences. => Help Ss connect new information to the existing knowledge base or enable them to confront and revise prior knowledge that is inaccurate.

The Social Nature of Learning The teacher is called on to be a guide or facilitator, skillful in conducting discussions, group work, debates, and dialogues. => Teachers empower Ss to talk with one another and to rehearse the terminology and concepts involved in each discipline.

Reflective Teaching

an approach to teaching and to teacher education which is based on the assumption that teachers can improve their understanding of teaching and the quality of their own teaching by reflecting critically on their teaching experiences. => In teacher education program, activities which seek to develop a reflective approach to teaching aim to develop the skills of considering the teaching process thoughtfully, analytically and objectively, as a way of improving classroom practices. This may involve the use of:

- journals in which Ss teachers or practicing teachers write about and describe classroom experiences and use their descriptions as a basis for review and reflection.

- audio and video taping of a teachers lesson by the teacher, for purposes of later review and reflection.

- group discussion with peers or a supervisor in order to explore issues that come out of classroom experience.

=> Good teachers continually and intensely analyze their own practices, and they use their analysis to improve performance. => When teachers engage in this active and systematic reflection, they ask themselves such questions as:

What teaching strategies did I use today? How effective were they? What might have been even more effective?

Were my Ss engaged with the materials? What seemed to motivate them the most? If I were to reteach todays class, how could I get even more Ss involved?

How did I assess my Ss learning today? Would there have been a better way to measure their learning? How well did the Ss grasp the main points of todays lesson? Do I need to reteach some of these concepts?

Can I fine-tune tomorrows or next weeks lessons to capitalize on the gains made today?

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com


Semester 2

22

*************************

www.

cam

docs

.blo

gspo

t.com

Tools of inquiry: Six analytical concepts/terms Education vs TrainingUnit 2

A brief historical perspectiveLiteracy as a social construction4 Contemporary Perspective on LiteracyWhat Makes a School Effective? Five-factor theory of effective schoolsSeveral warning signs: indicators of impending violenceFactor 4. Monitoring Student ProgressIn effective school, teachers who hold high expectations

A Note of Caution on Effective School ResearchBeyond Five FactorsInnovation in Education

The Purpose of InnovationImproved Learning and TeachingThe Problem of InnovationInternal efficiency must come first since the high repetition and drop-out rates, which are a cause of ruinous wastage and a basic hindrance to quantitative expansion, originate in:Obstacles to InnovationGeographical factorsHistorical factorsEconomic factorsProcedural difficulties

EvaluationSummative evaluationChapter 3

The Shaky Foundation of School System StructuresIs Teaching an Art or a Skill?The Mysterious Case of Teacher EffectivenessAcademic Learning TimeClassroom ManagementThe Pedagogical Cycle (85% of the cycles in the classroom interaction)Clarity and Academic StructureQuestioningBlooms taxonomy (intellectual level of questions)

Date post:	26-Sep-2015
Category:	Documents
Upload:	heng-lyhour
View:	16 times
Download:	0 times

Summary of FE (S2)

Documents