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Swan Towels and ‘Hotel-elves’:on the Uncanniness of Luxury Hotels

Małgorzata SzubartowskaUniwersytetWarszawski

Whatisalobbyboy?Alobbyboyiscompletelyinvisible,yetalwaysinsight.Alobbyboyrememberswhatpeoplehate.Alobbyboyanticipates

theclient’sneedsbeforetheneedsareneeded.Alobbyboyis,aboveall,discreettoafault.Ourguestsknowthattheir

deepestsecrets,someofwhicharefranklyratherunseemly,willgowithustoourgraves.Sokeepyourmouthshut,Zero.

WesAnderson,The Grand Budapest Hotel

Inherhorror-likeparodyoftherealitytelevisionshowCelebrity Ghost Stories,stand-upcomedianAmySchumer1recountsa“supernatural”experienceshehadwhilestayingataluxuryhotelforthe"rsttime,aghoststoryofsorts:inthemorning,astrangeknockingnoiseatthedoorwakesherup,butwhensheopensthedoorthereisnoonethere,onlyanewspaper“appearsonthe#oor”;laterthatday,whenshereturnstoherroomfromatrip,shenoticesthathertowel“transformedintoaswan”andthatontopofherpillowthereis“another

1 Inside Amy Schumer – Celebrity Spooky Stories, h$ps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8uwb-nmOlic[retrieved:20.07.2016].

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tinypillowmadeentirelyofchocolate”;onceshestartssuspectingthatherroomishaunted,shetestshertheorybyspillinghershampooalloverthebathroomandemptyingtheminibar;again,whenshereturnstotheroom,itisspotless,allofthebo$leshavemagicallyre"lledthemselvesandtheswantowelisthereagain;"nally,shehearsavoicecomingfromtheothersideofthedoorcallinghernameandalthoughshemanagestochasethe“evilspirit”away,itwarnsherthatitwillbebacklater.“Iguesstherearemoreforcesouttherethanmeetstheeye.Andsometimes,thoseforcesbringusswantowels”,Schumerconcludesherstory.Inspiredbythispopculturalcomment,thisarticleaimstolookcloserattheculturalimaginationrelatedtotheambivalentstatusofthemaidsemployedatluxuryhotelsanddiscusshowtheirinvisibleomnipresenceaffectstheguests,howtheirrelationshipwiththeguestsisregulatedthroughpower-knowledgerelationsofthehoteletique$eand"nally,whataretheconsequencesofthedistributionofvisionforthoserelationships.

Devious maids, sneaky lobby boysSchumer’ssatiricalpiece,althoughmeantasasnidecommentoncelebritycul-ture,alsorevealsacertain,ongoingunease–perhapslesssuperstitiousinnature,butno lessprejudiced–thatmanyAmericantravelershaveexpressedabouthotelstaffsincetheestablishmentofthedeluxehotelindustrypopularizeddur-ingtheindustrialrevolution,ananxietythathasitsrootsinnineteenth-centu-rypopularculture.A&ertakingacloserlookatnineteenth-centuryAmerican"ction,journalisticpieces,cartoonsandotherpopculturalmaterials,AndrewK.Sandoval-StrauszandDanielLevinsonWilknoticedthathotelemployeeswereextremelyunpopular"guressincetheverybeginningofthehotelindustry.'ehotelclerk“wastheconstantsubjectofcomplaints,thebu$ofjokes,thestockcharacterinanynumberofstoriesandanecdotes”2.'estereotypeoftheclerkinAmericanpopularculturedepictedhimaslazy,arrogant,hostileandignorant.

'epopularimageofachambermaidwasnotanymorefavorable,butitwasfoundedondifferentpremises.Sandoval-StrauszandWilkwrite:

2A.K.Sandoval-Strausz,D.L.Wilk,Princes and Maids of the City Hotel: The Cultural Politics of Commercial Hospitality in America,“'eJournalofDecorativeandPropagandaArts”2005,vol.25,p.163.

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He[theclerk]washighlyvisible,occupyingaprominentspotatthehotelentrance.She[thechambermaid],bycontrast,wasinvisible,sincesheworkedintheguests’bedrooms,themostprivateandintimatespacesinthehotel.Butitwaspreciselythechambermaid’sinvisibilityandproximitythatarousedthemosthostility.Whatpeoplemostfearedfromchambermaidssprangfromwhattheycouldnotseethemdoing.3

Itwaspreciselyinvisibilitythatunderlaythemajoranxietiesaboutchamber-maids,whichrevolvedaroundthefearofunexpectedinvasionandthebreachofboundaries,whetheroftheguest’sroomortheguest’sbody4.'emostcommonconcernwasthatchambermaidswouldstealguests’belongingswhiletheywereawayfromtheirrooms.'isparticularprejudicebearssignsofclass-relatedstereotypes–asmostworkersatthetime,wereassumedtobesopoorastobeonthevergeofbeastliness,devoidofanyethicalcodepropertohumanbeingsdeservingofthatname.'esecondbiggestfearalsoprovestheabjectsocialsta-tusofahousemaid–thethreatofamaid’suncleanlinessandpossiblecontagion5.AnanonymouspamphletHorrors of Hotel Lifepublishedin1884warnsthatinahotel,theguest“isconfrontedatoncewithdangersanddirt,notapparenttotheeye,indeed,butathousandtimestheworseforbeingconcealedunderapparentcleanliness”6.Maidswereo&enaccusedofsuchpracticesas“utilizingtowelsascleaningrags,reusingdirtydishesandsoiledlinenswithoutwashingthem,andavailingthemselvesofdinnernapkinsinplaceofsanitarynapkins”7.Yetagain,thebiggestfearsrestuponthefactthatthehousemaidcannotbeseen,thus,cannotbecontrolled.

Sandoval-StrauszandWilkarguethatthosesuspicionsandmisconceptionsweretheresultofasocio-culturalsystemgeneratedbytheriseofearlycapital-isminasocietywhichwasnotmentallypreparedfortheappearanceofanewinstitutionsuchasahotel:

inthetransitionfromhouseholdtoinstitutionalhospitality,guestswereapparentlyunpreparedforthereplacementofthepatriarch’sdomesticdependentswithwage

3Ibid.,p.165.4Ibid.,p.166.5See:idem.6ReformedLandlord,Horrors of Hotel Life,1884;[ascitedin:]A.K.Sandoval-Strausz,

D.L.Wilk,Princes and Maids…,p.166.7A.K.Sandoval-Strausz,D.L.Wilk,Princes and Maids…,p.166.

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laborerswhoexistedoutsidehouseholdbondsofdeferenceanddisciplineyethadthekindofconstantaccesstointimatespacesthatnormallyrequiredfamilialorquasi--familialtrust.(…)Inhotels,thedisconnectednessofguestsandworkerstendedtogenerateaformofalienationinboth.Evenashotelsbecamepeople’stemporaryhomesawayfromhome,hotelhospitalityo&enfailedtoreproducetheproperlevelofdomesticitythatAmericansassociatedprimarilywiththesanctumsanctorumoftheirownhouseholds.8

Discipline and polishAspartoftheprocessofhospitality’sinstitutionalization,ahoteletique$ewasdesignedtoregulatethebehaviorofstaffmembersandinstructthemonhowtointeractwiththeguestsbyfreezingthepotentialbehaviorsintheformofsystematizedrituals.Sincetheearlytwentiethcentury,hotelmanagementhasbecomeascienceinitsownrightwiththe"rstschoolofhoteladministrationinAmericafoundedatCornellUniversityin1922.'enceforth,hotelmanagershaveincreasinglyemphasizedonthepropertrainingandmonitoringofclerks,chambermaidsandotheremployees,believingthat“courtesyenhanceswork-#ow”9.'eprimaryguidelinewastorestrictemployee-guestcontact(visualandaudial)asmuchaspossibleandalsohomogenizeemployees’behaviors.Uptothisday,basicinstructionsdisciplininghoteliers’bodiesandtongues,asde"nedbythemostpopularhotelmanagementtrainingblogHospitality-school.com,includethefollowing:• (…)Maintainasteadypaceandneverstoporchangespeedonceinside.(…)• Hotelstaffshouldalwaysusetheserviceelevatorsunlessaccompanying

aguest.• 'ehotelstaffshouldnotstareattheguestorthemselvesthroughthemirrors

insidetheguestelevator.(…)”10

• “Itishighlyadvisablethatyoushouldnotarguewiththeguest.Trytospeakso&lyandclearly,withoutarti"cialaccent.

• Maintainadistanceofatleasttwofeetfromtheguests.(…)

8Ibidem,p.171.9Etiquette and Manners of a True Hotelier (Part 1), h$p://www.hospitality-school.com/

etique$e-manners-hotelier-1[retrieved:25.07.2016].10Idem.

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• Avoidunnecessarymovementsofhandsandfacialgestures(…)whilespeak-ingtoguests.(…)

• Whilestanding(…),standerectatease,butnotinacasualmanner.(…)• Remember,youmaybeinviewofaguestevenwhenyouarenotdirectly

interactingwithhim/her.Maintainyourpoiseatalltimes.(…)• Walk(…)avoidinganysoundofthefootsteps.”11

• “Alwaysgreetyourguestandotherassociateswithasmilingvoiceandnaturaltone.(…)

• Ensurepropercleanlinessandhygieneinthehotelareaaswellasinyourworkingarea.Keepyourworkingequipmentcleanandtidy.(…)

• Donotengageinanyunusualactivitieswhileondutysuchasmovinglegs,spi$ingordrumondeskwiththe"ngertipsorswingyourkeys/keycardorplaywiththecoinsinyourpocket.(…)

• Rememberyouarenotpermi$edtoreadnewspapers,booksormagazineswhileperformingyourduty.(…)

• Keepawayallyourpersonalaffairswhileonduty.Neverbringtheminyourworkingarea.(…)

• Donotinvitefriendsandfamilyintoanyareaofthehotel.Rememberyouarenotallowedtoa$ainanysortofhotelamenities(ex-restaurants,bars,publicrestroomsandguestrooms).(…)

• Donotenterthehotelthroughguestentrance.Alwaysusestaffentrancetoenterinthehotel.

• Refrainyourselffromthefollowingactions,suchas:laughingortalkingloud-lywithcolleagues,runningorwalkingfastalongtheguestcorridor,whistlingorsingingonduty,useofslanglanguage.12

Regulatingtheemployee-guestrelationshasbeenamajorconcernforho-telmanagers,asitisapparentlystaffbehaviorthatimpactsguestsatisfactionthemostanddeterminesthestatusofahotel.Accordingtoastudyonnega-tiveservicea$itudes,thecustomersexpecttobethecenterofa$ention,tobetendedtowithouthavingtodealwithanyemotionalormoralambivalence–rudeness,impatience,indifferenceandlackofboundariesaretobenamed

11Etiquette and Manners of a True Hotelier (Part 2), h$p://www.hospitality-school.com/etique$e-manners-hotelier-2[retrieved:25.07.2016].

12Do’s and Don’ts of Hotel Housekeeping,h$p://www.hospitality-school.com/dos-donts--hotel-housekeeping[retrieved:25.07.2016].

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amongthemajorundesirableresponses.Anystaffmember’sreactionthatisunexpectedandovertlyrevealstotheguesttheindividualpersonalityoftheem-ployeeisconsideredsabotagebehavior13.'erearealsonumerouscomplaintstobefoundonwebsitessuchasTripAdvisororBooking.comwheretheformerguestsdeploretheirstayatahotel,whichwas“ruinedbypoorhousekeeping”.Onanotherwebsitededicatedtocollectingthe“worsthotelhorrorstories”wecanreadcommentslike:“Laundryroomnextdoor,dryers/washersbeganat6a.m.ANDstaffwatchedloudTVallday,too.Argh.”or“Ourroom,#225,hada"lthybrownstaininthetoiletbowl(…).'ediningroomservingstaffweresurly,ill-manneredandrigid(…).Itiscompletelyunacceptableforamalestaffmembertoscream,«onlysouporsalad,notboth!»totourmembersatthebuffet”14.'isprovesthatworkperformedbythehotelstafffallsunderthecategoryof‘emotionallabor’,touseArlieRusselHochschild’sterminology.Whatthismeansisthatthemaintaskofthehotelemployeeisto„produceanemotionalstateinanotherperson”toprovidetheguestwithaspeci"ctypeofexperienceratherthanaparticularproduct,byrestraininghisorherownemotionalactivityasahumanbeing15.

Hence,itseemsthatcontemporaryluxuryhotelsstilldrawtheirstrengthfromthosearchaicpopularsuspicionsandcon"rmtheirexceptionalityexactlybyrefutingsuchstereotypesabouttheirstaff,whileatthesametime,reinforc-ingthenegativeimageofthehotelemployeesastypicaltohotelservicesoflower-standards.

Ritzy, ritzier, the ritziestInapromotionalvideopostedonlinebytheRitz-Carltonchainofhotels16wecanseeaneat-lookingAsianwomandressedinawhiteuniformresemblinghospitalscrubs.Slowlyandcarefully,sheisarrangingobjectsintheroomin

13See:C.Chen,J.Lei,J.Hao,Hotel Staff Service Sabotage Behavior: Classification and Impact on Consumer Willingness to Pay,“InternationalJournalofMarketingStudies”2015,vol.4,pp.136–137.

14The 10 Worst Hotel Horror Stories,h$p://www.independen$raveler.com/travel-tips/hotel-and-b-and-b/the-10-worst-hotel-horror-stories[retrieved:27.07.2016].

15See:A.R.Hochschild,The Managed Heart, Commercialization of Human Feeling,BerkeleyandLondon2003,pp.137–149.

16 The Art of The Craft – Housekeeping Supervisor, h$ps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0KEavRCAyi0[retrieved:22.07.2016].

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perfectorderandwithextraordinaryprecisionasifshewasperformingopen-heartsurgery.AssheisplacingfacecreamcontainersnexttodecorativevaseswithChineseornaments,shemakesitseemlikethoseeverydaypersonalitemsareexhibitsondisplayandtheirstatusisnodifferentthanthatofantiquedeco-rations.Skilledatiteration,shecomesacrossasaderivativeartistofsortswhoispreparingthestageonwhichhumanlifeisperformedaccordingtoasimilar,pre-designedscenario.'us,themeticulouslyarrangedse$ingsuppliesastageandprops,touseErvingGoffman’sterminology,withwhichaguestcanper-formhisprivilegeandpresenthimselfinfrontofhimself,andhimselfonlyasamemberoftheupper-classorthehighermiddle-class,bywhichhere-enactsand„enhance[s](…)[his]status,(…)heighten[s]hisimportance”17.'emaidactsthepartofdirectoraswellassupportingcast,enablingtheperformance"rstlybycreatingthisscenery(which,asGoffmanpointsout,iscrucialtothepresentation,asitbeginsonlyoncetheguestentersthesceneandendsthemomentheleavesit18),butalsobyservingasaninsigni"cantextra–merelyamirrorfortheprotagonist–whoappearsonstageonlyforthemaincharactertobeabletoplayhispart.

Sheisthemasteroftheobjects,inchargeofthematerialworldbutdeprivedofhumancontact,allowedtomakeinteractionswithobjectsinsteadofpeopleandeventhoseinteractionstakeaverywell-structured,controlledform.'eonlyone-waycontactsheisallowedtohavewiththeguestsbeforetheyarriveisbyleavingthemaprintednoteontheirbedwelcomingthemtothehotel.'enoteitself–eventhoughitismeanttomimicthemoreintimaterelationshipbetweenahostandahouseguest–isalsostandardized,depersonalizedandwri$eninafontonlyresemblinghand-wri$en,calligraphicle$ers.'egoalofsuchpracticesisobviouslytocreatetheillusionthatthehousekeepersarelikehostswhoareequaltotheguestsintermsofsocialstatusbutjustpoliteenoughtokeeptheirdistance.However,sincetheyareactuallydeprivedoftheirownin-dividual,ethnicandclassidentity,itbecomesclearthattherelationshipbetweenthehousekeepersandtheguestsismerelystaged,performedandcompletelyarti"cial.Likewise,eventhoughthevideoissupposedtopresentthestaff,itstruefocusremainsontheguest–eventheshortinterviewwiththehousekeep-eremphasizesthatherentireprofessionalidentityisconstructedthroughthe

17Ibidem,p.139.18See:E.Goffman,The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life,Edinburgh1957,p.13.

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relationshipshehaswithahypotheticalguest,asthe"rsttimeshespeaksinthevideoistosay(inamannerwhichseemsjustalltoorehearsed):“Itmakesmesohappywhentheroomisperfect.Seeingasmileonaguest’sfacemakesmeveryhappy.”,suggestingthatitisnotonlyajobforherbutsomethingthatdeterminesheremotionalwell-being,whichistightlycorrelatedwiththatofthosewhomsheserves.Laterinthevideowewatchhershadowingaguestandquietly"nishingtheactionsthathehasstartedforhim,suchasclosingthebookthathehadbeenreadingbutle&openonthebed.Bytheendofthevideo,she"nallyconfrontstheguestwhenshebringshimfreshly-ironedclothes.A&ertheynodateachotherinsilenceandwithoutmakingeye-contact,sheimmedi-atelywithdrawsfromtheroom–sheisstandingthereinplainsight,butisstillremovedfromtheviewoftheguest,herpresencebeingacknowledgedmerelyfromthecornerofhiseye.

Finally,bytheendofthevideo,an inscriptionappears:“Letusrede"neyourideaofimmaculate”.Ifweweretoacceptthisinvitation,wewouldsaythatwhattheypromiseonaliterallevelissimplythankstotheskilledand(overly)dedicatedstaff,theroomsarespotlesslycleanandthereisno#awtobefound,since,as itwasalreadydiscussed,physicaluncleanness isatruesourceofhorrorformanyhotelguests.Buttheremayalsobeanother,moreimportanttypeofcleannessatplayhereonasymboliclevel.Intheword‘immaculate’chosenbythehotelPRagents,thereisaclearconnotationwiththenotionoftheimmaculateconception,whichimpliesthatthewholeritualofpuri"cationthatthehotelguestisundergoingisperformednotbyreal,#esh-and-bloodhumansbutbysomeephemeral,ghostly(andalmostgodly)intermediarieswhodonotinvadetheguest’sprivacywiththeirmaterialpresence,whodonot“penetrate”thespaceinawaythatcanbefeltorexperiencedconsciouslybytheguestsandyetsomehowtheymanagetogetthejobdone.Inthatway,theirstayatthehotelispure,freefromanyblemishes,whichwouldinevitablybecausedbybeingforcedtosocializeintheintimacyofone’sbedroomwithaperfectstranger,astrangerwhomoreoverembodiesallthatisrepugnant.Ahousemaidherself isanabject,becausesheremindstheguestsofthere-alitiestheyaretryingtoleavebehindjustforashortwhile–onthelevelofeverydaylifechoresandresponsibilities,butalsoonasociallevel:amaidmaytraumaticallyremindtheguestofthesocialhierarchies,struggles,injustices,personalsufferingsand inequalities,allofwhich, ifweretobeconsciously

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acknowledgedbytheguest,mightthreatenthepeaceofhisstay.Recognizingarealhumanbeinginahousemaidentailstheriskofidenti"cationandlosingthecleardistinctionbetweenselfandother,which,accordingtoJuliaKristeva,isthemainsourceofhorror19.

Yet,timespentatahotel,be it forrecreationalorbusinesspurposes,al-waysuprootstheguestfromthecontextofhiseverydaylife,turnshimintoanEverymanandforthatreasonitresemblesacarnival,whenallisallowed,socialdistinctionsaresuspendedandidentitiesblurredbutonlytoeventuallysolidifytheiroriginalseparateness.Atahotel,theguestsparticipateinaritualofpuri-"cation,inwhichtheylosetheirhabitualidentityandgetridoftheirinternal‘"lth’,therepresseddarknessinsidethemthatconstitutesasourceofhorrorintheireverydaylives.Celebrities,public"gures,successfulbusinessmen,evenup-per-classWASPhousewivesusetheluxuryhoteltoextractwhattheynormallyrepress,externalizeit,turnitintowasteandleaveitforsomeoneelsetocleanup,nevertolookbackatthepartofthemselvestheyhavele&behind.'eycanactouttheirfantasiesanddesiresandrepressthemonceagainanddonothavetofacetheconsequencesoftheirtemporarysuspensionofsocialstandardsprop-ertotheirstatus.Asitisexpressedinthesimpli"edbutnonethelessaccuratemo$o:“WhathappensinVegas,staysinVegas”.

Onceitisover,thehousemaidsaretheretocleanupallthewaste,towit-nessthetemporarydevastationanddepravationjusttobringtheworldtoitspreviousorder.Hence,thebasicfunctionofahotelisnotmerely“toprovidetravelerswithshelter,accommodation,food,refreshment,andrelatedservic-esandgoods”20,butinfact,aluxuryhoteloffersmuchmoreonasymboliclevel–theyoffercatharsisfromeverydaysocialpressures.Moreover,whatthenotionofluxurytrulyinvolvesisnotonlyagourmetbreakfastinadesignerbed,butaboveall–cleanness.Cleanness–physicalandpsychological–be-comesaproducttobepurchasedandconsumedbythenouveau-richeswhoexpecttherealworldtoturnintoafantasywherethenormsoftheirevery-daylivesinademocraticsocietydonotapply.Aboveall,itisasymbolicalcleanness–thesimulatedmicrocosmofahotelwhichoffersclearandstablesocialstructurewithadistinctdivisionofroles,whereeverybodyknowsandacceptstheirplace inthehierarchywhichdependsonlyonpossessed

19See:J.Kristeva,Powers of Horror. An Essay on Abjection,NewYork1982,p.10–17.20A.K.Sandoval-Strausz,D.L.Wilk,Princes and Maids…,p.161.

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capital.However,itisnotonlyacelebrationofclearclassdistinctions,butequallyofracialones.A luxuryhotel,an institutionconsistentlyascribingcertainrolestopeopleofparticularorigins,isaplacewheretherichdonotsocializewiththepoor,butalsowherethetypicalWASP-yguestisservedbyworkersofcolor.

Toconclude,itistheveryabjectstatusofamaidthatconstitutesthemainsourceof‘uncanniness’parodiedbyAmySchumer,inkeepingwithFreud’sde"nitionofthesenseofthe‘uncanny’,thatis,theterrifyingwhichleadsbacktosomethingonceveryfamiliarandlaterrepressed,extractedfromourselvesandprojectedontoanobjectintheouterworld21.'eprofoundpurposeofthehoteletique$eisthereforetomaketheuncanny(unheimlich)hotelmaidsheim-lichsothattheybecometameand“arouseasenseofrestfulnessandsecurity”22.Butsinceheimlichkeitisatwo-facedcoin,theysimultaneouslybecomeheimlichintheothersenseoftheword,asdiscussedbyFreud–theyare“concealed,keptfromsight”23andreceiveacertainghostlyquality,which,inconsequence,freezeguest-employeerelationsintoaviciouscircleinwhichneitherpartycangainabsolutepowerovertheother.'einvisibilityofhotelmaids,althoughimposedonthembytheinstitutionitselfinthea$empttorepressandcontrolthem,becomesasuperpowerofsorts,asitprovidesachanceofemancipationandempowermentbyhandingoverpanopticalvision,andwithit–knowledge.AsSandoval-StrauszandWilknote,thehostilitytowardshotelstaffstemmedfromthefactthatworkerssuddenlygainedsymbolicpowerovertheupper-class.'eclerkwasoffensive,sincehewas“unacceptablyclimbingabovetheirproperstationinlife”24butalsothreatening,as:

heexercisedasortoftemporarydominanceoverguestsbecausehehaddiscretionoverwhethertoassignthemabe$erorworsebedchamberandwhethertogivethemtheroomrightawayor"ndsomepretexttomakethemstandandwaitforit.'eclerkalsoeffectivelypossessedthepowertositinjudgmentoverguests’socialstatus,sincehisa$entiveness,demeanor,andcourteousorindifferentservicere#ectedhis

21See:S.Freud,The ‘Uncanny’,[in:]The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XVII (1917-1919): An Infantile Neurosis and Other Works,ed.andtransl.J.Strachey,London1955,pp.219–232.

22Ibid.,p.222.23Ibid,p.223.24A.K.Sandoval-Strausz,D.L.Wilk,Princes and Maids…,p.167.

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estimationofwhethertheywerepeopleofconsequencewhorequiredthewhiteglovetreatmentorordinaryfolkwhodidnot.25

Assuch,thehoteletique$e,designedtoappeasethefearfulguests,affectsthetheminasmuchasitdoesthestaff,sinceitactuallyplacestheguestsinthecenterofapanopticon,wheretheguestsareonlysymbolicallyincontrol,butinfact,theyaretheoneswhoareunderconstantsurveillanceonthepartofthestaffand,asinAmySchumer’ssketch,thingsarebeingdonetothemwithouttheirexplicitconsentorknowledge.

25Ibid.,p.170.

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grupakulturalna.pl