Human Relationships – Key Studies

Sweaty T-Shirt Study, Wedekind (1995)AimTo investigate mate preference based on genetic makeup in relation to immune system functioningProcedure

- 94 students were asked to participate in this experimento 42 male and females

- Male participants were asked to sleep in a T-shirt for 2 nights

o Then put the shirt in a plastic bag- Female participants were then asked to rate the smell of

the T-shirts- The participants had 7 different T-shirts to smell

o 1 was the controlo 3 were from men with a similar immune systemo 3 were from men with a dissimilar immune system

Findings- Female participants preferred odours from men of a

dissimilar immune systemConclusionThey concluded that this was due to the evolutionary explanation of mate selection in humans. This experiment also demonstrated that attraction was influenced by biological factors. This would explain why women preferred men with a genetic-makeup that could increase the health of potential offspring. This doesn’t support the fact that attraction is a conscious decision. Instead our brain is automatically made to do this.Evaluation

- Does not explain same sex relationshipso Since relationships are not formed to produce

offsprings- Cannot assume that this (biological) factor is the only

affecting factoro Must assume the influence of cultural factors as well

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Addicted to Love, Fischer et al. (2003)AimTo investigate the neurobiological mechanisms associated with the attraction system (romantic love)Procedure

- Participants were 10 females and 7 males who reported to be in love for an average of 7.5 months

o Aged 18 to 26- Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire

o The passionate love scale- They were then placed in a fMRI scanner- Experimental: participants were shown a photograph of

their loved ones- They were then given a distraction task

o Counting backwards- Control: participants were then shown a photograph of a

neutral friend- This was repeated 6 times

Findings- Control: no changes in brain activity was shown- Experimental: increase in dopamine rich areas of the

braino Associated with reward, motivation and goal

orientationConclusionThe researcher concluded that there is a possibility of brain circuits dedicated to attraction (romantic love). The same brain circuits are associated with ‘addiction’, which could support the hypothesis that ‘romantic love is an addiction’. Fischer argues that “romantic love” is universal and based on neurobiological factors.Evaluation

- Objective resultso Use of technology provides objective resultso Interpretation of data collected may be subjective

to the researcher- The brain is still very complex

o Brain imaging technology can describe but not explain human attraction

- High reliabilityo Method was repeated 6 times

- Unable to generaliseo Small sample size

- Does this support same sex relationships?- Difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship

Computer Dance Study, Walster et al. (1966)AimTo test the matching hypothesisProcedure

- Researchers advertised a computer dance for students in the first week of college

- The first 376 male and female volunteers were let in for $1.00

- 4 independent judges rated the students in terms of attractiveness

o Use to measure social desirability- Participants were then asked to fill in a questionnaire

o Provide data about similarity between the participants

- Pairing of dates were done randomlyo No man was paired to a taller womeno Students were given the names of their dates

before the dance- The dance was held 2 days later- During the dance, participants were asked to complete a

questionnaire about their date- They were asked again 6 months later whether they had

dated their partners since the danceFindings

- Physical attractiveness is the most important factor in liking

o Over other qualities such as intelligence and personality

- Partners that were more similar were more likely to have dated each other

o Compared to if they were dissimilarConclusionThe results from this study does not support the matching hypothesis as physical attractive was the most favoured quality. Whereas the matching hypothesis suggests that we seek individuals most like ourselves. When the participants were asked 6 months later, the results were a more realistic assessment, supporting the matching hypothesis.

Evaluation- Participants were chosen through opportunity sampling- Unable to generalise to a general population

o Participants were all university students They may not be making long-term

relationship choices- Low credibility

o Not a realistic test of the matching hypothesis Dates were assigned Assessments were made before any rejection

could have taken place- Brief interactions leading to interpersonal assessments

being based on superficial characteristicso Such as physical attractiveness

- Low ecological validityo Does not replicate a natural event in real-life

- Questionable measure of physical attractivenesso Physical attractiveness is in perspective of the

individualo Using 4 independent judges increased the reliability

of this measure Inter-rater reliability

Proximity Study, Festinger et al. (1950)AimTo investigate the formation of friendship patterns at Westgate Housing for student couplesProcedure

- This was a field study- Participants were residents of Westgate Housing in a

university- Researchers observed and interviewed the participants

Findings- Proximity or opportunities to bump into each other on a

daily basis increased chances for friendships- After a few months 10x more friendships have developed

with people living in the same buildingo Even more with people living next door

ConclusionThe researchers suggest that physical proximity increases opportunities for interaction, which in turn increases familiarity. Geographical proximity may still be a factor in finding friends and lovers but the Internet allows us to easily contact others. The Internet creates a psychological proximity that can replace geographical proximity.Evaluation

- High ecological validityo This was a field experiment

- Sampling biaso Setting of the experiment forces participants to

interact with each other Almost expected to interact with each other

o Setting may attract a specific sampleo Is not representative of a real-life situation

- Unable to generalise to a general populationo Only student couples found from one university

were used- Reliability of the data collected

o Interpretation of the data is dependent on the researcher

Researcher bias may be createdo Inter-rater reliability was used

Many researchers observed the participants

- Confounding variableso Participants may already know each other

- No control to compare the results with

Kidney Donation Study, Simmons et al. (1977)AimTo investigate whether close relatives were more likely to be kidney donorsProcedure

- Researchers asked 133 relatives of a person if they would agree to donate their kidney

- They were also asked to rate their emotional closeness with the potential kidney recipients

Findings- 86% of parents agreed to donate their kidney to a

relative- 47% of siblings agreed to donate their kidney to a

relativeo The recipient tend to be similar in age and be the

same sex- The recipients felt close to 63% of the donors

o Compared to 42% of the non-donorsConclusionThe researchers concluded that this study rejects the kin selection theory. As it suggests that both parents and siblings should both agree, so the difference in agreement to make this sacrifice cannot be explained by kin alone. This would also suggest that there are other factors that influence altruism.Evaluation

- Does not consider the other affecting factors- Unable to generalise to the general population

o Only US participants were used- Good ecological validity

o Reflects a real-life responseo Field experiment

- High test-retest reliabilityo Many participants were used

Empathy-altruistic Theory, Batson et al. (1981)AimTo investigate participants’ motives to help when they had the opportunity to escapeProcedure

- Participants were psychology students at a universityo The participants were tested individually

- They were asked to fill out a questionnaire before the experiment began

- Participants were led to believe that they were an observer to a test

o Where another student (Elaine) was being tested to recall numbers

- They read a short description of Elaineo Each description was manipulated so that the

participants could either identify with Elaine (high empathy) or not (low empathy)

- Participants watched a video of Elaine, after 2 trails Elaine received electric shocks

- Participants were either asked to:o Take her place or fill out a questionnaire and then

leave (easy escape situation)o Take her place or watch Elaine go through the

remaining 8 trails (difficult escape situation)Findings

- High empathy condition: most participants agreed to help Elaine

o Did not matter if it was easy or difficult to escape- Low empathy condition: most participants withdrew in

the easy escape conditiono In the difficult escape situation, some participants

offered helpConclusionThe results in this study would support the negative state relief model. Suggesting that participants were willing to help only if they could relief themselves from a negative state (e.g. stress). This can be showed when most participants in the low empathy condition (replicating a stranger) offered help in the difficult escape condition.

Evaluation- Low ecological validity

o Does not replicate a real-life situation- Demand characteristics from participants

o Self-preservation of their image- Ethical considerations

o Ethics was consideredo Minimal psychological distress was given to the

participant Participants did not have to endure the

easy/difficult situations- Unable to generalise to a general population

o Only used participants from Americao Only used psychology students

- Empathy is difficult to quantify

Affects of Child-rearing, Whiting & Whiting (1975)AimTo investigate the effects of child-rearing practices and the consequence of that on prosocial behaviourProcedure

- This was a naturalistic study- Researchers observed children between the ages of 3 to

11 years oldo Sample was from 6 different countries

Kenya, Philippines, Japan, India, Mexico and USA

Findings- Children from Mexico and Philippines acted more

prosociallyo The most prosocial children were from Kenya

Most traditional societyo People tend to live together in extended familieso Female role was importanto Women’s contribution to the family’s economy is

greater- Children from Japan, India and USA acted less prosocial

o The most egoistic children came from USA Most complex modern society

o Women gave more responsibility to their children Children are usually paid to do chores Some children do not participate at all

ConclusionThe results indicate that the degree of modernisation influences prosocial behaviour. This was attributed to different child-rearing patterns and cultural dimensions such as individualism and collectivism. The study also shows how different aspects of socioeconomic organisation of a cultural can promote or inhibit children’s opportunities to acquire specific social behaviours. The findings also emphasises the importance of everyday practices in the promotion of concern for others.Evaluation

- High ecological validity

o Was a natural experimento Did not interfere with the participants natural

activities- Unable to generalise to a general population

o Sample was not representative of the general population

Participants were still very young- Reductionist study

Social Responsibility, Miller et al. (1990)AimTo investigate how cultural norms and moral values influence the perception of social responsibilityProcedure

- Researchers interviewed 400 participantso Participants were adults and childreno They were either North Americans or Hindu Indians

- The interview was about what to do in hypothetical situations where a person had failed to help someone in need

o Parents’ obligations to help their childo Friends’ obligation to help a friendo People’s obligation to help a stranger

- Situations can be categorised into 3 levels:o Life threateningo Moderately seriouso Minor threat

Findings- Hindu Indians tend to see it as a moral duty to help in all

situationso View of social responsibility was broader and more

duty based- North American participants tend view social

responsibility as personal choiceo Liking of the person in need played a factor in

helping for adults in the USAConclusionThe researchers concluded that the different cultural norms (holding different moral values) affect people’s view on social responsibility.Evaluation

- Unable to generalise to a general populationo Only two cultures were examined in this study

- Low ecological validityo Does not replicate a real-life situation

Prosocial Behaviour, Levine et al. (2001)AimTo examine the differences between individualist and collectivist cultures in prosocial behaviourProcedure

- Observed 23 major cities around the world.- 3 situations:

o A pedestrian drops a pen without noticingo A pedestrian wearing a leg brace drops some

magazineso A blind pedestrian with a cane waits at a traffic light

for assistance crossing the roadFindings

- People from collectivist cultures are generally more likely to help

o Compared to people in individualistic cultures- Found several factors affecting prosocial behaviour

o Population densityo GDP per capitalo Pace of lifeo Cultural beliefs

Cultures that emphasise on social harmony tend to help

ConclusionThe researchers concluded that culture does play a role in prosocial (helping) behaviour. It can be explained by bystanderism, where helping is less evident in larger groups or more populated cities. Social norms can also influence prosocial behaviour, if it is not normal to ask for help, people may be less inclined to help one another.Evaluation

- Difficult to measure and define prosocial behaviouro Hard to apply prosocial behaviour theories

- Low validityo Problems in translationo Different cultures may have other motives for

helping- Unable to generalise to a general population

o Only cities were used in the study Ignores the country population

- Cannot assume a cause and effect relationship- Collectivism and individualism must be considered on a

spectrumo They are not dichotomous

Bystander Intervention, Latane & Darley (1970)AimTo investigate if the number of witnesses of an emergency influences people’s helping in an emergency situationProcedure

- 72 students were chosen as participants through extra credit courses

o 59 females and 13 males- They were asked to discuss what kind of personal

problems new college students could have in an urban area

- Each participant sat in a booth alone with a pair of headphones and microphone

- They were told that the discussion took place through an intercom

- At one point of the experiment a confederate staged a seizure

- The researchers measured the time taken for the participant to react

o From the start of the seizure to until they contacted the experimenter

- They changed the number of confederates around the participant at the time

Results- 81% of the participants that were in the alone condition

went to report the seizure- 31% reported the seizure when there were 4 bystanders

with themo Gender of the bystander did not make a difference

ConclusionAmbiguity about the situation and thinking that other people might intervene (diffusion of responsibility) were factors that influenced bystanderism in the experiment.Evaluation

- Unable to generalise to a general populationo Only students were used in the expeirment

- Participant biaso Psychology students were used

They were participating for course credits

Demand characteristics They may have figured out the nature of this

experimento Hawthorne effect may come into play

- Low ecological validityo Artificiality of the experimental situation

Participants could only hear the victimo Does not replicate a real-life situation

- Ethical considerationso Participants were deceivedo They were also exposed to an anxiety provoking

situation- Gender bias in the sample

o More female participants were used than maleo Different genders may have different personality

traits that influence helping

Subway Samaritan, Pilliavin et al. (1969)AimTo investigate the effect of various variables on helping behaviourProcedure

- A group of students performed a scenario where the victim appeared either drunk or ill

- Participants were subway travellers who were observed when the victim collapsed

o This occurred a short time after the train left the station

- A model helper was instructed to intervene after 70 seconds if no one else did

Findings- If the victim appeared ill they were more likely to receive

helpo Compared to if the victim was drunk

- In 60% of the trails more than one person offered to help only after the model helper intervened

ConclusionThe researchers did not find support for diffusion of responsibility. They argued that this could be because the observers could clearly see the victim and decide whether or not there was an emergency situation. They found no strong relationship between the number of bystanders and the speed of helping – which is contrary to the theory of the unresponsive bystander. The researchers suggested that the cost-reward model of helping involves observation of an emergency situation that leads to an emotional arousal and interpretation of that arousal.Evaluation

- High ecological validityo Was a natural experiment

- High reliabilityo Was conducted several timeso Test-retest reliability

- Low cross-cultural validityo Only one cultural was used in this study

Cross-cultural Factors in Attraction, Buss et al. (1990)AimTo identify the characteristics that individuals valued in potential mates worldwideProcedure

- 9,474 participants were chosen from 37 cross cultural samples

o 33 countries and 5 islands on 6 continentso Mean age of the participants was 23.15

- Data was collected from questionnaires made in the USA and translated

Results- Nearly all cultures rated mutual attraction and love as the

most important in a relationshipo Desire for mutual love is not only a Western

phenomenon- Chastity showed the largest variance in culture

o Valued in collectivist cultures: China, India, Taiwano Not valued in individualistic cultures: Netherlands

and Scandinavia- Good earning capacity is generally valued by females- Youth is generally valued more by males

o Men prefer younger femaleso How much younger depends on the culture

- Physical attractiveness is valued more by malesConclusionThis study showed some of the main characteristics of a relationship that men and females value from different countries.Evaluation

- Low validityo Problems in translation

- Unable to generalise findingso Samples from each country were not representative

of its general population- Cultural bias in questionnaires

o Questionnaires are made in USAo Ideas are formed in USA

o Interpretation of the data is based in one country only

Lacks inter-rater reliability- Self-preservation of participants

o Present themselves with a more positive image

Attributions in Dating Couples, Fletcher et al. (1987)AimTo study whether patterns of attributions were related to relationship satisfaction factorsProcedure

- Participants were 100 female and 31 male American university students

o They were all in a heterosexual relationship but not living together

- Participants were first asked to fill out various questionnaires

- After 2 months 95 of the participants were still in their relationships

o They were asked to write a free-response description of the relationship

o They were also asked to fill in another questionnaireFindings

- Individuals with the highest relationship satisfaction after 2 months

o Attributed positive behaviour to themselves and their partner (dispositional attribution)

o Attributed negative behaviour to the situational factors

o Tend to describe their relationship using interpersonal terms such as ‘we’ in their free-response

- Participants who made more situational attributions for relationship maintenance

o Showed less signs happiness, less commitment and lower levels of love

ConclusionThe researchers concluded that the way in which we attribute behaviour correlates to the maintenance of the relationship. If we attribute positive behaviour to dispositional factors and negative behaviour to situational factors, we are more likely to have a healthier relationship.Evaluation

- Sampling bias

o There were more females than males in the experiment

- Cultural biaso Study was conducted in USA only

- Unable to generalise to a general populationo Only university students were used as participantso Participants came only from USAo Low cross-cultural validity

- Cannot assume a cause and effect relationshipo Only a correlation

Marital Dissatisfaction, Levenson & Gottman (1983)AimTo see the relationship between marital dissatisfaction and negative affectProcedure

- 30 couples were observed in a laboratory while they had discussions

- The discussions included:o Low-conflict discussions

An event of the dayo High-conflict-discussions

Major source of disagreement in their relationship

- The discussions were video taped- Each spouse returned to make a self-evaluation of their

communicationo Positive, negative or neutral

Findings- Participants with marital dissatisfaction had:

o Higher levels of expressed negative emotionso Return of negative affect

Retaliation- Unhappy couples displayed similar physiological arousal

to a stress responseConclusionThe researchers concluded that unhappy couples experience a negative spiral of expressed negative emotions that leads to increased stress and mutual unhappiness.Evaluation

- Low ecological validityo Not reflective of a real-life situationo Self-preservation

- Ethical considerationso Stimulating negative discussions (stress) between

couples- Objective data

o Video tape provides chances to review the datao Interpretation of the data may be subjective

- Unable to generalise to a general populationo Small sample size is not representative of the

population- Confounding variables

o The couple’s history is unknown to the researcher

Couple Satisfaction, Flora & Segrin (2003)AimTo investigate the extent to which shared interests and spending time together was a predictor of perception of quality of the relationshipProcedure

- This was a longitudinal study- Participants were young dating and married couples

o Dating for at least 6 monthso Married for around 4 years

- Participants were asked to do questionnaires and interviews

- After 12 months participants were asked to fill in a questionnaire to measure well-being and satisfaction

Findings- In the first interview:

o Men showed a preference for shared interests and spending time together

Positive and negative feelings were not as important

o The amount of negative feelings and disappointment with their partner predicted the break up in women

- After 12 months:o Men still showed a preference for shared interests

and spending time together Only negative feelings were important

o The amount of negative feelings about their partner was associated with less satisfaction in women

Shared interests and spending time was only the second most important factor

o Married participants were still togethero 25% of dating couples had to break up

ConclusionThe researchers found that men saw positive and negative feelings as a insignificant factor at the beginning, however after 12 months negative feelings became more significant. However, in women, shared interests and spending time was

only the second most important factor to women in a relationship.Evaluation

- Unable to generalise to a general populationo Only used students from the USA

- Unreliable datao Majority of the information is self-reportedo May be influenced by participant self-preservation

- Good methodologyo Use of different methods of gathering datao

Development of Love, Sprecher (1999)AimTo investigate whether people in close relationships reported increased love over timeProcedure

- Participants were 101 self-selected romantic heterosexual student couples

- They were surveyed 5 times in four yearso Each time they completed questionnaires to

measure love, commitment and satisfactiono They were also asked to report changes since

previous surveysFindings

- 41% of the couples were still together at the end of the study

- Participants with intact relationships wanted to see increases in positive affect (positive illusions)

o The felt that there was an increase in love, commitment and satisfaction

o This was not supported by the data collected- Participants with broken relationships felt that there was

a decrease in love, commitment and satisfaction before the break up

o Satisfaction decreased the most in this groupConclusionThe researchers concluded that participants tend to end their relationships because of dissatisfaction rather than the disappearance of love. The results support the idea that ‘positive illusions’ are beneficial for a relationship.Evaluation

- Unable to generalise to a general populationo Only used students from the USA

- Unreliable datao Majority of the information is self-reportedo May be influenced by participant self-preservation

- Methodologyo Surveys tend to not allow further explanations of

answers

Romantic Ideals, Markey & Markey (2007)AimTo investigate romantic ideals, romantic obtainment and relationship experiencesProcedure

- A sample of 103 female and 66 male participants were chosen through opportunity sampling

o They were undergraduate students who were single but interested in a relationship

- Participants first completed a questionnaire where they rated their own personality and then described the personality of their romantic ideal

o They also completed filler questionnairesFindings

- All participants wanted a partner similar to themselves- People believed that similarity in a potential partner was

importanto However this partner may also be difficult to find

- A follow-up study with a new sample found that romantic couples who experienced high levels of love and harmony consisted of one dominant and one submissive individual

ConclusionThe study demonstrates that people believe similarity is a key factor in a relationship and their ideal partner. However, this partner may be very difficult to find. In a follow-up study, the results show that instead of similarity, complementarity is a key factor that is found in romantic couples. This is can be seen in the relationship with one partner being a dominant individual and the other being a submissive individual.Evaluation

- Participants are less likely to discover the nature of the experiment

o Filler questionnaires were used- Unable to generalise to a general population

o Only undergraduate students were used- Gender bias in the sample

o More females were used in the experimento Men and women may have different relationship

expectations

Similarity and Liking, Newcomb (1961)AimTo investigate if students’ friendship formations were influenced by attitudes and valuesParticipants

- 17 male students were offered rent-free accommodations but they had to fill out a questionnaire

o This was completed before they arrived and several times during the semester

Findings- Students with similar attitudes tended to become friends

o Similarly, race and socioeconomic background also played a role

ConclusionThey found that attraction is based on similarity in attitudes, race and socioeconomic background.Evaluation

- Unable to generalise to the general populationo Small sample sizeo Only university students were used

- Gender bias in sampleo Only male participants were used

- Could be due to proximity factors rather than liking- They may adapt or influence each other’s beliefs rather

than actually being similar

Girlfriend Abuse, Totten (2003)AimTo explore how young girlfriend abusers used violence to construct their masculinityProcedure

- 30 abusive adolescent males were chosen to be participants through purposive sampling

o They all had pro-abusive beliefs and admitted to using violence towards their girlfriends

o The mean age was 15.6 years oldo 6 belonged to an ethnic minority and the rest were

whiteo Many were gang memberso Most dropped out of school early

- The researchers used semi-structured interviews to collect the data

Findings- The participants background had similar features

o They were all exposed to violent behaviour in the family

They saw this as justified or necessaryo The fathers all had authoritarian beliefs and used

violence to control family members or defend their honour

- 21 participants had adopted violent behaviour- They all used physical and sexual violence for the same

reasons as their fathers- Participants said that they had the right to use violence if

their girlfriend misbehavedo Some participants had their father show them how

to use violenceConclusionThis study clearly shows how social learning theory can be used to explain violence. As social animals, we learn behaviour from others and violence is no exception.Evaluation

- Unable to generalise to a general populationo Small sample sizeo Purposive sample selectedo Only male participants were chosen

Can be explained by the majority of domestic violence originating from the male partner

- Qualitative data gave insight to how adolescents experienced the use of violence

o Can be used to form a method to prevent violence Such as providing positive role models,

education or job opportunities- Use of semi-structured interview

o Able to get an in-depth understanding of the participant’s situation

o Higher reliability

Subculture of Violence, Berburg & Thorlindsson (2005)AimTo investigate whether pro-violent values influenced group conduct norms as predicted by the subculture of violence theoryProcedure

- Data was collected through a survey in Iceland- Participants included adolescent boys and girls in 49

public schoolso Their age was between 15 to 16 years old

- Participants answered questions on how often they engaged in various violent acts

o Including fighting, kicking or punchingFindings

- Most violent students said they conformed to group conduct norms

o Group pressure to respond to personal attacks with aggression as a form of social control

- Boys were more likely to behave more aggressively than girls

ConclusionThe researchers said that group adherence to values and norms encouraged aggressive behaviour through internalisation of values encouraging violence. It is also encouraged through social control processes that ensure adherence to conduct norms (conformity). This can be linked to the social identity theory.Evaluation

- Able to generalise to adolescents in Icelando Used a large scale survey based in Iceland

- Unable to generalise to a general population worldwide- Low cross-cultural validity- No gender bias

o Equal number of boys and girls participated- Data was collected through self-reported surveys

o Self-preservation may be an issueo Questions the validity of the data

Culture of Honour, Nisbett & Cohen (1996)AimTo test whether male participants from the South would be more likely than male participants from the North of the USA to respond with aggression to insultsProcedure

- American North and Southerners were selected as participants

- Participants were insulted publicly- Cortisol and testosterone levels were measured before

and after the insulto Through saliva and blood test

Findings- After the insult, cortisol levels rose 79% for southerners

o Compared to 33% for northerners- Southerners were generally more aggressive and showed

more domineering behaviourConclusionThe researcher argued that southerners who were insulted in front of others saw themselves as removed of masculine reputation and status. This could explain why they showed more aggressive and dominating behaviour. In a cultural of honour, males who do not retaliate to insult risk their masculine reputation. Cultures with honour norms dictate retaliation. These norms have been embedded in social roles, expectations and shared definitions of masculinity.Evaluation

- Unable to generalise to the general populationo Only used participants from America

- Gender biaso Only men were used in the study

Effect of OBPP on Bullying, Olweus (1993)AimTo see the effect of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Programme on bullying in NorwayProcedure

- A sample of 2,500 children from fifth to eighth grade participated in the programme

o The programme lasted 2 years- Data collection took place through observations and

questionnaireso Between the teachers and students

Findings- 50% reduction in self-reported bullying incidents

o Including both in victims and bullies- General improvement of the social climate of classes- Self-reports showed higher satisfaction with school life

and more positive attitudesConclusionThis indicates a high level of effectiveness of the programme but not all studies find the same. A follow-up study conducted by Olweus (2003) only found a 21% to 38% reduction in observed bullying.Evaluation

- Unreliable datao Majority of the information is self-reportedo May be influenced by participant self-preservationo Not many studies support these findings

- Unable to generalise to a general populationo Only a specific part of Norway was used

When tested in other parts of Norway, results were not the same

- Longitudinal studyo Provides a large amount of data to analyse

Implementation of OBPP, Black (2007)AimTo test the effectiveness of the implementation of OBPP in the USAProcedure

- 13 inner city schools in one urban district participatedo This study lasted 4 years

- Data collection took place through observations and questionnaires

o Between the teachers and studentsFindings

- Only 9 schools completed the study- 48% of the schools followed the programme as intended- Bullying incidents decreased by 25.5% in all schools

o Can be explained by the fact that all schools had increased supervision

- Self-reported bullying incidents increased from 39% to 43% in the forth year of the programme

o Schools that implemented the programme strictly had a decrease instead

ConclusionThe researcher argues that the mixed results for bullying could be due to the less rigorous implementation of the programme in some schools. It could also be because of a lack of resources or a cultural difference between Norway and USA. This shows that culture influences violent behaviour.Evaluation

- Longitudinal studyo Provides a large amount of data to analyse

- Unreliable datao Majority of the information is self-reportedo May be influenced by participant self-preservationo Not many studies support these findings

- Unable to generalise to a general populationo Majority of the population are African-Americans

Poor and lived in areas with high crime rates- Poor methodology

o Not all schools implemented the programme the same way

MACS Research Group (2002)AimTo investigate whether the violence prevention programme could reduce aggression and violenceProcedure

- This was a longitudinal quasi-experimental field study- 2,181 elementary school students were chosen as

participantso Students were classified as high risk from 2 inner-

city areas in USAo Participants mostly belonged to minority groups

Many were poor- There were 4 conditions:

o Control group (no intervention)o Full programmeo Classroom programme onlyo Classroom programme and social skills training

For high-risk children- The study took place over 8 years

Findings- Students who participated in the full programme came

from low-risk schools showed less aggression than the control group

- Students from high-risk schools showed a higher level of aggression after the programme compared to the control group

ConclusionThe researchers said that there was no effect of the programme on levels of aggression but there was an impact in some of the subgroups. The study showed that early intervention is the most effective. This should be used with the full programme.Evaluation

- Unable to generalise to a general populationo Majority of the population are African-Americans

Poor and lived in areas with high crime rateso Still able to generalise to the 2 inner-city areas

Large sample size- Longitudinal study

o Provides a large amount of data to analyse

o Reliable data- Able to generalise to the 2 inner-city areas

o Large sample size- Confounding variables

Cortisol Levels and Bullying, Carney & Hazler (2007)AimTo investigate changes in cortisol levels in relation to bullyingProcedure

- 94 students were chosen as participantso Ages of 9 to 14

- Saliva tests were taken from the participants- They were also asked to fill out questionnaires

o On their experience of being bulliedo Or on their experience of watching someone being

bullied- Cortisol levels were tested in the morning and before

lunchtimeFindings

- Anticipation of bullying was associated with high levels of stress and anxiety in both victims and bystanders

- Long-term exposure to bullying was related to lower levels of cortisol

o This condition is associated with chronic fatigue syndrome and PTSD

ConclusionThe researchers argue that cortisol levels increase when a person experiences a short-term exposure to bullying. This would affect learning and memory. Long-term bullying and low levels of cortisol may have more enduring negative consequences on physical, social and psychological health.Evaluation

- Scientific methodologyo Provides objective data

- Use of questionnaireo Self-preservation of the participant’s image

- Low test-retest reliabilityo Study was only repeated once

Bullying and PTSD, Mynard et al. (2000)AimTo investigate the effects of long-term exposure to bullying and post traumatic stress disorderProcedure

- 331 British students were participants- They were given a questionnaire called ‘the victim scale’- Bullying was defined as:

o Physical victimisation Hitting or punching the victim

o Verbal victimisation Name calling

o Social exclusion Excluding the victim from taking part in games

o Attacks on property Ruining the victim’s mobile phone

Findings- 40% of the students had experienced some kind of

bullying in their school- Bullying has a very negative impact on the victim’s

psychological healtho Social exclusion will most likely lead to PTSDo Peer victimisation may lead to serious long-term

psychological problems Such as powerlessness, helplessness, poor

self-confidence and social isolation These symptoms are all linked to PTSD

ConclusionThe researchers concluded that all types of bullying were perceived as stressful but the results indicate that different types of aggression may have different effects (on stress). Experiences of peer victimisation may also induce symptoms of both PTSD and MDD.Evaluation

- Low cross-cultural validityo Only used participants in Britaino Different cultures may have different ways to deal

with stress- Unable to generalise to a general population- Use of questionnaire

o Self-preservation of the participant’s image- There is no before and after comparison

o We are only assuming the correlation without any solid evidence to support it