ds = dry-sievedMNI = minimum number of individualsws = water-sieved
Tab
le6.
29.P
erce
ntag
esof
maj
orsh
ell
form
sby
peri
od.
Maj
orSh
ell
Form
s
Num
ber
ofM
onod
onta
,G
lycy
mer
isM
urex
,Tha
is,
Peri
odM
NI
Dep
osit
sP
atel
la%
Gib
bula
%%
Mur
icid
ea%
Oth
er%
Tem
ple
A1,
405
576
.913
.63.
10.
46.
0
Peri
odof
Tem
ple
A32
03
90.0
4.4
3.8
0.3
1.5
Peri
odof
Tem
ple
A–T
empl
eB
,Pha
se1
257
393
.71.
22.
70.
42.
0
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
165
93
79.5
13.8
2.7
0.3
3.7
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
s1
and
296
61
87.4
8.7
0.8
03.
1
Peri
odof
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
s1
and
283
272
.212
.03.
61.
211
.0
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
22,
944
592
.04.
10.
60.
13.
2
Peri
odof
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
21,
706
186
.28.
70.
90.
43.
8
Peri
odof
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
s1–
36,
018
894
.13.
61.
40.
40.
5
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
s2
and
310
,151
1885
.32.
40.
310
.41.
6
Peri
odof
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
s2
and
354
,286
2396
.82.
10.
50.
20.
4
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
310
,847
682
.712
.00.
90.
44.
0
Peri
odof
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
31,
332
896
.21.
11.
50.
30.
9
Hia
tus
Peri
od55
23
92.8
1.3
2.4
0.9
2.6
Peri
odof
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
2–T
empl
eC
174
162
.17.
727
.60.
62.
0
Peri
odof
Tem
ple
B,P
hase
3–T
empl
eC
451
676
.316
.41.
13.
32.
9
Tem
ple
C90
735
42.2
3.2
7.5
5.4
41.7
Peri
odof
Tem
ple
C1,
372
1373
.04.
312
.72.
47.
6
For
the
enti
resi
te94
,430
135
91.7
4.0
1.0
1.4
1.9
MN
I=m
inim
umnu
mbe
rof
ind
ivid
uals
The Marine Invertebrates 623
Minoan Kommos produced 35,903 shell individuals from 322 deposits (Reese 1995f). The1972–84 excavations at the Sanctuary of Hermes and Aphrodite at Syme Viannou, to-day located about 8 km from the sea, produced 61 Protogeometric shells from 1 deposit, with33 stringable (Lebessi and Reese 1990). The Idean Cave (Minoan–eighth/seventh centuryB.C.), now 18 km from the sea, produced 21 shells. The post-Minoan Unexplored Mansion atKnossos, today some 5 km from the sea, produced 34 marine invertebrates (Reese 1992b). TheGeometric (eighth-century-B.C.) dwelling in the Profitis Ilias (Gortys) produced 3 Patella, 2Murex trunculus, 2 M. brandaris, 1 Monodonta, 1 Phalium, and 1 Luria (Wilkens 1996: 249). TheSanctuary of Demeter and Kore on Acrocorinth produced 461 shell remains in 68 deposits(Reese in press a). The Corycien Cave, today about 7 km from the coast, produced 428shells (Amandry 1984: 378–80, figs. 43–44). The Late Protogeometric to Sub-ProtogeometricIII (950–750 B.C.) graves at Lefkandi on Euboea produced a number of shells (Jones 1980;personal analysis).
The Artemision at Ephesos produced at least 63 shells (Hogarth 1908: 217; Wolff 1978: 109).The Harbour Sanctuary (690–600 B.C.) and Athena Temple at Emporio on Chios producedfour shell species. The shells from the 1985–91 excavations at Kalabak Tepe (Miletus) of theseventh–fifth century B.C. comprise 3,774 Cerastoderma, 1,190 Ostrea, 43 M. brandaris, 42 Spondy-lus, 39 M. trunculus, 14 Cerithium, 12 Arca, 7 Pinna, 7 Venus, 6 Euthria, 4 Donax, 5 Mactra, 3Luria, 3 Tonna, 3 Conus, 3 Mytilus, 3 Venerupis, 2 Patella, 2 Hinia reticulata, 1 Monodonta, 1Charonia, 1 Ceratostoma erinaceum, 1 Fasciolaria lignaria, 1 Arcularia, 1 Cyclope, and 1 Acanthocardia(Peters 1993: 94; E. Zimmermann 1993: 56; Peters and von den Driesch 1992). The shells from1990–91 excavations at the Aphrodite sanctuary at Zeytin Tepe (Miletus) of the seventh–fifthcentury B.C. comprise 121 Cerastoderma, 71 M. brandaris, 59 Venus, 27 M. trunculus, 12 Ostrea,6 Euthria cornea, 6 Spondylus, 5 Cerithium, 4 Acanthocardia, 4 Arca, 3 Monodonta, 3 Pecten, 2Arcularia, 2 Conus, 2 Mytilus, 1 Patella, 1 Gibbula, 1 Cypraea, 1 Phalium, 1 Tonna, 1 Glycymeris,1 Venerupis, 1 Chamelea, and 1 Chlamys (Peters 1993: 94; E. Zimmermann 1993: 56; Peters andvon den Driesch 1992: 123–24). On Rhodes there are shells from Archaic (700–560 B.C.) gravesat Vroulia in the south (Kinch 1914: 160–61), Archaic and Classical graves and a votive depositfrom Kameiros (Jacopi 1931, 1932–33), and from the Lindos acropolis (Blinkenberg 1931:177–79). At Kition in southern Cyprus there are only 4 Cypro-Geometric I remains (Reese1985d: 343) and 135 shells from the Phoenician and later sanctuaries, with 29 from the RedSea (personal analysis). The Temple of Astarte-Aphrodite at Tamassos, about 15 km from thesouth coast, produced 77 bivalve valves (Nobis 1976–77: 296). The Sanctuary of Apollo Hylatesin southern Cyprus produced 56 shells from 46 individuals dating from the sixth century B.C.to the first century after Christ (Reese 1987c). The late-eighth/early-seventh-century–first-century-B.C. tombs and funerary pyres at Salamis in eastern Cyprus produced numerous shells(Demetropoulos 1970; 1973; Karageorghis 1970; 1978). At Amathus in southern Cyprus, 41tombs produced about 900 shells (Reese 1985e; 1992c).
624 The Iron Age Fauna
Patella (Limpets; Pl. 6.12)
There are two species of Patella present, with P. caerulea the more common (Table 6.26). Thereare 86,692 Patella (91.8% of the entire collection) coming from the following periods: 1.2%Temple A; 0.3% period of Temple A; 0.3% period of Temple A–Temple B, Phase 1; 0.6%Temple B, Phase 1; 1% Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 0.1% period of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2;3.1% Temple B, Phase 2; 1.7% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 6.5% period of Temple B, Phases1–3; 10% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (8,664 shells); 60.6% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3(52,551); 10.3% Temple B, Phase 3 (8,966); 1.5% period of Temple B, Phase 3; 0.6% Hiatusperiod; 0.1% period of Temple B, Phase 2–Temple C; 0.4% period of Temple B, Phase 3–TempleC; 0.4% Temple C; and 1.2% period of Temple C. Patella are by far the most common speciesin all periods but are less common in the single sample from the period of Temple B, Phase2–Temple C (only 174 shells, 62.1% Patella and 27.6% Glycymeris), and also in Temple C (35deposits but only 907 shells with 42.2% Patella) and the period of Temple C (13 deposits with1,372 shells; 73% Patella and 12.7% Glycymeris; Table 6.29).
P. caerulea reach a length of 40–50 mm and are found on rocks or stones, usually on relativelyhorizontal surfaces in the splash zone and lower half of the middle shore. P. lusitanica areslightly smaller and are also found on rocks, usually on relatively vertical surfaces on theupper half of the middle shore.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Patella make up 84.8% of the Minoan Kommos shell collection (30,457 shells), with 84.9% ofall limpets Late Minoan III (Reese 1995f: 241, 247–50, 252–54). There are 10 shells from theCorycien Cave. Six examples (12.8%) come from the Kourion sanctuary. Tomb 60 at theKnossos North Cemetery produced a Patella (Evely 1996: 635).
Trochoidea (Topshells; Pl. 6.12)
There are several topshell species at Kommos. Most are Monodonta turbinata, but there are ahandful of the slightly larger Monodonta articulata Lamarck, 1822. Monodonta make up 4% ofthe collection, the most common form after Patella. The 28 Gibbula are very similar to Monodonta,but smaller, and were probably collected at the same time as the Monodonta and Patella. Thereis also one Astraea operculum from the period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3, southeast of thetemple (63A/39).
The 3,748 Monodonta come from the following periods: 5% Temple A; 0.4% period of TempleA; 0.1% period of Temple A–Temple B, Phase 1; 2.4% Temple B, Phase 1; 2.2% Temple B,Phases 1 and 2; 0.3% period of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 3.2% Temple B, Phase 2; 3.9% periodof Temple B, Phase 2; 5.7% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 6.5% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3;30.8% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (1,156 shells); 34.2% Temple B, Phase 3 (1,281);
The Marine Invertebrates 625
0.4% period of Temple B, Phase 3; 0.2% Hiatus period; 0.3% period of Temple B, Phase2–Temple C; 2% period of Temple B, Phase 3–Temple C; 0.8% Temple C; and 1.6% period ofTemple C. In all periods but those noted above for Patella and the very small sample fromthe period of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2 (only 83 shells), Patella and Monodonta together accountfor over 80% of the shells for each period (Table 6.29).
M. turbinata are generally 30–35 mm high and 25–35 mm in diameter. They are found onrocks in the lower shore and uppermost zone of shallow water and in rock crevices. Gibbulaare also found in the upper coastal zone.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
At Minoan Kommos Monodonta make up 3.9% of the collection (1,396 shells), with 66% ofthem LM III, and there are 11 Gibbula and 5 Astraea (with 1 LM IIIA2–B operculum; Reese1995f: 241, 257). The PG deposit at Syme produced 1 Gibbula. The Cypro-Archaic II Tomb 297at Amathus produced 2 holed Gibbula.
Muricacea (Muricids and Thaids; Pls. 6.10, 6.11)
Four forms are included in the Superfamily Muricacea. There are 1,214 Murex trunculus (1.3%of the collection), 78 Thais, 36 M. brandaris, and 3 of the small Muricidea.
M. trunculus come from the following periods: 0.3% Temple A; 0.1% period of TempleA–Temple B, Phase 1; 0.1% Temple B, Phase 1; 0.3% Temple B, Phase 2; 0.2% period of TempleB, Phase 2; 1.6% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 85.6% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (1,039shells); 3.9% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 2.8% Temple B, Phase 3; 0.2% period ofTemple B, Phase 3; 0.2% Hiatus period; 0.1% period of Temple B, Phase 2–Temple C; 1%period of Temple B, Phase 3–Temple C; 2.5% Temple C; and 1.2% period of Temple C.
The 78 Thais come from the following periods: 1.3% period of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2;1.3% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 5.1% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 19.2% Temple B,Phases 2 and 3 (15 shells); 43.6% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (34 shells); 14.1% TempleB, Phase 3; 2.6% period of Temple B, Phase 3; 1.3% Hiatus period; 1.3% period of Temple B,Phase 3–Temple C; 1.3% Temple C; and 9% period of Temple C.
The 36 M. brandaris are distributed as follows: 2.8% Temple A; 2.8% period of Temple A;2.8% Temple B, Phase 1; 8.3% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 5.5% period of Temple B, Phases1–3; 2.8% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 11.1% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 5.5% TempleB, Phase 3; 2.8% Hiatus period; 5.5% period of Temple B, Phase 3–Temple C; and 50% TempleC (18 shells).
Of most significance are the 1,030 M. trunculus (84.8% of those found), usually crushed,from floors of the late-seventh-century-B.C. Building Q, Room 38 (64A2/76 and 78; Sh 9; Pl.6.11). This sample also includes 11 fragmentary Thais of the 78 found (14%) and 2 of the 3
626 The Iron Age Fauna
Muricidea. This material was used as floor packing here, but it is the debris from shell purple-dye production. See Appendix 6.1 for further information on the Iron Age Aegean shell purple-dye industry.
Burnt examples are noted in Tables 6.26–6.28. Of special note is the burnt M. trunculusfragment from the seventh-century three-sided slab enclosure. Significant samples of burntThais are the 2 burnt pieces from the eighth-century pit in the east, a burnt shell from therectangular Hearth 4 in Temple B, Phase 3, and burnt fragments from the southeastern upperhearth in Temple C.
The majority of the 36 M. brandaris, 14 small and fresh examples (Sh 4A), come from theupper floor of Temple C.
M. trunculus reach 70–80 mm in length and are generally found on rocks and stones in theupper regions of the littoral zone. M. brandaris are 80–90 mm long and found on rocks inshallow water.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Minoan Kommos produced 549 M. trunculus (1.5% of the collection), 21 M. brandaris, 10 Thais,and 2 Muricidea (Reese 1995f: 258). The PG deposit at Syme produced 2 shell fragments, with1 waterworn.
There is 1 burnt Murex fragment from the Aphrodite Altar at Athens (Reese 1989a: 68). Atthe Acrocorinth sanctuary there are 106 Murex, 23% of the shells. The 2 M. trunculusshells from Room E were the only shells found burnt and are of mixed Greek to Late Romandate. There are 11 M. brandaris, 9 M. trunculus, and 1 of the related Ocenebra erinaceus L.(sting winkle) from the Corycien Cave. Tombs 75 (Orientalizing) and 104 at the KnossosNorth Cemetery produced Murex (Evely 1996: 635). There is 1 M. trunculus columellafrom the PG Tomb 1970-15 of a prematurely born child at Asine in the Argolid (Wells1976: fig. 26; Reese 1982: 139). One was also found in the LPG–SPG I (ca. 900 B.C.) Tomb 7at Lefkandi.
There is 1 M. trunculus from Ephesos. The Athena Temple at Emporio on Chios produced16 Murex shells. The chapelle at Vroulia produced 2 M. trunculus, and the sanctuary thereyielded many examples, some holed (Kinch 1914: 160, pl. 24.2). The votive deposit at Kameirosyielded 2 M. trunculus, with 1 holed (Jacopi 1932–33: 361, fig. 106). There are 7 from Lindos.PG-Cypro-Geometric I Kition produced 2 M. trunculus, and 1 also comes from Well 1 (Reese1985d: 343, pl. CLXI bottom). The Cypro-Archaic II (ca. 550 B.C.) Meniko-Litharkes sanctuaryproduced only 1 Recent shell, a 72-mm M. trunculus (Demetropoulos 1977: 81, pl. XXVIII.1).There are 3 M. trunculus from the Kourion sanctuary, the earliest being late fifth–early fourthcentury B.C. in date. The late Cypro-Archaic II Amathus Tomb 3 produced a 14.5-mm M.trunculus (Westholm 1935: 17, fig. 6.2). At Salamis Tomb 79 produced 94 M. trunculus (Demetro-poulos 1973: 270, 272, pl. LIII), and they are also present in Cypro-Classical II, fourth-century,and late-fourth-century pyres.
The Marine Invertebrates 627
Glycymeris (Dog-cockles; Pl. 6.10)
The 914 Glycymeris (1% of the entire collection) come from the following periods: 4.8% TempleA; 1.3% period of Temple A; 0.8% period of Temple A–Temple B, Phase 1; 2% Temple B,Phase 1; 0.9% Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 0.3% period of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 2.1%Temple B, Phase 2; 1.6% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 9.1% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3;3% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 27% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (247 shells); 11.3%Temple B, Phase 3 (103 shells); 2.2% period of Temple B, Phase 3; 1.4% Hiatus period;5.3% period of Temple B, Phase 2–Temple C; 0.5% period of Temple B, Phase 3–Temple C;7.4% Temple C; and 19% period of Temple C (174 shells).
Practically all shells were collected dead on the beach. Many shells (31.7%) are naturallyholed at the umbo by beach and water action. Several shells are so beach- and waterwornthat they no longer resemble the original shell and are referred to here as “checkers.”
Glycymeris are circular and 80–85 mm. They live in the sub-littoral, burrowing just belowthe surface of the sand, mud, or gravel from shallow water down to about 80 m.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
At Minoan Kommos Glycymeris make up 7.9% of the collection (2,826 shells), with 93.3% LMIII, 1,191 holed at the umbo (42.1%), and 37 checkers (Reese 1995f: 252, 254–55). The PGdeposit at Syme produced 2 valves, with 1 worn. The Idean Cave produced 3 unholed exam-ples, with 2 burnt and 1 collected dead. The Unexplored Mansion at Knossos produced awaterworn and umbonally holed shell from A.D. 50–75.
There is a burnt and waterworn Glycymeris fragment from the Aphrodite Altar at Athens(Reese 1989a: 68, pl. 16d). There is another from the Acrocorinth sanctuary, and 15 shells (3.5%)come from the Corycien Cave. Several shells are reported from the Harbour Sanctuary at Emporio(ca. 600 B.C.; Boardman 1967a: 243); 1 of these is actually a waterworn Spondylus valve. Tomb294 at the Knossos North Cemetery produced a Glycymeris (Evely 1996: 636). The LPG (950–900B.C.) Tomb 3 at Lefkandi produced a large waterworn shell. Lindos produced Glycymeris, includ-ing at least 1 waterworn and holed at the umbo (Blinkenberg 1931: 178–79, pl. 17.550). AtKamiros the baby burial XXIII yielded 1 waterworn shell (Jacopi 1931: fig. 39), and the infantgrave XX yielded 2 waterworn examples with iron inside (Jacopi 1932–33: 72, fig. 79). Cypro-Geometric I Kition produced a very waterworn example holed at the umbo from Floor I ofTemenos A. Two pyres at Salamis of the fourth and late fourth century B.C. had Glycymeris.Two Cypro-Archaic tombs at Amathus produced 3 waterworn Glycymeris holed at the umbo.
Tellinacea (Tellins; Pls. 6.10, 6.13)
Donax and Tellina are members of the Superfamily Tellinacea. There are 337 Donax trunculusvalves at Kommos (0.36% of the entire collection) from the following periods: 5% Temple A;
628 The Iron Age Fauna
0.3% period of Temple A; 1.2% Temple B, Phase 1; 3.3% Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 1.2%Temple B, Phase 2; 0.6% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 4.1% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3;5.6% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 8.3% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (28 valves); 35.9%Temple B, Phase 3 (121 valves); 0.3% period of Temple B, Phase 3; 1.2% Hiatus period; 0.3%period of Temple B, Phase 2–Temple C; 0.6% period of Temple B, Phase 3–Temple C; 27.6%Temple C (93); and 4.5% period of Temple C.
Of these, 108 shells are waterworn, 29 are worn, 10 are gastropod-bored, and 1 is partlygastropod-bored. At least 32% of the Donax were collected dead. The 6 burnt shells came fromHearth 2 in Temple B, Phase 2; the period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3, southeast of the temple;Temple B, Phase 3, general upper interior pails (2); the central rectangular hearth in Temple C;and the central hearth in Room A1. There are large numbers from the Temple A floors (14valves, 8 MNI); the floors of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2 (11 valves, 8 MNI); the ritual depositaround the Tripillar Shrine in Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (40 valves, 20 MNI); the general upperinterior pails from Temple B, Phase 3 (110 valves, 71 MNI); and Temple C’s floor (55 valves,29 MNI). There are also 3 Donax semistriatus valves, with 1 gastropod-bored.
The 19 Tellina valves come from the following periods: 5.3% the period of Temple B, Phases1 and 2; 5.3% Temple B, Phase 2; 15.8% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 15.8% period of TempleB, Phases 2 and 3; 15.8% Temple B, Phase 3; 31.6% Temple C (6 valves); and 10.5% period ofTemple C. Two are fragments, 1 is waterworn, and 1 is very small. There are 5 valves fromthe floor of Temple C.
D. trunculus are 34–40 mm long, while Tellina are about 66 mm in length. Both are foundjust below the surface of the sand or mud in the littoral zone down to 10–15 m.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
There are 44 Donax from Minoan Kommos with 30 waterworn and 5 worn, and 1 Tellina fromthe LM IIIA2–B (Reese 1995f: 265). PG Kition produced a Tellina (Reese 1985d: 343, pl. A.6),and another of PG–Cypro-Geometric I date, collected dead, came from Temple 5, Room 58.All the Recent shells from the Tamassos temple are identified as Donax cf. semistriatus rostratus.There are 73 valves from at least 42 individuals, found in groups of 28 (14+ individuals), 23(12+), and 11 (8+) (Nobis 1976/77: 296). The Kourion sanctuary produced 39 D. trunculusvalves of 56 remains (69.6%) or 30 of 47 individuals (63.8%). Twelve funerary pyres at Salamisproduced D. trunculus valves of the Cypro-Geometric I (c50, 9, and 5 valves), Cypro-GeometricI–II (4), Cypro-Classical II (400–325 B.C.; c150, 3), fourth century (c35), and late fourth century(c100, c50, c30, 1) and an undated example (Demetropoulos 1970: fig. 2).
Mactridae (Trough-shells; Pl. 6.10)
There are two trough-shell forms present, Mactra and Spisula, both members of the FamilyMactridae. The 317 Mactra valves come from the following periods: 2.8% Temple A; 0.3%
The Marine Invertebrates 629
period of Temple A–Temple B, Phase 1; 0.6% Temple B, Phase 1; 2.2% Temple B, Phases 1and 2; 0.3% period of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 5.4% Temple B, Phase 2; 10.1% period ofTemple B, Phase 2 (32 valves); 4.1% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 13.2% Temple B, Phases2 and 3 (42 valves); 9.5% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 33.4% Temple B, Phase 3 (106valves); 0.3% Hiatus period; 0.3% period of Temple B, Phase 2–Temple C; 14.2% Temple C(45 valves); and 3.2% period of Temple C.
There is a burnt example from the rectangular hearth in Temple C. Six shells have beengastropod-bored (Temple B, Phase 3, ritual deposit [2]; period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3,Marine meal #8; Temple B, Phase 3, upper floor; Temple C upper floor; and period of TempleC to the southeast). There are also 7 Mactra holed at the umbo (Temple B, Phase 2, lowerhearth/floor; period of Temple B, Phase 2, south sounding; period of Temple B, Phases 1–3,levels to the west [37A]; Temple B, Phase 3, upper floor; Temple C floor [2]; and period ofTemple C dump to the south [34A/2]). These 13 shells may have been personal ornamentsor other decorations.
Two right Mactra valves were found below the reused Minoan stone lamp (S 283) on thefloor of Temple C (Pl. 1.109; Sh 3; J. W. Shaw 1980a: 223, pl. 60d). All 15 Spisula valves camefrom the Temple B, Phase 2, double hearth or the ashy fill beside it, with 5 burnt.
Mactra are 50–60 mm long and burrow in sand, mud, or gravel, from the extreme lowershore to about 100 m. Spisula reach 25 mm and live on silty or muddy sand from shallowwaters to about 35 m.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
There are 19 Mactra from Minoan Kommos, with 4 waterworn, 3 worn, and 2 gastropod-bored (Reese 1995f: 268). At Acrocorinth there are 2 valves. The LPG Tomb 3 at Lefkandiproduced a valve. At Salamis one Cypro-Archaic II (600–475 B.C.) tomb produced a valve,and the Cypro-Geometric II Pyre M produced 10 valves from 5 individuals (Demetropoulos1970: 300–1, fig. 2 bottom). Mactra are also present at Amathus in the Cypro-Archaic II Tomb297 (3 MNI) and Roman Tomb 423 (Reese 1985e: 270, pl. XLVIII.152). A sixth-century graveat Sardis produced a Mactra holed in the center of the valve (Greenewalt 1978: 124).
Cardiidae (Cockles; Pls. 6.10, 6.13)
There are three species of cockles present at Kommos, with the valves assignable to the periodsas follows: 5.3% Temple A; 0.6% period of Temple A–Temple B, Phase 1; 2.3% Temple B,Phase 1; 1.2% Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 5.8% Temple B, Phase 2; 6.4% period of Temple B,Phase 2; 6.4% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 2.3% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 7% period ofTemple B, Phases 2 and 3; 15.2% Temple B, Phase 3 (26 valves); 43.3% Temple C (74 valves);and 4.1% period of Temple C.
There are 302 Cerastoderma valves/fragments from at least 74 individuals in 26 deposits.
630 The Iron Age Fauna
Burnt Cerastoderma come from the period of Temple B, Phase 2, south sounding; the periodof Temple B, Phases 1–3, ritual deposit; the general upper interior area of Temple B, Phase3; from Temple C (in particular the floor, southwest hearth, central rectangular hearth, upperfloor, small hearth on the south wall of the upper floor, and the southeastern upper hearth);the central hearth in Room A1; and the eastern room of Building B (upper floor, hearth insoutheast corner; Reese 1984c).
There are 76 Acanthocardia tuberculata valves/fragments from at least 34 individuals in 22deposits (Pls. 6.10, 6.13). One burnt fragment comes from Hearth 2 in Temple B, Phase 2, andthere is a valve holed at the umbo from the period of Temple C dump to the south (34A2/2) that may have been an ornament or decoration. There is also an Acanthocardia aculeatafragment from the court of Temple B, Phase 2.
Cerastoderma are 40–50 mm in diameter and are found buried just below the surface insand, mud, or gravel from inshore, lower, and midshore waters on downward. A. tuberculatacan reach 89 mm and are found in the same substrates from extreme low water to deeperwater. A. aculeata reach 80–100 mm and have a similar habitat.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Minoan Kommos produced 19 Cerastoderma (3 waterworn, 3 worn, and 3 LM III shells holedat the umbo) and 3 LM III A. tuberculata (Reese 1995d: 267–68). The Idean Cave produced 2A. tuberculata. The LPG Tomb XI at Fortetsa near Knossos produced a cockle covered withgold foil (Brock 1957: 18, 197, pl. 13). There are 2 A. tuberculata from a Roman (late first centuryafter Christ) chamber tomb near Knossos (Carington Smith 1982: 289, pl. 42j–k).
There are several burnt and unburnt Cerastoderma from the Aphrodite Altar at Athens (Reese1989a: 68, pl. 16d). A burnt Cerastoderma fragment comes from the 1986 excavation of thefifth-century-B.C. East Terraces 4+5A at Isthmia (personal analysis). Tomb 132 in the KnossosNorth Cemetery produced a cockle (Evely 1996: 636). At Lefkandi the LPG–SPG III (950–750 B.C.) Pit B in the Palia Pervolia cemetery yielded 136 shells, with 83 Cerastoderma valvesfrom at least 41 individuals. Koumousia in Achaia produced 3 cast bronze cockle shells fromthree pits in a storeroom dating to the first century B.C. (J. K. Anderson 1953: 65, fig. 7a,nos. 2–4). At the Sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone in Cyrene, Libya, there are 17Archaic bronze pendants in the form of stylized shells (15 cockles, 1 scallop, and 1 un-known; White 1976: 171, 177 n. 16, pl. 26.17; Warden 1990: 25–26, fig. 2, pls. 19–20; 1992:52, fig. 4). At Salamis four pyres dating to the Cypro-Classical I, fourth century B.C., andlate fourth century B.C. (the latter period produced two of the pyres) have cockle remains.One worn Cerastoderma comes from Kourion. Five of the shells from Ephesos are Cerasto-derma. At nearby Knidos it has been noted that “the Knidians revered the cockle, because itwas believed that the love goddess had grown inside a cockle shell” (Cottrell 1980: 130).There are 63 Cerastoderma, 40 A. tuberculata, and 1 Laevicardium (26.2%) at the Corycien Cave.
The Marine Invertebrates 631
At the Acrocorinth sanctuary there are 19 Cerastoderma and 3 A. tuberculata. Eighteen ofthe Cerastoderma valves from Acrocorinth (10–18 MNI) were found in Room E, possibly astorage area.
Tonnacea (Tun, Helmet, and Trumpet Shells; Pl. 6.10)
The Superfamily Tonnacea includes the 97 Tonna, 58 Charonia, and 32 Phalium. This groupincludes the largest gastropods found in the Mediterranean.
Tonna come from the following periods: 5.2% Temple A; 3.1% Temple B, Phase 1; 1% TempleB, Phases 1 and 2; 3.1% Temple B, Phase 2; 4.1% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 3.1% periodof Temple B, Phases 1–3; 3.1% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 13.4% period of Temple B, Phases2 and 3 (13 shells); 12.4% Temple B, Phase 3 (12 shells); 1% period of Temple B, Phase 3;1% Hiatus period; 41.2% Temple C (40 shells); and 8.2% period of Temple C (Pl. 6.10). Thereare 19 Tonna from the floor of Temple C, with 4 waterworn, and also 5 small Tonna fromunder the reused Minoan stone lamp (S 283) that was found there (Sh 3; J. W. Shaw 1980a:223, pl. 60d). Four Tonna (2 worn) come from the interior of the northwest closet (A.D. 160/170) of Room A1, and 1 comes from above the bench in the northeast corner of the sameroom.
There are 40 Charonia individuals (58 fragments) distributed as follows: 12.5% Temple A;2.5% period of Temple A; 2.5% Temple B, Phase 1; 2.5% period of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2;2.5% Temple B, Phase 2; 10% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3 (12 fragments, four MNI); 40%period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (19 fragments, 16 MNI); 5% Temple B, Phase 3; 5% periodof Temple B, Phase 3; 2.5% Hiatus period; 2.5% period of Temple B, Phase 3–Temple C; 2.5%Temple C; and 10% period of Temple C. Four Charonia come from the Temple A northeastdump #2 (Sh 5, 198 mm long; J. W. Shaw 1984a: 282; Sh 6, 151+ mm, badly bored exteriorand open body). One labial fragment from the court of Temple B, Phase 2, is burnt. At least5 individuals were collected dead.
Phalium come from the following periods: 9.4% Temple A; 3.1% period of Temple A–TempleB, Phase 1; 6.2% Temple B, Phase 1; 12.5% Temple B, Phase 2; 15.6% period of Temple B,Phase 2 (5 shells); 15.6% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 9.4% period of Temple B, Phases 2and 3; 9.4% Temple B, Phase 3; 3.1% Temple C; and 15.6% period of Temple C. There is aholed Phalium from the period of Temple A–Temple B, Phase 1, deposit in the south (51A/27; Pl. 6.10). At least 37.5% (12 shells) were collected dead, with 5 waterworn lips found inthe period of Temple B, Phase 2, south sounding.
Tonna reach 220–250 mm, with larger ones found at greater depths. The small size of theKommos shells suggests that they were collected in shallow water or on the beach. Charoniaattain a maximum length of 300 mm and a diameter of 110–130 mm. Phalium reach 100–130 mm.
632 The Iron Age Fauna
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Minoan Kommos produced 52 Charonia, 21 Tonna, and 7 Phalium (2 waterworn lips and 1worn; Reese 1995f: 264). Elsewhere I have noted the votive use of Tonna in the Aegean BronzeAge (Reese 1989b; 1995c: 265).
The use of Charonia at prehistoric and historic sites in the Aegean, Cyprus, Near East, andItaly has also been dealt with elsewhere (Reese 1985d; 1995d: 264–65; in press d; Astrom andReese 1990). Of special note are the “triton shell” from the “Temple” at Karphi (Students ofthe British School at Athens 1937–39: 76), examples from cult contexts at Vrokastro (Hall 1914:108–9; Gesell 1985: 59), and the fact that the Idean Cave produced a C. sequenzae upper spirefragment. There are 5 Charonia fragments from the Unexplored Mansion at Knossos, with afourth/third-century-B.C. fragment cut along one edge.
The use of Phalium in the circum-Mediterranean has been discussed elsewhere (Reese 1989b).Two examples were also found at the Unexplored Mansion. PG Kition produced 1 P. undulatafrom a pit in Temple 5, Room 58 (Reese 1985d: 343, pl. CL:4204). Amathus Tomb 232 (Cypro-Archaic IIA) produced 8 waterworn lips (Reese 1992c: 124, pl. XXVI.1), and there are shellsfrom Tombs 186 (Reese 1992c: pl. XXVL.1) and 321.
There are a number of Tonnacea shells from Rhodian sites. Tomb LXXV at Kamiros produceda large Tonna, and the tomb of an adult (Tomb XVI) produced a Phalium (Jacopi 1931: 174,figs. 181, 269). There are also 1 holed Phalium from the infant Tomb 8 at Vroulia (Kinch 1914:160, pl. 31.4) and 3 P. undulata from Lindos. There are 5 of the related Cassidaria echinophora(L.) from the Corycien Cave, a Tonna fragment and a P. undulata lip from Kourion, and Tonnafrom two Hellenistic graves at Salamis (Karageorghis 1978: 25–26, figs. 4–5). One Tonna (no.59–334, 117 mm long, 88.5 mm wide) comes from the Sanctuary of Demeter at Morgantinain central Sicily. A large Tonna also comes from a votive deposit at Roman Carthage (McMasterUniversity excavations).
Buccinacea (Whelks)
There are four small- to medium-sized whelk species in the Superfamily Buccinacea presentat Kommos. The 58 Pisania come from the following periods: 3.5% Temple A; 1.7% TempleB, Phases 1 and 2; 1.7% Temple B, Phase 2; 1.7% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 1.7% periodof Temple B, Phases 1–3; 3.5% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 13.8% period of Temple B, Phases2 and 3; 62.1% Temple B, Phase 3 (36 shells); 3.5% period of Temple B, Phase 3–Temple C;and 6.9% Temple C. There are 35 shells (60.3% of all found) in the Temple B, Phase 3, generalupper interior pails, with 1 burnt and holed on the body (33C/55).
There are 42 Columbella, very similar to but smaller than Pisania, distributed as follows:7.1% Temple A; 7.1% Temple B, Phase 2; 2.4% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 7.1% period ofTemple B, Phases 1–3; 2.4% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 2.4% period of Temple B, Phases 2and 3; 7.1% Temple B, Phase 3; 2.4% period of Temple B, Phase 3–Temple C; and 61.9%
The Marine Invertebrates 633
Temple C (26 shells). There are 19 shells (45.2% of all found) from the floor of Temple C, with11 open at the apex and stringable. One of the 2 shells from the upper floor has an open apexand could have been strung. There are also 5 shells from below the floor of Building W.
The 38 Euthria come from the following periods: 2.6% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 5.3%period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 55.3% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (21 shells); 13.1% period ofTemple B, Phases 2 and 3; 5.3% Temple B, Phase 3; 5.3% period of Temple B, Phase 3–TempleC; 5.3% Temple C; and 7.9% period of Temple C. Of these shells, 20 (52.6%) come fromBuilding Q, Room 38. One of the shells from the general upper interior pails is gastropod-bored on the upper spire (33C/73) and could have been strung, and another from the ritualdeposit in Temple B, Phase 3, has an open side. There is a holed example from below thefloor of Building W (Pl. 6.13; 55A/2).
There are 18 Fasciolaria, with 57.1% from Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (8 shells), and 35.7%from the period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3. One gastropod-bored shell comes from theperiod of Temple B, Phases 1–3, levels to the southwest (44A/14).
Pisania are about 30 mm long and found in the rocky littoral zone in shallow water. Columbellaare 20 mm long and found chiefly in the upper region of the rocky littoral zone just belowthe surface of the sea. Euthria are 50 mm long and found on sandy and hard bottoms, as wellas on stony ground, generally at great depth.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Minoan Kommos produced 23 Pisania (6 worn, 2 holed at the apex, 1 holed on the body, and1 burnt), 30 Columbella (3 worn, 1 open at the apex, and 1 burnt), 59 Euthria (7 holed oppositethe mouth, 3 gastropod-bored, and 2 worn), and 3 Fasciolaria (1 waterworn; Reese 1995f: 261).
A PG deposit at Syme produced 31 Columbella, of which 21 could be strung. There is 1Fasciolaria from Acrocorinth, and 2 Columbella, 2 Euthria, and 1 Fasciolaria were found at theCorycien Cave. A Cypro-Geometric IIIB–Cypro-Archaic IB/IIA shell necklace from AmathusTomb 142 has a holed Euthria. There are 35 holed Columbella from four tombs at Amathus,with 17 from Tomb 142 and 15 from Tomb 297 (Cypro-Archaic II). Three pyres at Salamishave 4 Columbella of the fourth century B.C. (Demetropoulos 1970: fig. 2 top right).
Cerithiacea (Ceriths)
There are three related turret-shaped gastropods in the Superfamily Cerithiacea in the Kommossample. The 92 Bittium come from the following periods: 2.2% Temple A; 1.1% period ofTemple B, Phases 1 and 2; 1.1% Temple B, Phase 2; 6.5% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3;5.4% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 32.6% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (30 shells); 26.1%Temple B, Phase 3 (24 shells); 3.3% period of Temple B, Phase 3; 2.2% Hiatus period;3.3% period of Temple B, Phase 3–Temple C; 3.3% Temple C; and 13% period of Temple C.All 24 of the shells from Temple B, Phase 3 (26% of all those found), come from the general
634 The Iron Age Fauna
upper interior pails. At least 40%, and possibly as many as 80%, of the Bittium were collecteddead.
The 77 Cerithium are distributed as follows: 7.8% Temple A; 1.3% period of Temple A–TempleB, Phase 1; 1.3% Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 2.6% Temple B, Phase 2; 1.3% period of TempleB, Phase 2; 9.1% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 32.5% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (25 shells);19.5% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (15 shells); 18.2% Temple B, Phase 3; 5.2% TempleC; and 1.3% period of Temple C. At least 25 shells (32%) are fresh and have a broken lip,indicating that they were eaten. There are 23 shells from Building Q, including 7 with brokenlips (broken when the animal was extracted for consumption) from the upper floor of Room37 and 14 small examples from the lower floor of Room 38. At least 9 shells (11.7%) weredefinitely collected dead, and 12–16% of the shells were probably collected dead.
There is a slightly burnt shell from the period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3, Marine meal#8; 2 burnt small shells from the rectangular Hearth 2 in Temple B, Phase 3; and 1 burnt smallshell from the southeastern upper hearth of Temple C. The single Turritella apical fragmentis unburnt and comes from the Temple B, Phase 2, exterior double hearth.
Bittium are found on stones and among rocks in the lower shore and in shallow water.Cerithium, up to 50–60 mm long, are found on stony and firm sandy bottoms in associationwith rocks or other hard objects down to about 10 m. Turritella, 50–60 mm long, live partlyburied in sand, mud, or gravel from 10 to 80 m.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Minoan Kommos produced 32 Bittium (15 waterworn, 9 worn, and 10 holed opposite themouth) and 14 Cerithium (2 waterworn, 3 worn, 5 open lip, and 2 holed opposite the mouth;Reese 1995f: 266–67). The 4 holed Bittium from IA levels (period of Temple B, Phases 1–3,dump to the south [34A2/31]; period of Temple B, Phases 1–3, levels to the west #1 [37A];Temple B, Phase 3, general pails [33C/50]; and southeast of Temple C [fourth century B.C.,53A/2]) are considered to be residual Minoan ornaments (Reese 1995f: 266, pl. 5.5A).
A PG deposit at Syme produced 2 waterworn Bittium. Two fragments of a burnt Cerithiumcome from the mid-seventh-century-B.C. fill on the west side of the Long Altar at Isthmia(personal analysis). PG–Cypro-Geometric I Kition produced a Cerithium from Room 38 inTemple 4, and an example comes from a late-fifth-century-B.C. pyre at Salamis (Demetropoulos1970: 301, fig. 2). There are 16 Cerithium from the Corycien Cave and 1 Turritella from Ephesos.
Nassariidae (Nassa Shells; Pls. 6.10, 6.13)
The 59 Arcularia come from the following periods: 18.6% Temple A; 3.4% Temple B, Phases1 and 2; 1.7% Temple B, Phase 2; 3.4% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 8.5% period of TempleB, Phases 2 and 3; 28.8% Temple B, Phase 3 (17 shells); 3.4% period of Temple B, Phase
The Marine Invertebrates 635
2–Temple C; 23.7% Temple C (14 shells); and 8.5% period of Temple C. At least 20% werecollected dead. There are 10 shells from the Temple A floors; 16 from the Temple B, Phase 3,general upper interior pails; and 6 from the floor of Temple C. Holed shells come from thefloor of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; Temple B, Phase 3, general pails (7); the floor of TempleC (2); the upper floor, below the Building W floor (2); and the western room on the upperlevel of burned Building B. Burnt shells were found in the court of Temple A and in theperiod of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3, Marine meal #3.
The single Sphaeronassa is a tiny burnt shell from the ashy fill east of the double hearth inTemple B, Phase 2. The only Cyclope is a burnt shell from the central rectangular hearth inTemple C.
Nassa shells are found in sand and mud in shallow water. Arcularia are about 20 mm long.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
There are 120 Arcularia from Minoan Kommos (67 holed, 45 waterworn, 37 worn, and 1 burnt)with 57.5% LM III (Reese 1995f: 261–62, pl. 5.5H).
There is a charred Arcularia from the Aphrodite Altar at Athens (Reese 1989a: 68). The LPG(1000–950 B.C.) Tomb 39 at Lefkandi produced 58 holed associated Arcularia (Popham et al.1982: 220, pl. 17.47). The Artemision at Ephesos produced at least 1 holed Arcularia, which,along with the holed cowries, “appear to have been suspended from fibula-bows” (Hogarth1908: 217, fig. 44.2). The votive deposit at Kamiros yielded a Nassa (Jacopi 1932–33: 365). Thereare a number of examples from Cyprus. Kition produced a waterworn shell with an openbody from Well 1. This species is the most common form from later levels at Kition with 17(88% holed) from Bothros 9 (800–600 B.C.), 35 (80% holed) from Bothros 1 (600–450 B.C.), and2 (holed) from Bothros 8. There are 65 examples (holed, unholed, and sometimes burnt) fromtwenty pyres and tombs at Salamis dating from the Cypro-Archaic II to the late fourth centuryB.C. (Demetropoulos 1970: 299–301, fig. 2 center). There are 2 examples from Kourion. Twenty-three tombs at Amathus produced 659 Arcularia (all but 13 holed), 49 holed Cyclope from fivetombs, and 24 holed Sphaeronassa from three tombs.
Cypraeidae (Cowries; Pl. 6.10)
The 65 cowries (53 Erosaria and 8 Luria) come from the following periods: 3.1% Temple A;6.1% Temple B, Phase 2; 18.5% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 13.8% Temple B, Phases 2and 3; 20% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (13 shells); 20% Temple B, Phase 3; 3.1%period of Temple B, Phase 3; 4.6% Temple C; and 10.8% period of Temple C. There are 5 fromthe Temple B, Phases 2 and 3, ritual deposit around the Tripillar Shrine, and 4 from theTemple B, Phase 3, general upper interior pails. Only 1 cowrie is holed, an Erosaria from thefloor of Temple C (Pl. 6.10).
636 The Iron Age Fauna
Erosaria are 35–37 mm long, and Luria 45–60 mm long. Both are found on sandy and muddybottoms and in rock pools, often at great depths.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
There are 18 cowries (17 Erosaria and 1 Luria) from Minoan Kommos (Reese 1995f: 268–69,pl. 5.4L). Two cowries were found at the “Temple” at Karphi (Students of the British Schoolat Athens 1937–39: 76, 113). Two Luria were found in the Unexplored Mansion at Knossos(750 B.C., first century B.C.). There is a slightly burnt Red Sea Cypraea annulus from the AphroditeAltar at Athens (Reese 1989a: 68, pl. 16d–e). The Archaic Temple of Poseidon at Isthmiaproduced a burnt C. annulus with a ground-down dorsum (Gebhard in press, fig. 10, IM 590).There are 7 Luria from the Corycien Cave, and a holed Luria was found at the Hera Sanctuaryat Perachora (T. J. Dunbabin 1962: 527, pl. 194 K2).
A votive deposit (700–500 B.C.) on the Kastro Hill on the Cycladic island of Siphnos produced2 cowries (Brock 1949: 27, pl. 10.4). The Artemision at Ephesos produced at least 4 holedcowries (at least 2 Luria) from the Basis (Hogarth 1908: 217, fig. 44.1, 3–4), and the ArtemisAltar produced 2 Cypraea pyrum. A holed Erosaria dating to the early first century after Christwas found at Kourion. A PG tomb at Asine produced 3 holed cowries, at least 1 of whichwas a Luria (Wells 1976: fig. 26; Reese 1982: 139). A Geometric grave at Lerna produced aLuria (L3.1 in the Argos Museum). At Kamiros, Tomb CVIII produced Luria (Jacopi 1931: 214),and the votive deposit yielded 3 cowries, with at least 1 holed and 1 Luria (Jacopi 1932–33:356, fig. 108). The infant Tomb P at Vroulia produced 2 cowries (Kinch 1914: pl. 33.5–6).
A total of 21 holed cowries are known from three Cypro-Archaic II and two Cypro-ClassicalI tombs at Salamis, with Erosaria, Luria, and 3 Red Sea cowries present (Demetropoulos 1970:301, figs. 1–2; Karageorghis 1970: 115, pls. XLIX, CXLVI, CLIV, CCV, CCXLIII, CCXXXVIII).The Cypro-Classical II tomb at Ayia Marina produced a holed Luria (Christodoulou 1967: 63,n. 4, pl. XV.15). There are 25 holed Red Sea cowries and 1 holed Luria from Bothros 1 atKition. The Amathus tombs (sixteen in total) produced 67 C. annulus, 12 Erosaria, 7 Luria, and9 stone copies of small cowries that were holed as ornaments (Reese 1992c: 123–24, pl. XXIV.1–5). A possibly holed Erosaria is known from the Roman Tomb 423 at Amathus (Reese 1985e).
J. C. Melvill has stated (Jackson 1917: 38) that the generic name of this group of shells,Cypraea, or more classically, Cypria, is derived from one of the many attributes of Aphrodite,owing doubtless to her worship not only having been inaugurated but for long years principallycentralized in Cyprus. As J. W. Jackson (Jackson 1917: xiv) states, “Aphrodite was born ofthe sea foam, and reached Cyprus as a cowry . . . which was already a symbol of womanhood,the giver of life and resurrection.”
The cowrie has often been likened to the female external genitalia and thought to have thepower of conferring fertility (Biggs 1970: 426). The Romans called cowries concha Venerea,the shell of Venus. In fairly recent times Nilotic women wore aprons with cowries sewn ontothem to protect them against sterility (Aldred 1971: 16).
The Marine Invertebrates 637
Veneridae (Pl. 6.10)
The 23 Dosinia (common name: Artemis shell) come from the following periods: 4.3% TempleB, Phase 1; 8.7% period of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 4.3% Temple B, Phase 2; 13% TempleB, Phases 2 and 3; 30.4% Temple B, Phase 3 (7 shells); 4.3% Hiatus period; 30.4% Temple C;and 4.3% period of Temple C. Two valves were collected dead.
There are 11 valves of two species of Venus (common name: Venus shell). One small valve(holed in center and burnt) was found in rectangular Hearth 4 of Temple B, Phase 3, andthere are 4 valves of 4 MNI from the floor of Temple C.
Dosinia are 28–30 mm in diameter and live deeply buried in sand, mud, or shell-gravel onthe lower shore down to 125 m. Venus burrow more shallowly, to about 100 m.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
There are a Middle Minoan I and an MM III Venus verrucosa from Kommos (Reese 1995f: 243).There are two Venus from Ephesos, 75 (17.5%) V. verrucosa from the Corycien Cave, and 1from Acrocorinth. Tomb CVIII at Kamiros produced a Venus (Jacopi 1931: 214).
Arcidae (Ark Shells; Pl. 6.10)
The 26 Barbatia valves come from the following periods: 3.8% Temple A; 3.8% period of TempleA–Temple B, Phase 1; 7.7% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 3.8% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3;3.8% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 19.2% Temple B, Phase 3 (5 shells); 46.2% TempleC; and 11.5% period of Temple C. At least 4 (15.4%) were collected dead. There are also 12Arca, with 8.3% from Temple A, 66.7% Temple C (8 shells), and 25.7% period of Temple C,with 58.3% (7 shells) collected dead. Burnt valves were found in Temple C on the floor(Barbatia), central rectangular hearth (Barbatia), and southeastern upper hearth (Arca).
Barbatia attain a length of 73 mm and are attached by a byssus to rocks on the upper shoreand littoral zone. Arca, reaching 70–80 mm, are attached to rocks and stones in the uppercoastal zone on downward.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Minoan Kommos produced 5 Barbatia (3 waterworn and 2 small) and 4 LM III Arca (Reese1995f: 242). The Apollo Temple at Dreros produced Arca (Marinatos 1936: 270, fig. 36). Ephesosproduced 11 Arca (19%), and there are 2 from the Corycien Cave.
Pectinacea (Scallop Group; Pl. 6.10)
The 30 Spondylus valves come from the following periods: 3.3% period of Temple A; 6.7%Temple B, Phase 2; 3.3% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 3.3% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3;
638 The Iron Age Fauna
3.3% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 23.3% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 13.3% Temple C;and 43.3% period of Temple C (13 shells). Eleven valves were collected dead. There are also8 Lima (Pl. 6.10; 1 from Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 2 from Temple B, Phase 3; 4 from TempleC; and 1 from the period of Temple C), 4 Pecten, and 11 fossil scallops.
Spondylus are 80–120 mm long and are found attached to rocks on the seabed, sometimesin shallow water. Lima, 25–38 mm long, prefer bottoms of coarse sand, gravel, broken shells,and stones from the low watermark to 100 m. Pecten species are 120–150 mm long and arefound in deep water on sand and gravel.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Minoan Kommos produced 11 Spondylus valves and 2 LM III Lima (Reese 1995f: 242–43). PGSyme produced a waterworn valve. Spondylus is the most common shell at the Demeter andKore Sanctuary on Acrocorinth, with 316 valves (68.5%), and 2 Pecten and a lead skeuomorphof a scallop were also found there (Stroud 1968: 326, pl. 98b). Ephesos produced 16 Spondylus(27.6%), and there are 2 from Lindos (Blinkenberg 1931: 178, pl. 17.548). The Harbour Sanctuaryat Emporio (ca. 600 B.C.) yielded a waterworn Spondylus valve (personal analysis). The CorycienCave produced 31 Spondylus (7.2%), 12 Pecten, and 2 Chlamys. At the Sanctuary of Demeterand Persephone in Cyrene there is an Archaic bronze pendant in the form of a stylized Pecten(Warden 1990: 25, fig. 2.123. pl. 19.123). There is a single Pecten from Kourion.
Tomb 40 in the Knossos North Cemetery produced a Spondylus, and Tomb 107 there hada Lima (Evely 1996: 635–36). In the Corinth North Cemetery the mid- or late-fourth-century-B.C. Grave 449 of a mother and child produced a Pecten, and the third-century-B.C. Grave 491contained 3 Pecten (Palmer 1964: 280, 79, 84, pls. 72.448, no. 2, 76.491, no. 2). At Lefkandi theSPG I (ca. 900–875 B.C.) Toumba Tomb 3 produced a Pecten (Jones 1980: 229, pl. 201d), andthe SPG II–III tombs (ca. 850 B.C.) yielded 1 complete valve and 2 fragments (Jones 1980: pls.228c, 237c). At Kamiros there is at least 1 Pecten from Tomb CVII (Jacopi 1931: 214, fig. 223)and 2 from Tomb CLXXXIII (Jacopi 1931: 332, fig. 365).
Greeks and Romans thought that Aphrodite/Venus was born from a scallop, as shown interra-cotta models and on vase paintings (Abbott 1979: 187–89). H. C. Coote (1869) has sug-gested that the scallop was a symbol of the Eleusinian Mysteries. Coote notes that a goldenscallop was found in a Greek tomb in the Crimea and that actual shells were found in coffinsand were also used to decorate them in Roman France and England.
Conus (Cone Shell; Pls. 6.10, 6.13)
The 30 Conus come from the following periods: 3.3% Temple A; 6.7% Temple B, Phase 2; 10%period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 10% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 26.7% period of Temple B,Phases 2 and 3 (8 shells); 20% Temple B, Phase 3; 3.3% period of Temple B, Phase 3; 3.3%
The Marine Invertebrates 639
period of Temple B, Phase 3–Temple C; and 16.7% Temple C. One of the 2 shells from Hearth2 in Temple B, Phase 2, is burnt, as is the small example from the rectangular hearth of TempleC. Temple C’s floor produced 2 waterworn shells with 1 holed at the apex (Pl. 6.10).
These shells reach 50–60 mm and are found in the stony littoral, often in shallow water.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Minoan Kommos produced 16 Conus (4 waterworn, 2 worn, 4 small, 1 holed on the side, andan apex fragment holed at the apex; Reese 1995f: 269). There are 19 Conus (with 12 holed and2 broken) from the PG deposit at Syme, and 2 from the Corycien Cave. There are 3 Cypro-Geometric I shells from Temenos A at Kition.
Mytiloida (Mussel and Pen Shells)
There are 5 Pinna individuals and 5 Mytilus fragments of three individuals.Mytilus are found attached to stones from the middle shore downward. Pinna, the largest
Mediteranean bivalve, are found in deep waters and rarely in shallow waters.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
There are an LM IIIA2 and an LM III Pinna and an LM IIIA2 Mytilus from Kommos (Reese1995f: 243). The Corycien Cave produced a Mytilus. At Lefkandi the LPG/SPG I (ca. 900 B.C.)Palia Pervolia Tomb 7 produced 2 Pinna fragments, and the SPG (ca. 900–750 B.C.) Pit 1 had1 Pinna fragment.
Dentalium (Tooth or Tusk Shell; Pl. 6.13)
The 46 Dentalium come from the following periods: 4.3% Temple A; 2.2% Temple B, Phase 1;2.2% Temple B, Phase 2; 2.2% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 13% period of Temple B, Phases2 and 3; 13% Temple B, Phase 3; 4.3% Hiatus period; 50% Temple C (23 shells); and 8.7%period of Temple C. One burnt shell comes from the Temple B, Phase 2, exterior doublehearth. There are 22 Dentalium from below the floor of Building W (Pl. 6.13).
Dentalium are found in coarse sand or gravel from 30–70 m.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
There are 12 Dentalium from Minoan Kommos (Reese 1995f: 270, pl. 5.5L). The Idean Caveproduced 6 D. dentalis, and the Unexplored Mansion at Knossos yielded 7 examples. Tomb100 (MGP–EG) at the Knossos North Cemetery produced a Dentalium (Evely 1996: 635–36).One Cypro-Classical II pyre at Salamis produced a Dentalium vulgare (Demetropoulos 1970:301, fig. 2).
640 The Iron Age Fauna
Sepia (Cuttlefish)
The 24 Sepia come from the following periods: 4.2% Temple A; 4.2% Temple B, Phase 1; 4.2%Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 8.3% Temple B, Phase 2; 4.2% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 12.3%period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 4.2% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 8.3% period of Temple B,Phases 2 and 3; 8.3% Temple B, Phase 3; 8.3% Hiatus period; 16.7% Temple C (4 MNI); and16.7% period of Temple C.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
There are 12 Sepia from Minoan Kommos, with 2 waterworn. Half date to LM III (Reese 1995f:270). Bothros 9 at Kition has remains, as do a fourth- and a late-fourth-century-B.C. pyre atSalamis (Demetropoulos 1970: 299–300, pl. XXX.29).
Other Molluscs
There are 7 Bivonia/Lemintina, with 3 small examples coming from Room 38, lower floor ofBuilding Q, and 2 waterworn examples from the Temple B, Phase 3, general upper interiorpails. Kommos also produced MM III and LM IIIB examples (Reese 1995f: 243). Two fragmentswere found at PG Syme, and a related Vermetus arenarius was found in the Sanctuary ofDemeter at Knossos (Hughes-Brock 1973: 119).
There are 6 Natica, with a small burnt example from the Temple B, Phase 2, exterior doublehearth. Two broken Natica were found on the Temple C floor. Minoan Kommos produced 9Natica (3 waterworn, 1 worn, 1 burnt, 1 LM IIIA holed, and 2 ring fragments; Reese 1995f:271–72). The 2 Mitra come from one deposit in Temple B, Phase 3. A holed example wasfound at PG Syme, and 3 holed examples come from the Cypro-Archaic II Tomb 297 atAmathus. There are 2 Ostrea (Temple C and period of Temple C) as well as 150 fossil oysters.A total of 19 Recent oysters (32.8%) come from Ephesos, 6 from the Corycien Cave, and 4from Acrocorinth.
Echinoids (Sea Urchins)
The 50 Paracentrotus individuals come from the following periods: 6% Temple A; 2% periodof Temple A; 4% Temple B, Phase 1; 2% Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 2% period of Temple B,Phases 1 and 2; 10% Temple B, Phase 2; 2% period of Temple B, Phase 2; 10% period ofTemple B, Phases 1–3; 10% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 22% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and3 (11 individuals); 6% Temple B, Phase 3; 2% period of Temple B, Phase 3; 2% Hiatus period;18% Temple C (9 individuals); and 2% period of Temple C. There are burnt remains from thecourt of Temple B, Phase 2; period of Temple B, Phase 2, south sounding; period of Temple
The Marine Invertebrates 641
B, Phases 2 and 3, Marine meal #15; and Temple B, Phase 3, general upper interior pails.There are also 2 fossil echinoids.
Paracentrotus have a test diameter of up to 60 mm and are found on rocks and stones fromthe lower middle shore and in rock pools down to 30 m.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Minoan Kommos produced 66 Paracentrotus (47% LM III) and 1 LM I Sphaerechinus (Reese1995f: 273). Bothros 9 at Kition produced 4 almost complete tests. Echinoid remains comefrom pyres at Salamis dating to the Cypro-Classical II, fourth century, and late fourth centuryB.C. (2; Demetropoulos 1970: 299–300, pl. XXX.28).
Crustacea (Crabs and Barnacles)
There are 64 marine crabs (63 Eriphia and 1 Calappa) present from the following periods: 4.7%Temple A; 3.1% period of Temple A; 3.1% Temple B, Phases 1 and 2; 1.6% period of TempleB, Phases 1 and 2; 6.2% Temple B, Phase 2; 12.5% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 14.1%Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 25% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (16 crabs); 21.9% TempleB, Phase 3; 6.2% Temple C; and 1.6% period of Temple C. Burnt remains were found in thepit to the east from the period of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2, as well as in the court of TempleB, Phase 2, and the area south of the temples in the period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3.
The Calappa is from the northwestern enclosure of Temple C (ca. A.D. 160/170). This is avery large crab, with gigantic expanded claws. Also to be noted here are two freshwater crabs(Potamon, which live in estuaries and streams) from the period of Temple B, Phases 1 and 2,and the period of Temple B, Phase 2.
There are 10+ Lepas individuals from ten deposits, with most remains from the floor ofTemple C and the southwestern upper hearth, and burnt remains from the rectangular hearthand the southwestern upper hearth. Two Balanus plates come from Temple C, 1 from thefloor and a burnt example from the rectangular hearth.
Eriphia are 50–60 mm in diameter and are found on rocky grounds in shallow water. Lepasare 50 mm long on stalks 100–200 mm long and are pelagic. They may be common on bottomsof slow-moving boats and driftwood. Balanus are found attached to rocks in shallow wateron the lower shore.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Minoan Kommos produced 27 Eriphia (5 burnt, 66.7% LM III), 1 MM III Potamon, and 1 MMIII Lepas (Reese 1995f: 272). A first-century-after-Christ (?) stratum at the Unexplored Mansionat Knossos yielded Eriphia. There are 3 Eriphia and 1 Pachygraspus marmoratus (Fabr.), therunning crab, from Tomb 79 at Salamis.
642 The Iron Age Fauna
Conclusions
The Kommos IA marine invertebrate sample (94,430 individuals) is not that different fromthe Minoan sample (35,903). Patella, Monodonta, and Glycymeris are in both cases the mostcommon species. A single large seventh-century-B.C. Murex sample makes this shell seemmore significant that it actually is. As with the Minoan Glycymeris, most of these were collecteddead, and it is again hard to explain their presence at the site.
The IA use of the shells is rather consistent over the life of the sanctuary complex, exceptfor the shells associated with Temple C. In Temple C Patella is much less important, andvarious bivalves (particularly Donax, Mactra, and Cerastoderma) are more common.
While burnt marine invertebrates are found in many deposits, and shells can be burnt indestructions, during food disposal, and during fumigation, there is definite evidence for theburning of shells at Kommos, particularly Cerastoderma. These shells were burned on hearthsas well as in secondary dump deposits. Although several other sanctuary sites have produceda few burnt shells, none of them can match the quantities found at Kommos.
The rather large number of Donax valves (337) is of interest, as this is the most commonshell found at Cypriot sanctuaries (e.g., Tamassos and Kourion). A number of shells are holedand could have been personal ornaments of the visitors or other decorations, such as on cultstatues or hung on walls. Finally, whereas other sanctuary/altar sites (e.g., Athens, Isthmia,Samos, Kition, and Cyrene) have shells imported from the Red Sea, all the Kommos formsare local.
7. The InsectsDavid S. Reese
There are two insect remains from water-sieved deposits. These were examined by specialistsin the Department of Entomology, Natural History Museum, London, thanks to the effortsof Dr. Michael C. Day of that Department. The upper floor hearth in Temple C (29A1/28)produced an elytron (thickened wing) of a member of the Family Chrysomelidae. In BuildingB, the upper floor of the eastern room (10A/52) produced remains of Geocoris sp. (FamilyLygaeidae), a generalized predatory bug. Because of its excellent state of preservation, withthe wings present, it is probably modern.
C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A
Minoan Kommos produced insect remains (Reese 1995d: 277–78). In the report of that material,other examples from BA and later circum-Mediterranean sites were cited, to which we cannow add the publication of remains from Akrotiri on Thera (Panagiotakopulu and Buckland1991; Panagiotakopulu et al. 1995; Panagiotakopulu et al. 1997).
Appendix 6.1 643
Appendix 6.1
Iron Age Shell Purple-Dye Production in the AegeanDavid S. Reese
Murex trunculus, M. brandaris (both Family Muricidae), and the related Thais haemastoma (FamilyThaididae) were used in the Mediterranean Basin to produce a colorfast purple-dye (for recentresearch, see Ziderman 1987; Reese 1980; 1987b). Since they are edible, useful as bait for fish,possible ornaments, and a source of lime, the shells found in small quantities are not evidenceof a purple-dye industry.
Archaeological evidence suggests that shell purple-dye production began in the Greekislands in the late Middle Bronze Age. The Bronze Age evidence for shell purple-dye productionin the Mediterranean Basin has been surveyed elsewhere (Reese 1987b: 204–6).
It has been shown (Fouquet and Belig 1971) that one M. trunculus will produce 1.2 mg ofdye, and one M. brandaris will produce 0.6 mg of dye. A single gland will dye 1 g of woolto a standard shade of between 1/1 and 2/1 depth, a deep violet color that is equivalent to3% dyeing (Elsner and Spanier 1985: 124–25). A great deal of labor is required in the process.First, the shells are caught (itself a laborious task and limited to certain seasons according toPliny Natural History 9.125, 133) and the dye-bearing hypobranchial glands extracted, generallyby crushing the shell. Next, the glands must be exposed, soaked in brine for three days (again,according to Pliny), and then boiled for nine more days. Pliny’s account of this process hasrecently been critically discussed by Michel and McGovern (1987).
Here we briefly discuss the Iron Age sites in the Aegean that have shell evidence of purple-dye production or where such activity has been reported.
At the Kapsorakhis plot at Asine in the Argolid in 1977 the Late Geometric Room S (2000:7, 9; 2005:12, and 2015:2) produced 80 M. trunculus fragments from at least 36 individuals. Arelated deposit (2005:14, 2006:27, 33, and 2015:1) produced 177 M. trunculus fragments fromat least 76 individuals.
Five thousand talents–worth of purple-dyed cloth from Hermion (modern Ermioni) in thesouthern Argolid were found as fresh as new in Susa (Iran) in 331 B.C. by Alexander the Greatafter having been stored for 190 years. The excellent preservation was ascribed to the use ofhoney for the material dyed with shell purple-dye (Plutarch, Alexander 36; Diodorus Siculus17.70). In the second century after Christ the sophist Alkiphron (3.46.4) spoke of Egyptianlinen dyed with expensive Hermionian purple (cf. also Stephanos of Byzantium, s.v. Halieis).It would seem, therefore, that Hermione was producing shell purple-dye from at least theearly sixth century B.C. to as late as the second century after Christ (Jameson 1994: 316–17).A large pile of murex shells was seen at the end of the eighteenth century at Ermioni bySibthorp (Walpole 1817: 283), and I saw many M. trunculus, almost always crushed, all overthe Ermioni peninsula, in August 1987 (Jameson 1994: 316–19, fig. 5.24, by Reese). Smaller
644 The Iron Age Fauna
collections of murex shells have also been found at two southern Argolid survey sites (A3,30 shells; E74, 100+ shells; Jameson 1994: 317).
At Corinth evidence for shell purple-dye production was found in the 1930s, supposedlydating to the Turkish period (Gejvall 1938: 54). Dye works in the northeastern quarter of thePeribolos of Apollo were associated with much M. trunculus and date to the sixth–fifth centuryB.C. (Daux 1968: 787; 1967: 634). In 1976 many remains of crushed and uncrushed M. trunculuswere found dating to the Byzantine period, probably the early eleventh century. The samplepreserved in the Ancient Corinth Museum, Bone lot 1976–3, is of 66 complete M. trunculus.
Excavations at the Hellenistic (ca. 360–240 B.C.) Rachi at Isthmia uncovered a dyeing work-shop possibly utilizing shell purple-dye (Kardara 1961). C. Kardara notes that a “few purpleshells” were found (1961: 263). There is, however, only a single fragmentary M. trunculusfrom the Rachi preserved in the Isthmia Museum, and fewer than 40 M. brandaris (mainly)and M. trunculus preserved from all Isthmia excavations (personal analysis).
In 1959 excavations at the Athenian Agora yielded a “thick deposit” of “thousands” ofmurex shells. The small amount of associated pottery is Early Byzantine (eighth century;J. Diamant, personal communication, 16 October 1987). The 2 shells saved (Agora Museum,BI 774) are M. trunculus.
In 1879 Lortet and Chantre recorded undated M. brandaris refuse from purple-dye industriesin Attica and on Salamis (Lortet 1884: 103; Perrot and Chipiez 1885: 881).
The small island of Ayios Georgios, about 20 km south of Cape Sounion in Attica, produceda midden 40 m long by 2 m high of unspecified murex shells that were opened on the sideof the shell (von Ducker 1871: 265). Stone hammers used to break the shells were foundassociated with the shells (von Ducker 1871: 265; Born 1937: 111).
At an unspecified site in the Morea (the Peloponnesus) were found “des amas considerables”of M. brandaris “dont le test avait une alteration particuliere” (discovery of Boblaye mentionedin Lamarck 1835–45: 559–60). F. de Saulcy (1864: 216–17) also mentions M. trunculus and Thaisfrom there.
Gythion in southern Laconia produced a midden of M. brandaris opened through the upperspire and found in the last century (de Saulcy 1864: 214, 217; Wyse 1865: 54; Gaillardot 1873:759; Lenormant 1881: 107; Tristram 1882: 48). Many ancient authors mention the Laconiandye (Pliny, Natural History IX.60, IX.127, XXI.6, 45; Pausanias, Description of Greece III.21.6;Athenaeus, Deipnosophists 198; Horace, Odes II.18.7; Statius, Silvae I.2.150).
The island of Kythera has Middle Minoan as well as later shell evidence, with a middenof M. brandaris found in the last century (de Saulcy 1864: 217; Gaillardot 1873: 759; Coldstreamand Huxley 1973: 36–37, 282). G. Huxley notes that most of the shells were M. brandaris, butM. trunculus and Thais were also found. When I visited the area in 1981 only M. trunculusfragments were found. Maybe there are separate middens of M. trunculus and M. brandarisat the site. The island was known as Porphyrusa.
Crushed M. trunculus have been found at Hellenistic Delos, both in the industrial quarter
Notes 645
(associated with granite blocks and vats), outside the settlement, and reused in cement. Thereis also textual evidence describing the Delian industry (Bruneau 1969: 765–79; 1978: 110–14;1979).
The late seventh-century-B.C. Building Q, Room 38, at Kommos produced a sample of 4.4kg of crushed M. trunculus (with a few Thais fragments) from at least 1,030 individuals(Pl. 6.11). This is half of the entire quantity found and present here in secondary use as floorpacking.
At Limani Chersonisos in northern Crete in the early 1960s crushed M. trunculus were foundin secondary use as floor packing in a Roman house being eroded on the beach (Boekschoten1962: 60). In 1984 I found many M. trunculus fragments in the beach scarp at that site.
Roman (as well as MM) Kouphonisi (Leuke) off the southeastern coast of Crete has producedmuch crushed and holed M. trunculus (Papadakis 1983: fig. 14 upper row; Reese 1987b: 204).
In 1987 Canadian/Greek excavations in the Epano Skala (North Harbour) district of Mytileneon Lesbos produced crushed M. trunculus shells used in floor packing dating from the third–second century B.C.
An enormous quantity of crushed M. trunculus was found in a large bothros at the Peristeriassanctuary at Polis in northwestern Cyprus in the mid 1990s (Smith 1997: 90–91; personalanalysis). As at Kommos, this is evidence for shell purple-dye production in association witha sanctuary.
In the summer of 1996 R. Hohlfelder found quantities of M. trunculus at Early Roman–Byzan-tine Aperlae on the Turkish coast (Hohlfelder and Vann 1998: 29–31; personal analysis).
There is literary and epigraphical evidence, but not yet actual shell evidence, for shellpurple-dye production in other parts of Greece. The relevant areas include but are not limitedto Boulis in Phokis on the Corinthian Gulf (Pausanias, Description of Greece 10.37.3), Meliboeain Thessaly (Lucr. II.500; Virgil, Aeneid V.250), Roman Gyaros in the Cyclades (Larsen 1938:484), Itanos in eastern Crete (Herodotus IV.151), Chios (Athenaeus Deipnosophists 12.539–540a;Curtius Rufus 5.2, 18–19), Cos (Horace, Odes IV.13.13; Prop. IV.2.23, II.1.5), Rhodes (Vitruvius,De Architectura XIII.1–3), and Nysiros (Pliny, Natural History V.133).
Notes
1. David S. Reese was unable to complete the tions at Kommos, overlooking the Libyan Sea onthe south coast of Crete, revealed a later templeintroduction to the mammals section, as well as
the summaries for Ovicaprids, Bos, and Sus. The used in three main periods, designated TempleA (ca. 1020–800 B.C.), Temple B (ca. 800–600 B.C.),editors are much indebted to Deborah Ruscillo
for writing those sections of the text, based on and Temple C (ca. 375 B.C.–A.D. 160/170). TempleA, a small rectangular building open to the east,the information in Reese’s tables.
2. The National Statistical Service of Greece in was succeeded by Temple B, of similar layoutbut with a central hearth, interior benches, and1980 reported that 85% of all sheep and goats
slaughtered are less than a year old. a Tripillar Shrine reflecting Phoenician influenceat the site. Later in the Temple B period an exte-3. In addition to Minoan remains, the excava-
646 The Iron Age Fauna
rior altar was added in the court east of the tem- in both periods, there seems to be no reason toassign M 60, M 106, and M 127 to the Minoanple. Temple C, built over Temple B, had a central
hearth and benches like its predecessor, but on period, as Harriet Blitzer has done.5. Not noted until after this manuscript wasthe east a double door opened toward additional
exterior altars. completed is a dedicatory inscription of the timeof Hadrian (A.D. 117–138) from fishermen of By-Throughout the text I use the term fishermen
rather than a gender-neutral term, such as fishers zantion to Dionysos Parabolos (Horsley 1989: 102and references therein). A number of vase paint-or, more awkward, fisherpeople. Those in the Clas-
sical world who fished for a living were men ings have been interpreted as depictions of peo-ple sacrificing fish. That some of the fish shown(Radcliffe 1974: 129–32). Although there are liter-
ary and iconographical instances of females, hu- on the vases are large and some are clearly tunnyhas undoubtedly influenced the interpretation ofman and divine, fishing, for example, Cleopatra
(Plutarch, Antony 29.1–7; Radcliffe 1974: 173–74) the scenes as fish offerings, recalling as they dothe sacrifice of tunny to Poseidon. B. Sparkesand Venus (depicted fishing with Cupid, see Rad-
cliffe 1974: 168), these examples are akin to Au- (1995) discusses most of these vases and arguesthat the depictions are not of sacrifices but simplygustus’s fishing for relaxation (Suetonius, Au-
gustus 83) and do not reflect the participation of of fishmongers going about their business, thesupposed altars being nothing more than cuttingwomen in the profession.
My thanks to Joseph W. Shaw and David S. blocks. These depictions are, accordingly, notconsidered here.Reese for their encouragement and assistance
with the preparation of this manuscript. Thanks 6. Given the Kommos sanctuary’s rural loca-tion, it seems unlikely that the fish offered therealso to Lynn Snyder for sharing her analysis of the
1994 Acrocorinth Demeter and Kore Sanctuary were caught by organized associations of fisher-men such as those attested in inscriptions fromfauna.
4. Given that barbed and unbarbed hooks ex- Parion (Frisch 1983: 10–15; Purcell 1995: 146–47)and Ephesos (Horsley 1989). Individuals or smallisted during the Bronze Age and the Greco-
Roman era, and bronze was used to make hooks groups based on family ties seem more likely.
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