Teaching ISSN 0957-8005

Earth Sciences

Volume 18, Number 4, 1993 Journal of the Earth Science Teachers' Association

Volume 18 No. 4 (1993)

Teaching Earth Sciences

Geoscience education in schools worldwide - a summary report on the presentations at the International Education Conference, Southampton 1993 David B. Thompson 123

Constructivist Learning in the Earth and Space Sciences - Implications for curriculum Design at Key Stages I and 2

John G. Sharp & Kevin G. Moore I 30

The Churchyard Trail Competition 136

Keith's Column Keith Mose/ey 142

Students, Fieldwork, Space and Time Chris King 144

The School's Skeleton: A Role Play exercise on the weathering of school buildings (KS2 ... or olderl) Jane Bayley 149

Dulling the Tool of Language James H. Shea 150

Tips and techniques Compiled by Frank Henderson 151

News 152

Letter 153

Reviews 154

The lighter side . .JNew Members 155

Cover picture: From the Churchyard Trail competition

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EDITORIAL

If "May you live in interesting times" is not a genuine Chinese curse perhaps it should be. There seems to be no let up in Government tinkering with the education system. To what extent will the decision, announced in the budget, to cut student grants (after several years of no increase) and force students to take out higher loans, cut the number of students who wish to go on to higher education, particu­larly when there seem to be few relevant jobs at the end of it all? And if going to University is no longer an attractive option might this affect attitudes to academic work earlier in the education system! We all hope that we are educating people for life rather than just for narrow academic results, but league tables of results are what the Govern­ment seems to want.

This comes, as many readers will be aware only too well, at a time when the old entry systems to higher education have been merged. PCAS and UCCA are no more and in their place we have UCAS. There must be many candidates and advisors throughout the country wondering how to play the new system, and a number of admissions tutors (your co-editor among them) worrying that we have no idea how applications may turn into students at the start of next year. The problem is that under the new system candidates can choose up to eight courses and then hold one firm and one as insurance. This compares to the old possibility of holding a firm place and insurance place in both PCAS and UCCA, so candidates could hedge their bets. Under the new system candidates are committed to their choices and entry to clearing will only be for those who have not been accepted by either of their choices. Holding a high and a low offer may not be the best strategy if places are available in clearing.

What should we advise applicants! If candidates want to go to University but don't particularly care where, accepting a high and a

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993)

low offer would probably be the best strategy. It would avoid the stress of the clearing system. But for most candidates the best advice might be to choose the courses they want, whatever the offer level, and be prepared to go through clearing if they fail to get the required grades. As advisors will have seen from the newspapers, most departments were in clearing at some stage last summer. Given that the sooner candidates are in clearing, the greater the number of available places, the best strategy might even be to hold only a firm offer, as if the candidate is turned down there is no wait for the insurance department's decision before the clearing document is issued. It looks like it will provide another action packed period for candidates, their advisors and admissions tutors after A level and other equivalent examination results are announced.

Going back to league tables, this is written just after the Guardian tables of "value-added", comparing A level to GCSE results for schools and colleges that sent in information. As with all such tables the results can hide a number of incomparable statistics. The Guard­ian suggests that good schools or colleges are those that improve their candidates results, compared to the average, between GCSE and A level. But from what base level should we start! Surely a school that does its value-adding in the early years - that is pre-GCSE, is just as good, if not better, than a school that concentrates on the sixth form! And should we look at value-added simply in terms of academic results! It is surely the total educational experience that is important, the introduction to different ways of thinking and behaving, the opportunity to try different physical activities, that all add to the rounded character of our future citizens. But many of these things depend upon the enthusiasm and free time of individual teachers, which is impossible to record in league tables, and which the increas­ing reqUirements for 'academic audit' seem to be stifling.

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Geoscience education in schools worldwide - a summary report on the presentations at the International Geoscience Education Conference, Southampton 1993

David B. Thompson (Keele University, England)

I. Introduction

This report, of which a shorter account was given at the final plenary session of the conference, provides an outline summary of the presentations and discussions of the conference members. By short talks and subsequent discussions (both formal and informal), they contributed greatly to illuminating the state of geoscience education worldwide, and to identifying paths along which progress may be made in the future. This snap-shot of the world view provided by the conference is a considerable advance upon that attempted by Pro­fessor Neville George in 1972, the then president of the Association of Teachers of Geology, now renamed the Earth Science Teachers Association, U.K (George, 1972).

As reported by our editor (Bates 1993) in the last issue of Teaching Earth Sciences, the overall programme had five themes:

A Geoscience Education in Schools

B Higher Education

C Geoscience Training for Business, Industry and the Public Service

D Public understanding of Geoscience

E Women in Geoscience

The schools' programme was arranged in several themes and sub­themes, some of which had to be combined as a result of viewing the abstracts offered prior to the meeting. The final programme was as follows:

THE PROGRAMME OF THE SCHOOLS THEME AI

THEME AI.I. "Geoscience in Schools Worldwide" chaired by David Thompson (Department of Education, Keele University, England), and later by Marvin Kaufmann (National Science Founda­tion, USA).

Middle East ORlON, Nir (Science Teaching Department, Weizmann Institute, Rehovot, Israel). Earth Sciences in the Israeli Curriculum.

SOTARI, Omar (Ministry of Education, Amman, Jordan). Earth and Environmental Sciences in the Jordanian school curriculum.

Africa ASWATHANARAYANA, U. (University Eduardo Mondelane, Maputo, Mozambique). Earth Science in the school curriculum in Mozambique.

ENIE, Rosemary O.M. (Department of Geological Sciences, N.Azikiwe University, Nigeria). Geoscience education in Cameroonian Higher Schools.

LO, Papa G.* (Faculte de Sciences, Institut des Sciences de la Terre, Dakar, Senegal). A survey of Earth Science Education in Senegal.

LEGGE, Peter L., BARONGO,J.O.,* AKECH,N.O.* and NYAMBOK,1.0.* (Department of Geology, University of Nairobi, Kenya). Development of Earth Science Education in East Africa.

MUSHI, Paul (Faculty of Education, University of Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania). Earth Sciences in the Curriculum in Tanzania.

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Theme A. GEOSCIENCE EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS

AI Geoscience education in schools worldwide

AI.l A worldwide survey of geoscience education in schools fol­lowed by a keynote address by Professor Vic.Mayer (Ohio State University, Columbus, USA) "The future of the geosciences in the pre-college curriculum".

A 1.2 Constructivism in Earth Science Teaching.

A2 Laboratory and field investigations, resources, and A3 materials and teaching strategies, prefaced by a keynote address by Dr Derek Hodson (OntariO Institute, Canada) "New thinking on the role of practical work in science teaching".

A2/3.1 (as above).

A2/3.2 Assessment in Earth Science in Schools.

A4 Teacher Education

AA.I Initial Teacher Education.

AA.2 In-Service Teacher Education.

The contributors to the various parts of this programme (either by oral presentation and abstract, or by abstract only), the titles of their contributions and their places of work, are given in Table I. Varia­tions in the order of events have been made for the sake of literary clarity. Contributors marked with an asterisk* did not personally attend the meeting.

MUSHI, Paul (Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania). The Development of Earth Science Education in Tanzania.

TITUS, Rian (Department of Earth Science, University of Western Cape, South Africa). A survey of Geoscience Education in the secondary schools of South Africa.

WADE, Stella (Senegal, West Africa). Integrating local geology into the curricula of high schools in Senegal.

South America RIESTRA, Judith (CENAMEC, Caracas, Venezuela). Earth Science Curriculum innovation in Venezuela.

Australia JAMES, Pat and CLARK, lan* (Departments of Geology, Universi­ties of Adelaide and S. Australia respectively). Developments in geoscience education in Australia (presented via computer anima­tion and multimedia presentation software).

Asia AKHT AR, Afia (Bangladesh Geological Survey). The importance of geoscience in secondary and higher secondary education (in Bang­ladesh).

KUMAR, B.S.Shiva* (Department of Geology, Bangalore University, India). Development of Earth Science Education in Schools of India.

RAINA, A.K.* (Department of Geology, Jammu University, India). The need for the incorporation of geo-science in the school curriculum in India, particularly in Jammu and Kashmir.

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SHANKHAR. R. and RAGHAVAN. B.R.* (Department of Marine Geology. Mangalore University. India). The geoscience component of the school curriculum in Indian schools.

ISOZAKI. Tetsuo 1993 (Department of Science Education. Hiro­shima University. Japan). Recent changes in science education cur­ricula in Japan.

LlM. Cheongohan and JEONG. Jinwoo (Department of Earth Sci­ence Education. Korea National University of Education. Chung Book. Republic of Korea). Status and curriculum transition of Earth Science Education in Korea since 1956.

Europe ANGUITA. Francisco (Universidad Compultense de Madrid. Spain). Comments on Earth Science Education in Southern Europe and Latin America.

PEDEMONTE. Gian (Earth Sciences Department. University of Genoa. Italy). Earth Science Education in schools in Italy.

HEER. Grethe (National Adviser. Geography. Lyngby. Denmark). Developments in Earth Science Education in the upper secondary school of Denmark.

KRZYSZTON. Poitr (Primary School. Grybow. Poland). Geology and geomorphology in the Polish Elementary School Programme.

NESTEROV. Evgeni (Department of Physical Geography. Pedagogi­callnstitute. St. Petersburg. Russia). Developments in Earth Science Education in the Commonwealth of Independent States.

ROZSA. Peter (Department of Mining Geology. Debrecen. Hun­gary). The status of the teaching of Geosiences in Hungarian public education.

TRINDADE. Victor (Universidade de Evora. Portugal). A survey of Geoscience Education in Portuguese Schools.

United Kingdom KING. Chris (former Chairman. Earth Science Teachers Associa­tion. U.K. and Altrincham Grammar School for Boys). Develop­ments in Earth Science Education through the National Curriculum in England and Wales.

MOORE. Jim (Coordinator geolo~ and geography. Liverpoollnsti­tute of Higher Education. England). The Progress of Geology and Earth Science Teaching on Merseyside. England.

HARRISON. Peter (Ullapool High School. Rossshire. Scotland). Developments in Earth Science Education in Scotland.

North America HOFF. Daryl (Centre for Astrophysics. Cambridge. MA, USA). Elementary and secondary Earth Science Education in the USA

KAUFFMAN. Marvin.E. (Directorate for Geosciences. National Science Foundation. Washington. USA). Funding of Earth Science Education by the National Science Foundation.

YOUNG. Karen (British Columbia. Canada). Earth Science Educa­tion in Canada.

Keynote address MA YER. Victor (Ohio State University. Columbus. Ohio. USA). The future of the geosciences in the pre-college curriculum.

THEME A 1.2. Constructivism in earth science education (chaired by Professor Victor Mayer. Ohio State University. Columbus. USA).

BREZZI. Alfredo (Department of Earth Sciences. University of Genoa. Italy). Is geology teaching also Geology Learning? An inter­active education approach to solve the dilemma. [This contribution was delivered in the Higher Education theme but was equally applicable to the schools theme).

COMPIANI. Mauricio (University of Campinas. Brazil). The constructivist and geology in science teaching.

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KALI.Y.*. ORION.Nir and MAZOR.E.* (Science Teaching Depart­ment. Weizmann Institute. Rehovot. Israel). Three-dimensional think­ing in structural geology - a computer based learning unit for High School students.

LlLLO. Jose L. (University de Vigo. Spain). Analysis of misconcep­tions in geology derived from the graphic expressions and diagrams of students aged 10-15 in Pontevedra (Spain).

MARQUES. Luis (Departmento de Didactica. Aveiro University. Portugal). The alternative ideas and misconceptions of Portuguese students (aged 15-17) concerning the nature and origin of conti­nents. oceans. the Earth's magnetic field and plates.

THOMPSON. David B. (Department of Education. University of Keele. England). Portuguese and English students' ideas on the nature and origin of Earth. Life. Volcanoes. Earthquakes and Soil.

A2 and A3 Laboratory and field investigations. resources. materials and teaching strategies (chaired by Chris King. former Chairman Earth Science Teachers' Association. UK and Altrincham Grammar School forBoys. Cheshire. England).

Keynote address: HODSON. Derek (Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Canada). New thinking on the role of practical work in science teaching.

BATES. Denis E. (Institute of Earth Studies. Aberystwyth. UniverSity of Wales). A DIY approach to video-making in the field and labora­tory.

COMPIANI. Mauricio (Campinas University. BraZil). The didactic roles played by geologic excursions.

FLEMING. Alastair (Department of Education. Keele University. England). Earth Science Teaching in the field at Ecton Hill Education Centre. Derbyshire. England.

FORTNER. Rosanne (Ohio State University. USA). Teaching ap­proaches and materials for Earth Systems Education in North American Schools.

HAWLEY. Duncan (Advisory teacher. Gloucestershire LEA, Eng­land). Modern approaches to teaching earth science fieldwork.

NICHOLLS. Bronte (Muirden Senior Secondary College. Adelaide. Australia). Girls in fieldwork.

ORlON. Nir (Department of Science Education. Weizmann Insti­tute of Science. Rehovot. Israel). A practical model for the develop­ment and implementation of field trips as an integral part of the Earth Science Curriculum.

SHACKLETON. William G. and BINNIE. Mary-Anne N. (Depart­ment of Geology. University of South Australia. Salisbury). Geologi­cal excursion guides - a new approach. [This paper was presented in the Higher Education section but was written with schools in mind as well).

KENNETT. Peter (Chairman. Earth Science Teachers Association. UK). The "Science of the Earth" for 11-16 year olds.

MORGAN. Alan V. and GIBSON.I.L.* (Department of Earth Sci­ences. University of Waterloo. Ontario. Canada). Presenting geo­logical information using a CD-ROM.

ORlON. Nir (Department of Science Education. Weizmann Insti­tute. Rehovot. Israel). A workshop - the fulfilment of the educa­tional potential of the Earth Sciences.

PEERS. Robert (Supported self-study unit. Northumberland LEA. England). Learning earth science.

THOMAS. lan (National Stone Centre. Wirksworth. Derbyshire. England.) Raising the dead: the work of the National Stone Centre. [This paper was delivered in Theme D but was equally applicable to the schools' theme since the Stone Centre provides for many school parties).

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TITMAN. CW. (Department of Physics. University of Newcastle­on-Tyne. England). The teaching of geophysics to pupils in North­umbrian Schools.

MARKOVICS. Gabor (School of Natural Resources Management. Deakin University. USA). National Parks and Geological Education -the North American Experience. [This paper was delivered in theme D but was equally applicable to the schools' theme].

TSCHILLARD. Raymond L. (University of Northern Colorado. USA). An earth systems approach to science education.

ARTHUR. Richard (Director of the Earth Images Project. UK). Earth science in recently published Science textbooks.

Theme A 2!3.2 Assessment of Earth Science in Schools (chaired by Peter Kennett. Chairman Earth Science Teachers' Association UK and High Storrs Comprehensive School. Sheffield. England).

BROWN. Trevor (Stoke Sixth Form College. England). Assessment of Geology Coursework for 16-18 year olds.

RHODES. Alan* (Science Adviser. Hertfordshire LEA, England). Earth Science assessment for I 1-16 year olds.

ROBERTS. Cathie* (Welsh Joint Education Committee. Cardiff. Wales). Geology examination syllabuses at 16+ and 18+ in England and Wales.

AA Teacher Education

AAI Initial Teacher Education (Chaired by David Thompson De­partment of Education. University of Keele. England).

CARPENTER. John R. (Centre for Science Education. University of South Carolina. Columbia. SC. USA). Models for effective instruc­tion of Earth Science Teachers.

FISHER. John (School of Education, University of Bath. England). Postgraduate science teacher education - preparing science gradu­ates to teach earth science in UK schools.

FLEMING. Alastair (Department of Education. Keele University. England). Initial and In-Service Science Teacher Education - Prepar­ing to teach Broad and Balanced Science in UK schools.

LlLLO. Jose L. (University of Vigo. Spain). Education for teachers of Earth Science in Spain.

TRINDADE. Victor (Departmento de Pedagogia e Educacao. Universidade de Evora. Portugal). Initial teachers' education and training in geosciences in Portugal.

A.4.2 In-service Teacher Education chaired by Professor John Car­penter (Centre for Science Education. University of South Carolina. Columbia. SC. USA).

ASWATHANARA Y ANA. U. (University Eduardo Mondelane. Maputo. Mozambique). Training of In-service Personnel in Geoenvironmental Management in Africa.

ANGUITA, Francisco (Universidad Compultense de Madrid. Spain). Developments in Earth Science Education in Spain: the role of the Teachers' Resource Centres Network.

BEUS. Stanley.S. (Northern Arizona University. USA). The Grand Canyon experience for high school and middle school science teachers.

CARPENTER. John.R. (University of South Carolina). A modified learning cycle approach to environmental education - inservice courses for science teachers.

COMPIANI. Mauricio (University of Campinas. BraZil). Fieldwork teaching in the training of pre-college science teachers.

FISHER. John (School of Education. University of Bath. England. In­service science teacher education - helping science teachers to teach earth science in UK schools.

FLEMING. Alastair (Department of Education. Keele University. England). In-service education in Earth Sciences for Primary School teachers.

IRETON. M. Frank (American Geophysical Union. Washington. USA). Coalition for Earth Science Education; a coalition for Earth! Space science education in the United States.

JAMES. H.CL. (Department of Science and Technology Education. University of Reading. England). Flexible learning techniques in primary science teacher education.

MOODY. Bonnie (Henderson State University. Arkansas. USA). In­service education in Arkansas. USA.

KIBLER. David (High School. Wappinger Falls. New York State. USA). Project for leadership in Earth Systems Education; Teachers' perspective.

NAGANNA, C* (Professor Emeritus. Bangalore. India). The need for a teacher training programme in order to teach Earth Science at school level in India.

NAGENDRA. R.* (Department of Geology. Anna University. Ma­dras. India). A training programme for school teachers in Geosciences in India.

NEMEC. V. (Prague. Czechoslovakia). Ethical aspects of teaching Earth Sciences.

PRYOR. Sue (Techniquest. Cardiff. Wales). In-service training in Earth Science for Primary Teachers.

RHODES, Alan (Science Adviser. Hertfordshire LEA. England). In­service teacher education and support in Britain.

TREND. Roger (School of Education. Exeter University. England). Fostering collaboration as a means of enhancing geoscience training of teachers in Devon. England.

JOHNSON. William* (USA). The JOint Education Initiative to pro­vide teacher training in the use of Earth Science Data Sets.

Table I The full programme of the Schools Theme at the first International Geoscience Education Conference at Southampton University, April 1993.

This contribution will first summarise the work of Theme A and its suh-themes (section 2). The paragraphs which follow in sections 3-17 provide a summary and a commentary upon what emerged from the discussions after each talk and session. It includes comments which were returned to the convenors on a paper after the last session was over. These were provided in response to an open invitation to pass on views and comments upon what needed to be achieved in geoscience education in the future.

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2. The work of Theme A and its sub-themes

Schools Theme A of the international conference was very well attended with the worldwide survey drawing up to 90 members and the audience not dropping below 30 for more specialist topics e.g. theme AA (Teacher Education). The spread of contributors from different continents and countries was impressive. as the following table shows (based on a head count during the various sessions).

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Continents No. of Countries represented participants

EUROPE (United Kingdom) 33 (England 30. Wales 2. Scotland I) EUROPE Western Europe 6 II (Italy. Spain. Portugal. Denmark. (excluding U. K) Eastern Europe 5 Hungary. Poland. Czech Republic. Russia) NORTH AMERICA USA 10. Canada 2 12 (Canada. USA) SOUTH AMERICA 3 (Brazil. Venezuela) AFRICA 7 (Kenya. Mozambique. Tanzania. Nigeria-Cameroon. Senegal. S.Africa) ASIA 5 (Bangladesh. India. Sri Lanka. Japan.Korea) AUSTRALIA 4 MIDDLE EAST 2 (Israel. Jordan).

Total 77 28

Table 2 A table showing the minimum number of participants during the presentations of schools Theme A and their countries and continents of origin.

The proceedings were conducted throughout the week with vigour. humour and empathy and often resulted in prolonged and passionate exchanges of views. Many firm friendships were developed so that discussions can be expected to continue well into the next century.

The work of the conference was organized into the following sub­themes:

Theme A 1.1 Geosciences in schools worldwide. There were over 30 contributions to this worldwide survey. most of which were given orally. but a few by abstract only. At the end of the survey. Prof. Vic Mayer (Ohio. USA). in his keynote speech. provided a vision for the future of the geosciences in the precollege curriculum. After docu­menting the low profile of the earth sciences internationally. he appealed for earth science educators to join the movement toward the development of integrated science curricula. as exemplified by Project 2061 of the American Association for Advancement of Science. and to exert leadership in developing such curricula based on the idea of the Earth system. the subject of all science investiga­tions regardless of discipline. In this way the long-held curriculum goals of earth science educators can be realized. Later presentations by Rosanne Fortner and Ray Tschillard (USA) provided practical models of the integrated Earth Systems curricula in practice. The Biological and Earth Systems Science curriculum described by Fortner. replaces earth science and biology in the Worthington. Ohio. high schools. The high school programme described by Tschillard addi­tionally integrates mathematics and social sciences in a field-based programme.

Theme 1.2. Constructivism in Earth-sciences teaching. The six contribu­tors highlighted this approach to Earth-sciences teaching which was represented by a small number of research studies. They compared their efforts with the much greater body of writing. relating to a constructivist approach to the teaching of the traditional science disciplines. which is available in the literature.

Themes 2 and 3. Laboratory and field investigations; resources. materials and teaching strategies. In a challenging introductory address. Prof. Derek Hodson (Ontario. Canada) considered the many empty claims made concerning the value of traditional science practical work to the general education of pupils. He proposed guidelines and strate­gies for the development of viable practical work in the future. He stressed that the most valuable form of practical work involves pupils in designing and creating their own investigations after an adequate theoretical and conceptual framework had been established in dis­cussion with their teachers. He was followed by 18 contributors who exemplified some of the new curriculum materials which were associated with major projects in the geoscience area: Science of the Earth (ESTA. UK). Earth Systems Education (USA) and Earth Science Data Sets (USA. Canada) and Earth science learning and teaching materials for a variety of learning environments and grades (Israel). Further presentations related to: developing individual strategies related to fieldwork; video and CD Rom-making and the develop­ment of self-paced teaching-learning packs.

Consideration of the important area of "Assessment of Earth Science Education in Schools" was marred by the unavoidable absence

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through illness of two of the UK presenters. but there was a vigorous exposition of the practice of setting open-ended individual field investigations to 18-19 year old advanced level students (Brown). The high standard of the work provided by many students had surprised their teachers. The process and product of such investigations is marked by teachers and moderated by an external examination board.

Themes 4.1 Initial teacher Education (ITE) and 4.2 In-service Teacher (INSET) Education. These sessions drew a greater number of contri­butions (5 and 18 respectively) than expected. It was clear that ITE was unavailable in many parts of the world and was a modestly­organised part of undergraduate education across 4-5 year-long degree courses in others. It was funded and thoroughly supported only in rare instances. sometimes as a part of science or geography education generally. at other times in terms of separate earth-science courses.

At the end of the first of these sessions. and with the encouragement of the convenor and the chairman. Professor John Carpenter (Center for Science Education. South Carolina. USA) was moved to make an impressive and impassioned plea that henceforth a global environ­mentally-oriented bias should form the raison d'etre and organisa­tional basis of any course for intending science teachers that was developed anywhere in the world.

The session on INSET ranged very Widely. The desirability of involv­ing primary and secondary school teachers as leaders of public opinion and initiators of public education in geoenvironmental mat­ters in villages and townships in the third world (Aswanthanarayana) was discussed. The great value of using university tutors (Buess) and National Parks Rangers to enrich the experience of jaded teachers in the awe-inspiring natural wildernesses of the developed world was also made clear. Three contributors (Pryor. James and Fleming) highlighted the problem of helping primary teachers approach the geoscience topics of the national curriculum in UK. One speaker (Nemec) stressed the need for all geoscience educators to emphasise the ethical-moral aspects of exploring. exploiting and disturbing the natural materials and feedback systems of our planet. A teacher (Kibler) described the collaboration 'grass roots' approach to inservice teacher enhancement developed by the national Program for Leader­ship in Earth Systems Education in USA. This programme prepares teams of teachers for leadership in implementing change in local school districts.

Frank Ireton (American Geophysical Union) outlined the growth and influence of Earth-sciences education in science education in USA. He spoke of the efforts which were being made to bring together all the Earth-science interest groups. learned societies and potential funding agencies which might cooperate to promote a corporate vision and policy which might make rapid progress possible in the Earth-sciences education in the near future.

Earlier the role of the National Science Foundation in USA in promoting geoscience education had been clearly set down (Kaufmann). The size, structure and budget of this organisation appeared to be unique in the world.

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3. The purposes of pre-university education and curricula

Members stressed that the overall purpose of geoscience education in ages 5-19 was to educate for citizenship rather than, or as well as, prepare students to become professional geoscientists. The aim was to maximise personal development and, in words of the Latin group, "to increase the cognitive and ethical achievements of all the citizens with respect to their understanding of the global environment".

Conference members stressed the very high educational potential of the Earth-sciences in terms of the following considerations: I. The subject matter proves to be naturally motivating to pupils of

all abilities and ages 5-19 and can be introduced in different levels of concretisation and abstraction.

2. The Earth-sciences use and develop concepts common to the traditional sciences, and some of their own, in a conceptual framework which is both local and global and involves the depths of time and the vastness of space.

3. They are concerned with the nature and origin of natural materials which are neglected by the traditional sciences.

4. They encourage pupils to be scientific detectives through the development of intellectual and practical skills, attitudes and meth­odologies which relate to problem solving: the role of conjecture, multiple working hypotheses, relevant observation, a variety of recording skills, prediction, induction, testing of ideas, deduction, inference, interpretation and the communication of findings. The development of spatial visualisation skills and the ability to retrodict are emphasised to an unusual degree.

5. Learning takes place in a variety of places: the classroom, the laboratory, the computer room, the school grounds, the museum, on industrial sites and in local and distant environments.

6. The leaming invites pupils to understand and experience the natural environment - the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere - its fields, forces, processes, systems and feedback mechanisms - across dimensions of time and space which vary from the very large to the very small.

7. The applications of the understanding of the Earth-sciences are direct and relate to many important aspects of life: natural disas­ters (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, hurricanes, sea defences, etc.), the mining of raw materials (potable water, coal, oil, gas, construction materials etc.), the control of energy re­sources (fossil fuels, nuclear, tidal, solar etc.) and the care of the global environment (the greenhouse effect, the ozone layer, rising sea levels, the preservation of tropical forests, etc.).

8. The concept of Earth System, as defined by USA governmental earth science research agencies, prOVides a conceptual model for curriculum developers to use in developing integrated science programmes. The research subject of all science disciplines is planet Earth. Therefore it is the best and most appropriate focus for such integrated science courses.

4. The state of the geoscience education In the early I 990s

There were many shining examples of individual good practice, often associated with the activities of one or a few vigorous and imaginative persons working against all odds. There were often signs of the existence of old-fashioned, outmoded curricula inherited from a distant colonial era, which were ill-fitted to the needs of individuals, local communities and emergent nation states alike. Overall geoscience education is patchy at best and non-existent at worst.

In many continents (central, northern and eastern Europe; Africa, S. America, Asia) the only geoscience education evident was associated with geographical traditions and pedagogy, and this was said to be a rapidly rising, hitherto unknown force, in the USA. In USA, Ven­ezuela, UK. Southwest Europe. Australia. Israel. Korea and Japan. Earth-sciences in science education for secondary level pupils aged 11-19 was more or less formally introduced and this was noted with approval by most delegates. In most continents and countries geoscience education, and science education generally. was not greatly developed for pupils aged between 5 and I I, except in Japan. Aus­tralia. UK. USA and recently in Israel.

In view of this varied background. a strong plea was made for members not to worry about the banners "geography" and/or "sci-

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ence" under which geoscience education was organised in various countries, but to press upon the relevant authorities examples of curricula. resources and strategies which represented new and thor­oughly sound practice in science education generally. Members fa­voured the integration of geoscience education in non-subject spe­cific curricula for ages 5-1 I; integration and/or the separate develop­ment of geoscience issues in both science and geography curricula I 1-16, and the Vigorous development of separate science courses for students aged 16-19.

Despite the geographical inheritance of some countries, emphasis was laid upon the importance of having pupils exposed to, and initiated into. methodologies of investigating data and problems which were distinctively scientific. Popperian hypothetic-deductive approaches, involving the setting up and testing of multiple working hypotheses by laboratory experiments. field investigations. literature or data-searches in a library or via computers (e.g a CD Rom). or any combination of these. were commonly favoured. Emphasis on a great variety of approaches was considered to be important and, in each of these, the teacher's role was best seen to be that of a facilitator rather than a didactic authority.

5. Curriculum reform

It was reported that curriculum reform was now commonplace in many parts of the world. Our hearts went to the geological survey officer of Bangladesh (Akhtar) who had come to tell us that in her country such a process was much needed, but had not yet started. We warmed to the Israeli account of how almost one individual (Orion), well supported by a well known scientist (Mazor) and a surprisingly small amount of money. could insinuate carefully thought­out curriculum materials and field strategies into both science and geography curricula at various levels. We noted with approval that the large scale. costly curriculum project "Earth Systems Education" (USA) was being successfully offered on a relatively free market in the USA and that a similar approach had developed independently in Venezuela. Finally, moves to consider or emplace National Curricula were beginning in many places. even in the USA. These programmes all included core and/or compulsory science components of a Na­tional Science Curriculum (NSC) from ages of 5 to at least 16. Korea appeared to be on its 5th version of its NSC; Japan on its 3rd or 4th; Jordan on its 3rd; UK on its second. Spain and Australia, amongst others. were thinking of taking such a step.

The convenor saw this, as did Michel Foucault (1977) and Keith Hoskin (1982), as a part of a long-standing process. starting in Europe in 18th century, whereby the monitoring of the individual by the state appeared to increase inexorably over the centuries. This was achieved through state-sponsored assessment systems in which the perform­ance of individuals was publicly judged against that of their peers. By this means nepotism was supposed to be replaced by a merit-based process in which advancement was open to all. The recent assump­tion of the control of the curriculum by the state is seen to be an extension of this process. Furthermore. under the banner of ac­countability, the control appears to be creeping from school pupils to teachers and from the school system into the higher education system as universities slowly lose their autonomy. The degree to which teachers in schools or universities should be accountable to the ordinances of the state rather than to their professional values and judgments is a very serious democratic issue.

6. The politics and process of reform within science and geography education; a curriculum model for introducing geoscience education to a school system

In attempting to further geoscience education, members inevitably find themselves at some stage embroiled with "superior" authorities, be they single head teachers, local education authorities, local or national examination boards. or representatives of the Ministry of Education. At worst it is a battle for recognition. at best a game of manoeuvre to ensure that key geoscience concepts and frameworks of understanding are accorded a rightful place in the complex docu­ment that is the syllabus or the curriculum. Inevitably this takes place i~ situations where established traditions. approaches and expecta­tIons are firmly entrenched. From experiences of curriculum revision in recent years in some countries (Israel. Jordan. UK and USA). members were encouraged by the author to view each episode of

127

curriculum revision or wholesale reform as a time where much could be lost as well as gained. Experienced campaigners at the conference advised newcomers to the process to: (i) meet together at the earliest possible moment and make sure that they muster the support of the largest part of the geological community. It helps to have the backing of at least one distinguished scientist in society; (ii) brain­storm ideas. assemble and define arguments. suggest ideal aims; (iii) establish viable aims. goals. objectives: (iv) shape up several possible approaches and options; (v) prioritise options which have a reason­able chance of acceptance: (vi) select. perhaps. only one option which is cost effective for presentation to those in authority: (vii) take care to assemble a distinguished small team which will present the case with conviction. even passion. in a professional way. Long-term there is no substitute for having an understanding and supportive public opinion backing your efforts. To establish such widespread support requires decades of untiring efforts by the whole geoscience commu­nity. Naturally attention should be given to the implementation of the reforms through: the production. distribution and trailing of re­sources; the provision of pre-service and in-service education courses for teachers; the development of simple assessment procedures which are both formative and summative; the independent evaluation of outcomes of teaching the new curricula; the frequent. hopefully minor. revision of the curricula based on experiences gained.

7. Pre-service teacher education

Experience in some developed countries suggested that new pro­grammes are badly needed which involve a wider brief than hitherto and which lay firm foundations for profeSSional development (Fisher). Such courses maybe henceforth include the following components as part of the syllabus (Fleming): sample schemes of work from the content of the science curriculum: the principles of constructivism; the philosophy and methodologies of science and science education; the planning of schemes of work and lesson plans; classroom/labora­tory management: other classroom skills (relating to language. ques­tioning. discussing. etc.); the organization of investigations by pupils in the laboratory and in the field; formative and summative assessment; the acquisition of critically reflective attitudes and substantial experi­ences (at least 20 weeks) of teaching a wide age-range of classes alone in a laboratory.

In many countries. however. conference members reported that speCialist initial teacher education courses in geoscience education courses did not exist. even as part of wider 'science' or 'geography' programmes.

8. In-service teacher education

There was a tendency in developed countries for the geoscience profession as a whole to try to band together in order to support curricular and teaching innovations and to appear to be a community which has been able to agree a coherent programme and policy. Based on his experiences in USA. Prof. John Carpenter presented a comprehensive model for effective instruction of future Earth-sci­ences teachers.

Conference members reported that in general in-service teacher education is ill-developed and ill-funded except perhaps USA. UK and Australia. where provision was increasingly becoming less patchy.

9. The professional development of teachers

It was very gratifying to witness the impressive confidence with which serving teachers from schools in Africa (2). Eastern Europe (I). USA (2). Canada (I). Scotland (I) and England (7) analysed their educa­tional problems and explained how they intended to address them and/or solve them with the aid of their colleagues and the authorities. The development of such professional competence and confidence was hailed by many older establishment figures as a corner-stone of progress in the future. Conference members acknowledged the strenith and influence of the Earth Science Teachers Associations in UK (ESTA) and USA (NESTA and NAGT) and welcomed the forma­tion of AEPECT in Spain which could serve to do the same in Latin countries. It was important that such professional bodies were established in most countries or continents. Initial stages of these development were sometimes fostered by the most senior geological society of the area.

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993)

10. The development of resources, strategies and assessment procedures

Throughout the conference there were pleas that the production and dissemination of aids. materials and equipment which clearly reflected good practice should be an international concern of the geoscience community. Members were impressed with the many posters. dis­plays and summary accounts: self-paced study materials (Peers); student work packs with teachers notes (Orion. James. EST A-Kennett); compact-disk RaMS (Morgan) and other interactive computer-based learning aids; Video-making as an aid to briefing and following-up on field trips (Bates).

There were many advocates of considerably widening the range of strategies and materials available. so that teachers would be able to become facilitators and managers and pupils would be able to exer­cise much greater control over the direction and the pace of their own learning. The development of case studies. role plays. simulation games. field investigations. self-paced learning (with and without the aid of computers) was greatly welcomed. Assessment procedures involving teacher assessment of laboratory work and fieldwork. albeit moderated by outside a~encies (e.g examination boards acting on behalf of the government). were demonstrated and discussed.

I I. Fieldwork

The number of presentations relating to fieldwork delivered to sch.ools Theme A (Bates. Beuss. Brown. Campiani (2). Hawley. Nicholls. Orlon. Roberts. Shackleton and Binnie. Titman and Tschillard) and to other themes. especially Theme B. emphasised the importance that is attached to reforming and redeveloping this kind of work amongst the geoscience education community. The amount and variety of such work is more than in any other scientific discipline. Members related how former teaching strategies. which were essentially "lec­tures in the field" at intervals during a coach tour. had given way to student investigative work of a wide and varied kind which used work in the field as a means of concretisation as well as an introduction to the field research methodology. This was matched by assessment procedures which allowed the process and the product of the students' work to be assessed by the teacher and moderated by a board.

12. Research

Only a small amount of new research was reported and most of it was presented in ten-minute talks which did not favour any deep explanation or discussion of the points which had been made. Most research stemmed from science educators in Portugal (Marques). Spain (Lillo). Brazil (Campiani) and UK (Leather and Thompson) who were concerned to report the views and understandings which pupils al~eady possessed on geoscience topics before they came to school sCience and geography classes and why they held those ideas and mis.conceptions. An Israeli study (Kali and Orion) investigated the baSIS of students' development of spatial-learning skills. Most con­tributors were concerned to influence the construction of curricu­lum materials which would challenge and remediate student's learn­ing difficulties and would establish criteria for the production of such materials.

It is most important that in the future Earth-sciences education research findings should be offered to science teaching journals of international distribution and reputation.

13. Links with other professional associations

The importance of geoscience education groups establishing and maintaining lin~s with other specialist interest groups was seen to be of paramount Importance. This was particularly so at times when geoscience educa~ion matters were going well. for it would never be long before a cyclical downturn would take place. At such times. the common interests, understandings and personal friendships which had been established during periods of easier circumstances would the~ serve to support and defend minority interest groups through periods of finanCial hardship and tough decision making. It was

128

recognised that much greater use could be made of contacts with large "umbrella" or "generalist" scientific-pedagogic associations like the Association for Science Education (UK) or the National Associa­tion of Science Teachers (USA) in order to get across important messages which express the concern of the Earth-sciences commu­nity for the over-stressing of global systems and environments. The discussion of the social consequences of science. as exemplified by the curriculum materials of the Science and Technology in Society (SATIS) project. is well supported by ASE in UK.

14. Support for Earth-sciences teaching organisa­tions

It was suggested that many more conference members should join the specialist professional teaching associations: NAGT and NSTA (USA) and ESTA and ASE (UK) for English speaking persons; AEPECT for all Latin countries.

I S. Interchanges of Earth-science teachers and Earth-science educators

A request was made that international interchanges of both teachers and educators should be facilitated on a scale much greater than hitherto. Perhaps the International Union of Geological Sciences (lUGS) and AGID between them could formally enable this to happen.

16. International awards for schools and school children

It was suggested that a series of awards should be established which would encourage project work in schools and colleges which could highlight the geoscience community's concern for maintaining the equilibrium of the systems of the global environment. No funding or sponsoring body was suggested, but AGID and lUGS between them might be concerned to act, or find, suitable sponsors and organisers.

17. Corporate international action; the establish­ment of common avenues of communication; a further conference

All these outcomes were fervently desired by a majority of members; the question was how to achieve them. It was felt that further moves should be prompted by the associations which had sponsored the present conference, especially AGID and lUGS. Communication of news could be simultaneously offered to the lUGS newsletter and be accepted by the Journal of Geological Education. Geotimes, Geology (in USA); by Teaching Earth-Sciences, Geoscientist and Geology Today (in UK); by AEPECT (for Spain. Italy. Portugal, Brazil and Venezuela). Other vehicles of communication which would be appro-

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993)

priate to other countries and continents could be sought by members of those countries and reported to the present conference convenor Dr. Dorrik Stow, as a matter of urgency.

There was sufficient enthusiasm amongst the members present to seek a further conference as early as 1995, most feasibly perhaps in USA. It was requested that on any future occasion an attempt should be made to provide simultaneous translation in several languages. Should a meeting be possible in 1995, it was suggested that further meetings should take place a 4 yearly intervals in such a way as to interleave with the International Geological Congress, the next meeting of which would be in 1996 in Beijing, China.

In 1995 and thereafter it was requested that Ministers of Education (and other policy makers of the host region concerned) should be invited to the conference to speak on matters which could, if implemented, contribute to the general geoscience education of the public.

Furthermore it was requested that the last session of future themes of meetings should be devoted to a serious consideration of what to do in that area of geoscience education in the future. The speaker suggested that the present way of leaving one person (i) to peer into the crystal ball of the future overnight and (ii) to detect shafts of light amongst the overwhelmingly heavy shadows of contrary opinion and (iii) to attempt a summary of the work of the theme single handed, was not a fair or sensible way of bringing an exhilarating week to a fair conclusion.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to express his grateful thanks to Chris King, Nir Orion and Vic Mayer for their kindness in criticising and improving successive drafts of this written summary.

David Thompson, School of Human Development, Department of Education, Keele, Staffordshire STS SBG.

References

Bates. D. E. B. 1993. The First International Conference on Geoscience Education and Training: a resounding success. Teaching Earth Sciences, 18/3, 103-105. Foucault, M., 1977. Discipline and Punish. London. George, T. N., 1972. The Teaching of Geology: international com­parisons. (Presidential address to the Association of Teachers of Geology). Geology Oournal of ATG), 4, 21-29. Hoskin, K., 19B2 Examinations and the schooling of science. pp. 213-236, in McLeod, R. (ed.) Days of Judgement. London, Nafferton Books.

129

Constructivist Learning in the Earth and Space Sciences - Implications for curriculum Design at Key Stages 1 and 2

John G. Sharp & Kevin G. Moore

Introduction The inclusion of "the Earth's place in the Universe" as an established strand in the science component of the National Curriculum (DES! WO 1991) should be received and welcomed as a long overdue recognition of the contributions that astronomy has made to the nature of scientific thought and progress as a whole. Many teachers in primary schools throughout England and Wales will be particularly pleased at its appearance, this branch ofthe Earth and Space sciences forming a large part of many popular classroom topics. But at Key Stages I and 2, what should we expect children to investigate and know aboutl The answer to this, of course, is clearly set out in the relevant Programmes of Study and Statements of Attainment where the focus is on aspects of the Earth-Moon-Sun System and Solar System (Table I). Here, at Key Stage I, children are to be given the opportunity to investigate the Sun's position in the sky, day and night, weather, seasons. and the phases of the Moon - through direct

observation, measurement and recording. From this. some may go on to see patterns emer~e, patterns which change in a regular and predictable way. Although there is not much new in this, such work has always formed some part of the education of young children long before recent legislation was introduced. it does allow the science process outlined in AT I to be introduced at an early age on something which is very real and meaningful. A potential problem emerges at Key Stage 2, however. when children are then asked to explain their observations in terms of "the movements of the Earth around the Sun", such explanations requiring a level of abstract thought well beyond the grasp of many adults, including teachers themselves (Mant and Summers, 1992); something Piagetian to pon­der. A review of literature and new evidence presented here suggests that National Curriculum reqUirements in this area are not entirely consistent with a constructivist view of learning, raising important questions concerning curriculum design with serious impli­cations for professional practice.

Programme of Study for Key Stage 1 (Levels 1-3, 5-7 years) Pupils should observe closely the local natural environment to detect seasonal changes,

including length of daylight, weather and changes in plants and animals and relate these to the passage of time. They should observe, over a period of time, the length of daylight, the position of the Sun, and when possible the position of the Moon in the sky and its changing appearance.

Programme of Study for Key Stage 2 (Levels 2-5, 7-11 years) Pupils should track the path of the Sun using safe procedures such as a shadow stick or

sundial. They should study, using direct observations where poSSible, the night sky including the position and appearance of bright planets and the moon. They should learn about the motions of the Earth, Moon and Sun in order to explain day and night, day length, year length, phases of the moon, eclipses and the seasons. They should be introduced to the order and general movements of the planets around the Sun.

Statements of Attainment Pupils should:

4/1 d: be able to describe the apparent movement of the Sun across the sky; 4/2e: know that the Earth, Sun and Moon are separate spherical bodies; 4/3e: know that the appearance of the Moon and the attitude of the Sun change in a regular and

predictable manner; 4/4e: be able to explain day and night, day length and year length in terms of the movements of

the Earth around the Sun; 4/5g: be able to describe the motion of planets in the Solar System.

Table I Details of "the E.arth's place In the Universe". AT4: Physical Processes (DE.SIWO 1991)

Proactive Constructivism Over the past 10 years or so, constructivism has emerged as the front runner amongst theories which attempt to explain how children learn in science (e.g. Osborne and Whittrock, 1983; Driver and Bell. 1986). At the heart of constructivism. in teaching at least. lies the notion that learning takes place, in part. through a process of concep­tual challenge and change. When presented with new information. a child can choose to absorb it. use it to reorganize or restructure existing knowledge, disregard existing knowledge as no longer of any value, or alter their perception of a familiar context or setting (Under, 1993). They can also choose to ignore it! The extent to which this form of interaction takes place could be strongly influ­enced by other factors. A child's age, ability, social and cultural

background and previous experiences, for example, can combine to determine and shape the outcome. What the leamer already knows is considered to be of great importance. It has long been established that children bring with them to school all kinds of intuitive ideas of their own to help explain various scientific phenomena and give meaning to the world in which they live. Many of these ideas do not necessarily conform to currently held scientific views but they make perfect sense to the individual concerned and are often difficult to influence or alter. even in the most stimulating of learning environ­ments. Such ideas are well documented (Driver et al., 1990) and have been referred to in many ways, alternative frameworks (Driver and Easley, 1978) or constructs the preferred choice here. Unfortu­nately, as a result, a sound conceptual base on which to build is not always present or achieved and alternative constructs, old and new,

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993) 130

persist into later life, often in unanticipated ways, but with predictable consequences for future development. Examples of this will be presented later. In many ways, this is how constructivism differs from straight forward inductive leaming whereby, in its Simplest sense, the assimilation of facts and learning take place in linear fashion. If constructivism is to be accepted, or at least acknowledged in some way as a means of leaming in science, it is important that the classroom teacher be made aware of how to identify and make explicit children's alternative constructs as well as to know how best and when to tackle them (Table 2).

Orientation Arousing children's interest and curiosity.

Ellcltatlon/Structurlng Helping children to find out and clarify what

they think.

Intervention/Restructuring Encouraging children to test their ideas: to

extend, develop or replace them.

Review Helping children to recognize the significance

of what they have found out.

Application Helping children to relate what they have

learned to their everyday lives.

Table 2 A constructivist's view of learning (from Ollerenshaw and Rltchle 1993)

Constructivism and the National Curriculum

Leaving aside the broader arguments conceming the theoretical and empirical base ofthe National Curriculum itself (Knight, 1989; Cheung and Taylor, 1991), there is, in fact, much evidence to support a constructivist ideology throughout the science Order CNatts and Bentley, 1991), but there are areas, primary astronomy being one, where there are grounds for doubt. At a glance, the Programmes of Study seem sound enough, concepts being introduced at one level and built upon at another allowing for progression and development. But how was what went into the Order arrived at, and how were the levels worked out? This is by no means dear. In terms of nationally available schemes, very little has ever been formally achieved in primary astronomy until now. Neither the Nuffield project in the late 60's, the classic Science 5-13 project of the early 70's nor the work of the Assessment of Performance Unit in the early 80's gave it much attention, leaving one very much with the impression that the Key Stage I and 2 content of "the Earth's place in the Universe" was determined through no more than 'intuition'. This is partly reflected in a letter to the then Secretary of State for Education and Science, Kenneth Baker, from Professor J.J. Thompson conceming the final report of the Science Working Group (DEs/wO 1988) which states that:

"The most significant aspect of our task has been the definition of . specific age-linked levels of attainment within attainment targets. We have built on best practice and we have consulted as widely as possible as our thinking has developed."

Going on to say:

"In the final analysis, however, the proposals reflect the judge­ment of the Working Group drawing on their collective experi­ence and knowledge of what pupils are capable of at different ages."

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt. 4 (7993)

It is also instructive to cast an eye over the changing content and position of the Statements of Attainment throughout the recent review and consultation process: this hardly giving grounds for confi­dence with information in one level being shuffled around and ending up in another. The matching of age-linked levels of attainment to what children are 'thought' capable of is in no way a dangerous process in itself if, as the Working Group agreed, the documentation should not appear as 'tablets of stone', but with a curriculum now being driven by assessment for purposes other than the education of the child, it is important that what is written is in fact achievable, sensible and not totally unrealistic. The age at which certain material is introduced is extremely important if long term confusion, reinforc­ing of old constructs and the possible unwanted introduction of new ones are to be avoided. If we must work within a predetermined curriculum, anathema to many educationalists, then that curriculum itself should be designed and presented in such a way as to take into account everything we know about teaching and leaming in all its shapes and forms as well as be flexible to allow for the variety of approaches in our classrooms.

Earth and Gravity Concepts in Children

Part of what is expected early on in primary schools hinges on the acceptance of the Earth as a spherical body, currently a Level 2 statement. Simple enough? All is not what it seems. What was available to the Working Group at the time, although to what extent it was considered and put to use is uncertain, is a considerable body of relevant cross-age and cross-cultural research looking at uninstructed Earth and gravity concepts in 8 to 14 year olds from Israel, USA and Nepal (Nussbaum and Novak, 1976; Nussbaum, 1979; Mali and Howe, 1979 and Sneider and Pulos, 1983). Results from their investigations are summarized in Fig. I. Using a variety of techniques, children in this age range were found to hold ideas about the Earth which could be grouped into five main constructs ranging from fairly primitive and egocentric to fairly advanced and scientifi­cally 'valid'. The results are startling but show a clear development with some relationship to age. Grouping their original data, the figures show that children between 8-10 years strongly adhere to constructs I and 2 (84% of 8 year olds, 60% of 9 year olds, and 67% often year olds), 11-12 year olds hold mixed viewpoints, and 13-14 year olds strongly adhere to constructs 4 and 5 (77% of 13 year olds, 61 % of 14 year olds):- a shift from flat to spherical Earth notions with associated changes in graVity, exemplifying Ausubel's principle of 'progressive differentiation'.

In more detail, examining what is reported conceming constructs I and 2, an insight into how these children were thinking is gained.

Construct I: Children, drawing on their everyday experiences, believe that the Earth is very much as they see it - flat (the Sun and Moon appear to them as flat discs in the sky too). The word 'round' is often used in descriptions, the roundness attributed, in some instances, to land as "an island around which you can sail or fly". Other shapes cited in this construct are rectangles and very flattened spheres or cylinders (Vosniadou 1991).

Construct 2: At this stage, children are capable of reCiting tales about Columbus, using globes to locate places and tell of astronauts visiting other planets. Here children see the Earth as a ball floating in space but hold that we live inside it on the flat part on top with air above and soil and rock below.

The various authors' work shows up a clear inconSistency between children's declarative knowledge and their actual perception or un­derstanding of key concepts. This is a vital, yet often neglected, piece of information for teachers and curriculum designers and planners to take on board. Some might argue, of course, and say that using data from other countries of origin is inappropriate, and this might be so. However, a small study on British children does show that between the ages of 9 and 16 very similar views are expressed (Baxter, 1989) as they are with children from India, Samoa and Greece (Vosniadou, 1991) suggesting a lack of cultural variation with regard to the flat Earth concept. This work needs to be extended and confirmed or otherwise (in progress).

Adding to this, Nussbaum and Sharoni-Dagan (1983) have also car­ried out research challenging 2nd grade (7-8 years) Earth and gravity constructs using a series of six 20 minute audio-tutorial sessions incorporating visual and hands-on activities. Results for this age

131

Age n

8 188 9 30

10 163 11 69 12 141 13 74 14 76

Construct 1 :

Construct 2:

Construct 3:

Construct 4:

Construct 5:

+} ! + +e7+ K~)+ ~ » Construct 1 Construct 2 Construct 3 Construct 4 Construct 5

61 23 5 9 2 30 30 40 0 0 55 12 22 9 2 7 17 33 12 31

31 7 23 27 12 3 7 13 19 58 7 10 22 15 46

more egocentric ideas ~ :.- more conceptual ideas

The Earth is flat. Gravity acts downwards towards the ground surface.

The Earth is shaped like a ball surrounded by space. We live on the flat part inside the ball. Gravity acts downwards relevant to the flat surface regardless of Earth shape.

The Earth is shaped like a ball surrounded by space. We live on top of the ball. Gravity still acts downwards regardless of Earth shape.

The Earth is shaped like a ball surrounded by space. People live all around the ball. Gravity acts towards the surface of the ball but not towards its centre.

The Earth is shaped like a ball surrounded by space. People live all around the ball. Gravity acts towards the surface of the ball and towards its centre. The Earth and gravity concepts are acceptable in scientific terms.

Figure' Wel2hted overage percent figures for E.orth shope ond gravity constructs he'd by children between the oges of 8 ond '4 from doto co,lected In the USA, Nepo' ond Isroel. Adopted ond reproduced from Nussboum (1979) ond Snelder ond Pulos (1983).

group are shown in Fig. 2. The graph is interesting in many ways. Even when presented and challenged with well structured informa­tion. after the tutorials 26% of those involved still retained construct I as their view of the Earth, 27% retaining construct 2, a combined total of little over half the sample group. Those children that did change, their ideas shifted to constructs 4 and 5, construct 3 receiving little favour.

What does all this mean? Prior to the National Curriculum, it could be said that much of this work was of academic interest only with arguments just beginning to formulate and develop over the nature of curriculum design. But now, with levels 'established' and rapidly becoming 'entrenched', great caution needs to be exercised. Al­though many young children will be able to 'recite' that the Earth is a ball or a sphere when given the appropriate cues, it may not, as has been demonstrated, mean anything to them. What would' flat Earth children' make of explaining day and night, currently at Level4? This is an important question for constructivists as it forces an examina­tion of the sub-concepts involved for such understanding to take place. Stronglr held day and night constructs are widely documented in the work 0 authors already cited. These are:

- clouds cover the Sun; - the Sun hides behind a hill; - the Moon covers the Sun; - the Sun moves to a different country or planet;

the Moon is out so the Sun is on the ground; - the Sun moves from the sky to outer space;

the Earth goes around the Sun once a day; - the Sun and moon are diametrically opposite, the Earth spins

once a day and so sees both.

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt. 4 (7993)

Percent frequency

50

45

40

35

30

25

20 Inst. 2nd

15

10

5

Construct 1 Construd 2 Construd 3 Construd 4 Conslrud 5

Figure 2 Frequency profiles of E.orth ondrovity constructs of second grode children from Isroel. n=7. Un/nit. refers to constructs held prior to tutorlol sessions. Inst. refers to con­structs held after tutorlol sessions. Adopted ond reproduced from Nussboum ond Shoron/-Dogon (1983)

132

In order to make any sense of day and night, children must first be exposed to and come to terms with the following:

- the Earth is spherical; - it possesses an axis which passes through the poles;

the axis is tilted; - the Earth rotates about this axis once every 24 hours;

the Earth orbits the Sun once a year; and, - th~re are daily, annual and hemispherical variations and compli­

cations.

This is usually overlooked or taken for granted. Implicit in these sub­concepts are force, astronomical distance, motion and time: even more complicated and demanding for some individuals. We will refrain from launching into the seasons. Some basic work on these sub-concepts has been undertaken (Klein, 1982; Sadle, 1987; Jones et ai, 1987) on children from the USA, their understanding of them being understandably low. They also demonstrated that children possess a strongly reinforced geocentric view of the Solar System, one of science's greatest and longest held paradigms. This is not surprising, given that watching the Sun 'rise' and move across the sky every day would do little to give them, as it did ancient peoples, anything else. This, together with some of the other information presented here, raises some doubts about the validity of a totally child-centred, investigative approach to science in primary class­rooms advocated by many in recent years.

Construct 1

Construct 3

Construct 4

Children's Maps of the Solar System

EliCiting c~ildren's ideas about the Earth-Moon-Sun system has been a research Interest for many for several years now, but little appears to have been attempted or reported with regard to the Solar System. And yet the Solar System is central to most teachers' work: displays of the Sun and the planets adorning many classroom and corridor walls as they have done for years. It appears in the National Curricu­lum at LevelS, although as mentioned earlier, this is one of the strands whose position and nature has varied with time during consultation and review. Working with children between the ages of 8 and 10 in one Devon school, allowing them to draw mental maps and tal~ informally of what they thought the Solar System looked like when viewed from outer space produced interesting and informative ~esults .. Th~ chil~ren participating had just followed a period of Instruction. I~~olvlng the use of research skills, video materials, play­gro.und a.ctlvltles, m~dels a~d making f'!'0biles, the traditional ways in ~Ntllch thiS are~ of sCience IS normally covered'. Despite a range of Ideas, fou.r m~1n constructs emerged (Fig. 3). Interpretations can be geographlcal.n terms of content, location, direction, distance, scale, orientation and perspective as well as scientific in terms of forces, motion and time. These are briefly described as follows.

Construct 2

Figure 3 Children's commonly held constructs of the Solar System between the ages of 8 and 10. See text for explanation.

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt. 4 (7993) 133

Construa I: 'Random' - Some or all of the planets, including the Moon, and the Sun are represented and named, but appear in an irregular or haphazard way. Confusion reigns over the definition of the words planet, satellite and star. A crude notion of a static, Sun centred system with inner and outer planets may be revealed. The Sun is shown as a small disc but the other stars, seen as an integral part of the Solar System, are represented by a traditional 5-pointed symbol. Fine detail may be shown, e.g. rings. Commonly held view.

Construa 2: 'Processional' - Some or all of the planets and the Sun are represented and named and arranged largely in order in a regular way but equidistant from the Sun. The 'Man on the Moon' is isolated in accordance with its appearance in the sky. The Sun may be acknowledged as a ball of fire, the planets being different. Idea of single orbit and one-way or 'follow the leader' motion developing. Least held view.

Construa 3: 'Unear' - Regular pattern and order emerging, view in elevation biased by research materials and displays. Arrows refer to string on classroom mobiles constructed, some children maintain that string holds planets in place in space. Notion of furthest planet from central Sun being coldest and taking longest to complete one orbit becoming clear. Planetary surface features being drawn demonstrating spherical nature. Generally acceptable scientific model on which to build. Commonly held view.

Construct 4: 'Concentric' - Regularity of order and pattern strong, planets viewed as rotating the Sun in circular or elliptical orbits. Plan or oblique views shown but disc rotation appreciated. Children can talk about inner rocky and gaseous outer planets as well as discrimi­nate motion of Moon around the Earth. Finer detail confusions still hold e.g. the rings are planetary ozone layers. Generally acceptable scientific model, an improvement over construct 3. Commonly held view.

Mental maps, the images constructed by children and carried around with them inside their heads, are particularly interesting to teachers when drawn out for a number of reasons: they allow evaluation of the effectiveness of the teaching programme used; they provide evidence of work for assessment; and, they allow for an exploration of the deeper understandings and meanings of a child's work, particularly when combined with what they say. The results demonstrate that even using a wide variety of teaching methods to investigate the same topiC, the information is used by different children to form their own ideas. The use of certain resources and display techniques is ques­tionable. It is worth pointing out that exposing children to a more comprehensive 'general knowledge' of the Solar System is far more interesting and stimulating to them than what the Order reqUires.

Conclusions

In our experience, very few areas of the science curriculum can claim to capture the interest, curiosity and imagination of children as much as astronomy does and so it is only proper that this branch of the Earth and Space sciences should be introduced to all children as early as possible. What is reqUired at Key Stage I merely reflects the excellent practice that has been and is going on in our primary schools, long before the introduction of new legislation to make it so, and with this we find no fault. At Key Stage 2, we would suggest that, in terms of a constructivist learning model, too much may be being asked of children too soon, leading to longer term problems for teachers operating at Key Stage 3 despite overlaps in the levels to be addressed. This is particularly the case with Earth (flat to spherical) and gravity concepts which lead onto day and night, the seasons and so on. Even when provided with a context as stimulating and as interesting as 'space', tackled in all kinds of ways, children still manage to construct their own meanings for things, meanings which would be considered unacceptable to the older and wider scientific community or to the National Curriculum assessment framework in its current form. This is a 'fact' of education which must be appreciated and should not reflect adversely on any individual teacher's performance if the documentation within which they have to work is inconsistent with the ways in which children progress and develop and does little to help them. Instead what is obtained from children's work is the necessary information required to take those children forward at a later date. We would even go as far as to say that some of the Statements of Attainment, against which assessment takes place, are meaningless and do not in fact reflect what is reqUired in the Programmes of Study. In an ideal world, it might be suggested that

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt. 4 (7993)

any prescribed curriculum should prOVide supportive guidance not only on what 'could' be taught, but at what age it is best introduced. and how it can be most effectively delivered whilst still leaving teachers and children the freedom and flexibility they need for their particular situations. Assessment in its present form should be used for curriculum development purposes only and nothing else until that curriculum is acceptable and given widespread support from all areas of society. Instead, we have, for all kinds of reasons that extend well beyond the scope of this work, a curriculum that focuses on content and assesses little more than what children can declare, rather than be more sympathetically in tune with their own ideas and how they change. This is an unfortunate and potentially hazardous state of affairs and has every right to be questioned and challenged. With this firmly in mind, we would certainly support an 'end of Key Stage assessment' replacing Levels I to 5 for use in the primary sector.

Perhaps as, at the time of writing, we wait for Sir Ron Dearing's first SCAA review of the status of National Curriculum science in our primary schools, he will take on the issues raised here and elsewhere to make the task of teaching and learning in our classrooms a more profitable experience.

John G. Sharp and Kevin G. Moore RoUe Faculty of Education, University of Plymouth Douglas Avenue, Exmouth EX8 2A T

References

Baxter, J. (1989). Children's understanding of familiar astronomical events. Int J. Sci. Educ., 11, Spec. Issue, 502-513. Cheung, K.C. and Taylor, R. (1991). Towards a humanistic constructivist model of science learning: changing perspectives and research implications. J. Curr.Studies, 21( I), 21-40. DES/wO. (1988). Science for ages 5-16. HMSO. DES/wO. (1991). Science in the National Curriculum. HMSO. Driver, R. and Bell, B. (1986). Students' thinking and the learning of science: a constructivist view. Sch. Sci. Rev., 67: 443-456. Driver, R. and Easley, J. (1978). Pupils and paradigms: a review of literature related to concept development in adolescent science students. Stud. Sci. Educ., 61-84. Driver, R. et al. (1990). Research on students' conceptions in science: a bibliography. Children's Learning in Science Research Group, Univer­sity of Leeds. Jones, B. L., Lynch, P.P. and Reesink, C. (1987). Children's concep­tions ofthe Earth, Sun and Moon. Int J. Sci. Educ., 9(1),43-53. Klein, C. (1982). Children's concepts of the Earth and the Sun: a cross cultural study. Sci. Educ., 65(1), 95-107. Knight, P. (1989). Children's concepts, the curriculum and change. Curriculum, I O( I), 5 -12. Under, C,J. (1993). A challenge to conceptual change. Sci. Educ., 77(1),293-300. Mali, G.B. and Howe, A. (1979). Development of Earth and gravity concepts among Nepali children. Sci. Educ., 63(5), 685-691. Mant, J. and Summers, M. (1992). Some primary-school teachers' understanding of the Earth's place in the Universe. Res. Papers in Educ., 8(1),101-129. Nussbaum, J. (1979). Children's conceptions of the Earth as a cosmic body: a cross age study. Sci. Educ., 63(1), 83-93. Nussbaum, J. and Novak, J.D. (1976). An assessment of children's concepts of the Earth utiliZing structured interviews. Sci. Educ., 60(4), 535-550. Nussbaum, J. and Sharoni-Dagan, N. (1983). Changes in second grade children's preconceptions about the Earth as a cosmic body resulting from a short series of audio-tutorial lessons. Sci. Educ., 67( 1),99-114. Ollerenshaw, C. and Ritchie, R. (1993). Primary science: making it work. Primary Curriculum Series. Fulton. Osborne, R.J. and Whittrock, M.C. (1983). Learning science: a gen­erative process. Sci. Educ., 67(4),: 489-508. Sadler, P.M. (1987). Misconceptions in astronomy. Proc. of the second intemational seminar on misconceptions and educ. strategies in science and maths. 3: 422-425. Sneider, C. and Pulos, S. (1983). Children's cosmographies: under­standing the Earth's shape and gravity. Sci. Educ., 67(2), 205-221. Vosniadou, S. (1991). Designing Curricula for conceptual restructur­ing: Lessons from the study of knowledge acquisition in astronomy. J. Curr. Studies, 21(1),219-237. Watts, M. and Bentley, D. (1991). Constructivism in the curriculum. Can we close the gap between the strong theoretical version and the weak version of theory-in-practice? The Curr. Journal, 2(2), 171-182.

134

Planning for it ...

learning from it ...

making the most of it

A FIELDWORK PACK to help teachers and students alike to get the best from their fieldwork. Written by Robert Peers, an experienced Geology teacher, the pack covers planning for and working in the field.

Making the most of your Fieldwork

A pocket-size booklet for students, explaining how to use field equipment, what to record in the field notebook, and giving valuable tips on techniques such as sketching, constructing graphic logs, and geological mapping. Printed on high quality synthetic paper - water resistant, grease resistant and tear resistant - it should survive the worst field conditions.

Geology Fieldwork Student Infonnation

A brief introduction to the purpose and benefits of geological fieldwork. Outlines the skills - and their assessment - which students need to develop. Lists basic equipment required for fieldwork.

Fieldwork Hazards

A full colour A2 poster that uses a touch of humour to convey essential messages on safety for all subject courses that involve fieldwork. Of value also to outdoor centres.

Advance Planner for Fieldwork

An A3 poster for your wall, reminding you of the steps to take before any fieldwork. Includes an outline Fieldwork Record Sheet to help you organise your planning and paperwork.

The Fieldwork Pack is published by Northumberland County Council Education Department, Post-16 Education Support Unit, Till House, Hepscott Park, Morpeth, Northumberland, NE61 6NF, and produced in association with British Coal Opencast.

Available from ESTA Promotions, do Wyvern Gardens, Dore, Sheffield, S17 3PR.

The Churchyard Trail Competition

In this issue we publish extracts from two of the entries fo~ the Churchyard Trail Competition, which was judged by the FIeld­work Committee for the Leeds conference. Extracts from the third winner will be published in a forthcoming issue. It was a great disappointment that the number of entries for the competi­tion was so small, though the entries that did come in were of a high standard. It was interesting to read the account below, from the Sheffield Star of the 4th October 1993, which gave publicity to EST A and the GA.

Congratulations to the winners:

"Graveyard ideas are winners

Spooky graveyard trails devised by High Storrs School pupils have scooped two top prizes in a national competition.

Laura Seymour and Shelley Cartwright came up with winning ideas to promote grave­yards as a useful education resource.

Runners-up were Sonya Hull, Kate Redfeam and Julia Warboys.

Own Work

The competition was organised by the Earth Sciences Teachers' Association, and the prizes were donated by the Geological As­sociation.

Pupils who entered could base their trails on various aspects of earth sciences, in­cluding the different rock types found in graveyards, the evidence and weathering of rocks or the age and origin of exotic rocks.

Judges were looking for pupils' own work, illustrations, easy-to-use guidelines and ac­curacy.

Laura and Shelley get a laminated poster showing parts of Europe, and all the win­ners get a personal hand lens and a certifi­cate. The school gets a £75 donation to spend on earth science."

Primary Schools: Dawn Rimmer, Steven Moran,. Scott Jones, ~enee Martin and Gemma Quale, of Class Y4, Melhng County Primary School, Merseyside. Lower Secondary Schools: Laura Seymour and Shelley Cartwright, Of High Storrs School, Sheffield. A commended entry from this school was by Kate Redfearn, Julia Warboys and Sonya Hall. Upper Secondary: Simon Longley of Brockenhurst College. A commended entry from this school was by Amy Garrod.

A N SHE R S

Station 1 1. Greenisn, blaCkish, gre~ish and rust~ coloured. 2. The writing is clear because it was upright and sloping. The weather eouldn't get to the writing. 3. It 'eel. rough. 4. Bits 0' sand co~s 0" on our 'ingers. 5. Sandstone. 6. It is flat. 7. gre~lsh, greenish because 01 ~ moss and ~t~. 8. Not ea"" to read because ~ weather ha. worn it away. ' .. q. a bi t s-.,th, a bit rougt\ ~ al~l~ 9ritt~. 10. ~es. sand does. U. sandstone.

Station 3 1-2. Sandstone slabs. 3. Hard 4. BlackiSh. reddish and light brOWftM 5. Fro .. rode. 6. Manu'actured. Because all the til~ are exactl~ the same size.

StaLon 5 1-2. Mostl!:j ... nib and bits 0' black. 3. Rough because it's unpolished. 4. .ts quite so,t but it's harder than snadstone. 5. No. Granite is the hardest rock. 6. The le~~ers were carved and then with with :"Qd. 7. Norwegian grQnite. 8. Polisn~d.

q . 81ue, olack Qnd big cr!:jstals. 10. Yes, Q~ big as a thumb. Th~ shine Qnd glisten. 11. The sandstone WQS dug out of the ground to ~ke more spaces 'or graves.

Station 2 1. purpliSh and blackish and a bit rust. 2. Ves 3. ver\:l smooth 4.No S.Slate 6. 7. Sandstone B. Ves. The weather is wearing them aWQ!:j and people are taking pieces 0'

q. Brown,\:Iellow, peach and ru.t~ rec and Q little bit 0' black. 10. Soft rock.

1-2. 3. Ves 4. white, blQck, reddish and pink. 5. Polished 6. Ves, because its hard and it won wear awa~.

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993) 136

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Station 1 1. What-colour I. it? 2. Look at the writing. Is it clear to read? Why? 3. F_l it.Does it f_l rough or s_th ? 4. Does canything __ off on your fingers? S. Hhot do wou think it i. _de fr_? 6. Now look 01. the next graveatone. la it ~right or flat? 7. What does it look like? 8. Look at the wr i ting. Is it-SW to read? IofV? q F_l it. Does it f_l rOUfl'> or s_th? 10. Does anything co .... off on your fingers? 11. What do you think it is IIKIde fr_?

You have finished Stotion 1. Follow the or rows to Stotion 2.

Station 2 1. What colour Is it? 2. Look ot the writing. Is it cleor tQ reod? ~? 3. F_l it.Does it feel rough or s_th ? 4. Doe. anything co," off on !,lOUr fingers? S. Hhot do you think it i. _de fro .. ? 6. Now look at the church wall. 7. Hhot ia it _de fra? 8. Do any of the blocks ~ replacing? IofV? Hhot ia the _tter with theII? q. Hri te ~ the colours you con .... 10. Hri te down if the rode t. 0 hard rode or 0 _011. rode. 11. You have finiahed Station 2. Follow the arrows to Station 3.

Station 3 l.Holk ~ to the door. Stop before \:jou get thers. Look at t"- roof. 2. What is it IlClde f~o.? 3. Does the rock loo~ hard or soft? 4. What colour ia it? 5. Is the roof aon .~de or is it ooode fro.. rock? 6. Look ot the vestr~ roof. Is it ~on mode or is it MOde f'om rock? How can \:jOY tell? 7. You have finishe.J Station 3. "OW

~ollow the orrows to Station 4.

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Follow the arrows to Station 4.

IJnd t~ &raves tone on the lett that has sot p1eces of ,reen ,lass on 1 ts floor.

Can you see the crystals 1n the granite rock2

~t other colours are In the rock?

Is 1 t polished or unpol1shed?

can you read the wordS that are J on the gravestone? liby?

Use a aqnlty1n8 glass and ... ~ •. sketch ot the patterns and col.­that you can see on th1s aravestane.

You have now f1n1shed Station 4.

Follow the arrows to Stat10n 5.

MELLING CHURCHYARD GEOLOGY TRAIL

By Dawn Rillmer Steven Morcm Scott JOM$

Renee MGrtin GeIftIllQ Q\/de

Class Y4 Melling C.P.School, Merseyside.

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1. Walk paet the cr_toriulII plot and flnd the flrst .orbl. grave.tone. 2. What c~lour ia it? 3. Feel it. Is it rough or .lOOOth? 4. Is it aa soft a. sand.tone? 5. Is it aa hard aa granite? 6. How has the lettering been IMIde? 7. Find the next grav_tone thet is not aode frOM aorble. What is it_de fr_? 8. Is it polished or unpoli.hed? q. What colour i. it? 10. Con !,IOU see any cr\:jStols in the rock? How big are the\:j? Are ~ bigger or soooller then \:jOUr li~tl. finger? What do the\:j look lik.? 11. Pick up a piece of ,ond$tone frOM the rock heop. Where do \:jOU think the sandstone has come from?

You have ~ow Ti~ished Melling Church Geology Trail. Please don't cheat. Answers are on the back oT this sheet.

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Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993) 138

Teaching Primary Earth Science

WINTER 1993

Number 4

published by the Earth Science Teachers' Association

Registered Charity No. 1005331

MOUNTAIN BUILDING - background information for teachers

The Earth's crust is broken up into a number of sections. These pieces are called plates.

These plates are shown on the map here.

The plates form a spherical jig-saw

Figure 1

PACIFIC PLATE

Huge forces from deep inside the Earth either push the plates apart, towards each other or past each other. The arrows on the map give a general indication of the movement of the different types of plate.

Plates moving together may be compared to the head-on collision between two cars, the engine compart­ments crumple and are buckled up jus.t as the rocks in between two plates are crumpled into complicated fold mountains. The Himalayas, Alps and Rockies have been formed in this way. Such areas are also scenes of volcanic and earthquake activity.

Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world at 8848m above sea level, was created in this way. Fossil sea shells are often found on the top of mountains. This is because the rocks at the tops of mountains were formed under water and have been folded and lifted upwards to their present position.

Fold mountains are areas of folded rocks; upfolds are called anticlines and downfolds are called synclines.

. Anticline­layers folded upwards

Figure 2

Syncline -layers folded downwards

When plates collide into each other there is plenty of friction. Movement of the plates is not continuous but sporadic as the forces build up and the plates suddenly give way and move. This causes the ground to shake, sometimes very violently, when a series of shockwaves pass through the ground. These shock waves are called earthquakes.

This is what happened on Friday, October 1, 1993 when the Indian plate, which is in collision with the Asian plate, suddenly moved. Large earthquakes occurred in areas of central India and as a result many thousands of people were killed, mainly due to the collapse of their homes onto the people as they slept.

. .,. IRAN

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Figure 3 Indian earthquake ·1/10/93

T - Tehran D - Delhi K - Kathmandu N - Nagpur B-Bombay L - Latur H - Hyderabad BI - Bangalore M -Madras C -Colombo

Some ideas you might use in the classroom

Bending Rocks to Make Mountains

1. Use 4 strips different coloured Plasticine.

2. Lay the strips of one on top of the other.

~) D r--/ ------If 0 < l (

3. Put a brick or wooden block at each end of the strips and push them together to make folds in the Plasti­cine

The folds created can be compared to the fold mountains created by plate collision. The upfolds are anti­clines, the downfold are synclines.

4. Make a sketch of the fold.

Other movements that turn rock layers into mountains are:-

i) Faulting - rocks being 'stretched'

~~ ~~~ ". ~-' ,---.-., ~--~ -.c; : ~ -------... ~~--:: '~~"~ 0 0 o~ ••••• ::-.

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ii) Volcanic action

iii ) Vertical uplift - brittle rocks being 'squeezed'

Making 'earthquakes' and the damage they do

1. This activity needs to be carried out on school desks that will shake easily!

2. Stand a variety of objects on the desk that will, hopefully, fall over when an 'earthquake' passes through the table. For example: pen tops, cassette cases, wooden blocks.

3. Thump the table. Observe that some of the objects have fallen over. Discuss as to why this happens (shock waves).

4. You will need a rough cut piece of wood. This will, hopefully, create plenty of friction when pushed across the desk. If the right desk surface also is used there will be plenty of friction between desk and block. Push the block across the desk. When the block suddenly moves a shockwave will be created that will, hopefully, cause the pen tops etc. to be knocked over.

Comparisons can be made with plates of the Earth moving towards each other causing earthquakes when the plates move suddenly.

5. The exercise could be repeated with different types of material such as housebrick and a planed block of wood to display the importance of friction in creating the earthquake. It would also be appropriate to point out that the size of earthquakes does vary considerably. Some means of tabulating results could be devised. For example which earthquake is responsible for knocking over the pen top / cassette box/Tony Adams' Action Man figure.

6. Comparisons could be made between their simulated earthquake and an actual example, taken from a video.

Some Other Ideas

1. Television news items are a good resource of factual and visual information about earthquakes.

2. In the same way newspaper articles are a further resource of factual and visual information. They make good display material.

3. The information gathered from TV and newspapers relating to the location of earthquakes could be plotted and displayed on a world map.

4. For schools in the London area; there are good displays in the Geology Museum, South Kensington, including a machine that simulates an earthquake.

5. In areas prone to earthquakes particular building styles have been devised that will, hopefully, reduce damage (and death) should large earthquakes occur. Skyscrapers are built that will sway and move with the earthquake. Smaller buildings are usually constructed with numerous cross beams running the length of the building with walls tied in between the beams. In some cases rubber, flexible pads may be included in the joints between beams.

An extension activity to 'Making Earthquakes' would be to investigate, with the class, different styles of buildings made out of building blocks (Lego type) to see how they withstood earthquakes of differing magnitudes.

This issue written by Peter York and edited by Graham Kitts.

If yuu wl,>h to subscribe to Teaching Primary Eall:h SCll'nC(' ,\nd I"('CPIVl' till'

ESTA Pt If)ury Introductory Pack spnd your n.lnH', .1ddrn'> and £5.00 (made payabil' to ESTA) to Mr. j. Munday, 56 Mddenhall Road, Slough, Bud<,> SL I 3jA.

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Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993)

! 1· ·'·1

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139

•

This is the grave of the famous geologist Henry Clifton Sorby and his wife

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt. 4 (7993)

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This is a sandstone grave which has been weathered

140

Henry Clifton Sorby (1826-1908)

One of the graves featured in the winning entry from High Storr's School is that of H.C. Sorby. His contribution to geology. particularly in the field of microscopy is not as well known as it might be.

Henry Clifton Sorby was the son of a wealthy colliery owner and partner in a Sheffield tool firm. He went first to a Dames' school. and then to the Grammar School in Sheffield. Here he first became interested in science. and on leaving school he was placed in the care of a mathematical tutor. the Rev. Waiter Mitchell. who instructed Sorby in chemistry and anatomy. as well as. presumably. mathematics. As a result. he became determined to pursue a life of scientific research. but not to attempt to attain any academic qualifications. Having independent means. he was able to do just that: "original research can be carried on in a satisfactory manner only when an investigator has abundance of time for work. and freedom from those cares that interfere with reflection. I am thankful to say that complete immunity from such routine employment has been my own happy lot".

He first wrote on agricultural chemistry. but was soon drawn to the River Don. which flowed past the gardens of his home. and carried out experiments of the flow of the water and the deposition of sediment. Sheltering in a quarry one day. he observed current­structures in the sandstones there. and so he turned to geology. For the study of rocks. he was attracted to the use of thin sections under the microscope by the work of a friend. William Crawford Williamson. who had produced thin sections of fossil wood. teeth. scales and bones. He saw that this technique could be applied to the study of rocks. and made the first such transparent slides in 1849. This work was described in a paper published by the Geological Society of London in 1850. and in it he described almost all the techniques still employed in the study of rocks under the microscope.

This work. on sedimentary rocks. continued throughout his life. but he also turned his attention to other aspects. In 1851 he was drawn to the study of slaty cleavage. puzzling over their structure as seen under the microscope. and the explanations then offered for its origin. "One day when quietly walking in the garden and reflecting on

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt. 4 (7993)

things in general the simplest pOSSible explanation of the whole flashed across my mind. I immediately went to my work-room. mixed some small pieces of coloured paper with wet pipeclay. and on compressing them in the manner that slate rocks are proved to have been compressed. I found that I obtained a very good representation of the characteristic structure on which their cleavage depends." This work led on to the examination of schists. and from there to igneous rocks.

The role of aqueous solutions in the formation and alteration of rocks was another aspect of his work. from the recognition of such solutions in the Magnesian Limestone to the role of water in the formation of igneous rocks.

In 1862 Sorby and his mother visited the Rhineland in Germany. and he was guided in a tour of the area by Ferdinand Zirkel. a young german mining geologist. At the end of the visit Sorby explained his techniques to Zirkel. who became an enthusiastic follower of Sorby's methods. From this sprang an international school of continental investigators. led initially by Zirkel himself. which laid the foundations of optical mineralogy. Indeed. this study made more strides on the continent at this time than in Britain.

Sorby then turned his main attention to other topics of research: "possibly it is better to invent new things than to work up old ones thoroughly". He looked at the Magnesian Limestones and Cleveland Ironstones. the nature of the coccoliths in the Chalk. the origin of cone-in-cone structures. denudation and deposition of rocks. river terraces. water supply and contamination of rivers by sewage. Be­yond geology. he took in such varied enquiries as organic colours. meteorological problems. blowpipe analysis. the detection of poi­sons. archaeological studies and the study of heiroglyphs. From 1853 he lived much of each year on a yacht. which was a floating laboratory. This led him to the study of marine flora and fauna. and the devising of methods for preserving specimens.

This work went on until he suffered a partial paralysis in 1903. yet he continued to continue working. lying on his back and writing in pencil. until his death in 1908. His best epitaph was written by himself: "my entire life has been spent either in scientific research or in prepara­tion for it".

Based on information in Henry Clifton Sorby and the birth of microscopical petrology. by J.W. Judd. in the Geological Magazine for 1908.

141

KEITH'S

COLUMN

This year the venue was Leeds University so I set off on Friday for the 20 I mile joumey northwards. The whole trip took just a little over three and a half hours with just a few holdups on the Nottingham stretch of the M I. There was no obvious cause for these except the sheer volume of traffic and the tendency of lorries to try and overtake other lorries going about 0.1 miles per hour slower than themselves. The result was two lanes of crawling vehicles and a rapidly filling outside lane!

The Leeds city centre was easily negotiated despite the rush hour and I was delighted with the forgiving nature of local drivers to a stranger jumping lanes like an oscillating seismograph pen. Only a kamikaze taxi driver in a red Citreon proved problematic. The city council had evidently decided to give us an interesting weekend by removing the road surfaces in the university area. Manhole covers stood up like mesas from a John Ford western and required rally driving reflexes to avoid them.

The conference was based at Bodington Hall on the northem out­skirts of Leeds. It consisted of the usual 3/4 storey bedsit blocks surrounded by playing fields. A huge canopy led to the entrance and reception area where I found Richard Tayler and Base Camp Field Centre nicely sandwiched along the well worn route between the bar and the rest of the building.

"Keith Moseley, Monmouth, Wales", I announced to reception. "It isn't in Wales", was the gist of the reply I got. Oh yes it is, and if anyone wants proof they only have to tum on the telly to discover S4C instead of 'proper' Channel 4. Apparently, sales of satellite dishes have been higher per head of population in Wales than anywhere else. Lack of viewing choice is believed to be the reason. (How BSkyB helps I don't know!) Registration included careful details of how to find my room. ObViously they were expecting me after my exploits in Aberdare Hall last year.

The conference kicked off with an excellent lecture by Dr. H. Elderfleld, called "Why is the Sea Salty?" My Open University students would have liked to have been there since they had a CMA question on that very subject recently. Apparently salt from sediment entering the oceans is insufficient and the balance is likely to be made up from submarine hot springs, called 'black smokers'.

The evening meal set the standard for the weekend. I was impressed both by the quality of the food and generosity of the helpings. Good north em hospitality was evidently on show. It was a chance to catch up with old friends but inevitably some were unable to fund or contemplate the long journey. A glance around the dining room suggested rather lower attendance figures than indicated in the conference handbook but maybe the local delegates had skipped off home.

The room came with a minute corner wash basin. The bed was comfortable except for an impermeable layer between me and the mattress. The result was a perched water table of perspiration by the following morning and memories of hospitals. Nevertheless, I slept well, thanks to the anaesthetic effects of well conditioned Murphy's Stout from the bar. In fact, my slumbers continued through the alarm and I woke with just 30 minutes to eat breakfast and prepare for the day. A rapid dash through the servery resulted in me grabbing a fork with such vigour that I impaled my hand. It seems that Bodington Hall forks are sharper than a Velociraptor's claws. (IneVitable Jurassic Park joke there.)

A fleet of coaches was laid on to take us into the university campus. Because they were not returning at lunchtime we took our field kit and packed lunches with us to the moming session. The Leeds University Earth Sciences Department is situated on the upper floors of a mind bogglingly huge complex of buildings. Endless glazed corri-

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993)

dors of squeaky rubber floors stretched out before us. Fortunately someone knew where they were going.

A good supply of spacious laboratories were available for the morn­ing programme. I began by attending the workshop on the AEBI ULEAC proposed revision of AlAS syllabuses. The new ones look more organised and less cluttered than the old ones and I applaud the move away from excessive content (something which Physics sylla­buses did some years ago). The increasing bias towards data response questions as opposed to lengthy essays was also, in my opinion, a change for the better. The practical exam will disappear to save on cost.

On the negative side, the organisation and assessment of field work is going to be more complex than before. Justifying our favourite mapping exercise to ULEAC, in terms of the baffling Science National Curriculum AT I, is going to give us all a pointless migraine! How I envy the good old days when we did fieldwork simply for the fresh air and the experience (unquantifiable and therefore disregarded by the current 'gurus' of education). Unfortunately, I felt that the meeting became side-tracked by a discussion concerning the level of detail to which mineralogy and petrology should be covered. This enabled the matter of fieldwork assessment to slip by with only brief scrutiny. The forthcoming October INSET was in London and I had hoped to avoid it by attending this session at Leeds. We needed more time than we had.

The second session was an illustrated lecture about climate change by Dr. J. Francis. It mainly concentrated on the Permo-Trias glaciation and the Mesozoic greenhouse period. A good deal of interesting data is emerging from southern hemisphere countries and, in particular, Cretaceous deposits from Antarctica have yielded excellently pre­served trees from a time when the polar regions were much warmer than now. Dr Francis reminded us that, despite the clement condi­tions these trees must still have survived in the high latitude darkness for four months of each year.

Between sessions Band C, I rushed around to laboratory I to see the rock deformation experiments. There were also some free speci­mens of highly deformed metamorphic rocks in lab. 3. I found the silicone putty utterly fascinating as a model of rock behaviour. It is, however, deadly stuff if mishandled. Don't leave it anywhere other than a solid container as it has a tendency to flow into any holes it can find. I am still picking bits out of the weave of a shirt pocket, having put a lump in there some years back.

The final session (C) consisted of a highly entertaining talk by Mr. A.c. Lumsden on engineering problems caused by geology. In a laconic and anecdotal way, we were shown various case histories of collapsing dams and grain silos along with the sinking effects on surface dwellings caused by humans burrOWing around beneath. Often, de­velopers had ignored the obvious, such as the builders who started an estate on Chalk Pit Lane. The big holes that appeared under houses were ..... you guessed it! It reminds me of the folk in Monmouth who complain about the River Monnow flooding their homes. They bought houses in Watery Lane. Serves them right.

At lunchtime we filled the corridors and coffee bar of the Earth Sciences department to eat our packed lunches. The crisps tasted of curried Aardvark (I suspect). We then climbed aboard a fleet of buses by the university entrance watched by a handful of bemused refugees from a new age traveller convoy, sat on the steps alongside.

I had chosen the Troller's Ghyll trip lead by Mr. D Leather, Mr I. Hunter and (for the mapping exercise) Dr. W.J. Varker. On the way out of Leeds we were given a North South Section and were able to follow the scarps and dips of the Coal Measures and Millstone Grit beds. As we approached Greenhow its name became self evident.

142

The limestone inlier gave rise to a lush cover of grass compared with the surrounding grit areas. Just beyond we were greeted by the astonishing sight of uncountable small spoil heaps stretching for miles east and west. Lead mineralisation in the Lower Carboniferous rocks had provided work for more miners than coal at one stage.

The Troller's Ghyll area proved to be a compact region of sufficiently varying geology to provide an excellent day's field work for students. We saw limestone features, Millstone Grit erratics, mineralisation, mining, a collapsed 19th century dam and evidence for an imperme­able, possibly Lower Palaeozoic, basement beneath. The mines pro­vided a small amount of Galena but rather more calcite and nice specimens of Fluorite. Inevitably, I later learned that Coldstone's Quarry, near Greenhow, had been the best trip for the mineral hunters. I gradually went green with envy as tales emerged of staggering people and groaning coach axles loaded down by several megatonnes of galena! (Mind you, no one actually showed me any specimens.)

Even the least adventurous trips had proved to be a good day out. One of my colleagues went to look at the local church yard and was greatly entertained by Dr. J.E. Robinson of the Geologists' Associa­tion. Large city cemeteries usually provide a rich variety of stone types including exotic imports. The only problem is that one can't take any specimens home.

The Keynote Lecture on Saturday night was given by Professor P.H. Nixon on the subject of Diamonds. He conceded at the outset that he would have to think hard to connect his topic with the conference theme of 'water'. Nevertheless, we were given a highly informative lecture about the origin and extraction of these gemstones. Appar­ently, diamonds are formed at depth beneath cratons of continental crust. Kimberlite pipes in other crustal regimes are often barren but evidence of diamond formation has been found as octahedral graphite pseudomorphs in eclogites. Successful prospecting owes much to the understanding of the geology although mystics such as Yuri Geller have tried to get in on the act, with little success. Nevertheless, we were again reminded of the relentless march of pseudo-scientific bunk in the late twentieth century.

The Conference Dinner was an all ticket affair. The food was, as before, excellent and we were entertained by a singing group after­wards. Choruses of the Hippopotamus Song invited audience partici­pation, although the Welsh DIY choir was rather depleted this year. Some of the Victorian songs showed curious taste, such as the offering about a lovesick suicidal goldfish!

Sunday morning commenced with the working part of the confer­ence. A 'burning issues' session had drawn few (serious) suggestions on the agenda board in advance. I therefore decided instead to collect up all my goodies from the trade stands. As it turned out, there were some useful issues raised and I was foolish to miss this event.

The EGM and AGM are always a masterpiece in brisk, organised business. A retirement announcement from Stuart Baldwin, changes to the constitution, elections and a plea for more covenanted sub­scriptions were all dealt with in under 30 minutes. Those who organise meetings at my school could learn a thing or two from EST A. We were reminded that Leeds might be the 25th Annual Conference held by ATG/ESTA ... or is it the 24th? A long standing member had told me the night before that he was at his 26th conference. Obvi­ously some absolute dating is required!

Dr. Hazel Rymer kindly agreed to give the Geoff Brown Memorial Lecture in honour of her former colleague. Many of us had never met Geoff but, through the myriad of Open University Earth Science programmes, he had become a familiar 'friend' to us all. Geoff was shown to be a thoroughly nice man who always got involved in every aspect of the work, including the mundane and messy bits. He treated all his colleagues and students as equals and was easy to get on with.

Dr. Rymer summarised the research that Geoff and herself had been carrying out for a number of years and which some us had seen in the Horizon programme 'The Magma Chamber'. They were hoping to use tiny alterations in the detected gravitational field strength around volcanic craters as a means of predicting eruptions. Magma surges and inflation of the volcanic cone should produce detectable changes but the complexity of the 'subterranean plumbing' makes interpreta­tion complicated. The Galeras Volcano, where Geoffwas killed, gave

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt. 4 (7993)

no geophysical warning at all before erupting. Despite the dangers we were shown the virtues of volcano 'forecasting'. As the world popu­lation climbs, more people are living in volcanic danger zones and the death rate has, unsurprisingly, risen. The same is true for earth­quakes.

We finished with a buffet lunch and headed home (after deciphering the Leeds road-works and one way system). The weather had been sunny throughout, adding to our enjoyment of an excellent confer­ence. Thanks must be given to the organisers, speakers and field trip leaders. Next year we go to Birmingham.

Keith Moseley Head of Geology Monmouth School Monmouth Gwent NPS 3XP

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143

Students, Fieldwork, Space and Time

Chris King

Could you 'put it all together'?

Can you remember the fieldwork you did as a student? Can you remember how difficult it was to put all the localities you visited into a time-space context? It is very easy for students to just 'pile in' and 'pile out' of the bus at the designated stops and not to build up any overall perspective of the different rock sequences seen. The longer the excursion, the more difficult it can become for the students to 'put it all together'. Residential fieldwork can be a particular problem, remaining in the students' minds a few weeks later as a muddle of localities, with a few highlights, such as, That was where ... fell in' and That was the place where we found the stray dog', etc.

Building up the space-time picture

One way to get around this problem is to set out with the objective of asking the students to put each locality and rock sequence into a space-time context. This is not the only objective, since a variety of other valuable activities are possible at each site, and should not be neglected.

There are a number of ways of tackling the space-time problem as shown below. But they all build towards the last one listed. This asks students not to simply write up their fieldwork neatly, but to prepare a geological history of the area they have studied, based only on the evidence they saw in the field. To do this, they will need to know the ages of the rocks at each site they visit. Either these can be listed with the grid references on the itinerary sheet, or one of the tasks set at each site can be to ask the students to work out the ages of the rocks, to the best of their ability (they will certainly need more help in some places than others).

This approach should work for regions of various sizes, but it has been particularly successful in Pembrokeshire (Dyfed) where we have carried out our own residential fieldwork over the past few years.

A five-prong approach

The following methods have been used to deliberately encourage students to build up this geological picture of the area they are visiting

in terms of space and time. Alone, some of the methods may seem to be rather trivial or 'obvious' and certainly not 'new', but together, they have been used with real success.

The examples given are all taken from our week-long field excursion to Pembrokeshire.

I. Encourage students to buy (or borrow) a I: 50,000 Ordnance Survey map of the field area and to follow it during the bus journey. To do this, they will need a locality by locality itinerary containing grid references. Through this the students are able to find out where they are going and to see where they have been. They can also link the geology to the topography and to features such as road and rail routes and the sites of settlements, castles, forts, dams, ports, etc.

2. In the evening, ask students to plot the field localities they have visited during the day on a geological map of the area. This means that they have to find them again on the topographical map before plotting them on the geological map. The cheap black and white geological map of Pembrokeshire that is available from National Park Information offices, has been ideal for this purpose. For other field areas, most geological maps of the correct scale are likely to be suitable. This task helps students to relate the geology they have seen to the geology of the rest of the area.

3. Give students a stratigraphical column of the area, like the one shown in Figure I, and ask them to plot the localities they visit each day on the column. The column shown in the figure has been modified from that in the British Regional Geology Handbook for South Wales, and shows the information plotted by an 'A' level student, Michael Halleron. Suitable columns for your field area may be available in the relevant Handbook. Otherwise they can be taken from the published geological map of the area and either used as they are, or they can be reduced using a photocopier or just redrawn to a smaller scale. This helps students to see the geology of the area in a time perspective. For example, it brings home the fact that the Devonian rocks seen in the rain on Tuesday morning were laid down shortly before the Carbonifer­ous rocks seen in the sunshine on Friday afternoon. It shows that most of the igneous activity in the area occurred during the Ordovician, etc.

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Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993) 144

o 5

Indicate on this stratigraphical column which rock sequences you have seen and where you have seen them.

REC_NT SAl/bY lIt-.vEN Glacial Drift to • 0 • 0 • I MULLOCl(a~tDG£

g { ................. Trias & Lias rtrrtrtrTr1 Great unconformity Hercynian Earth Movements Great unconformity w

::t

0 5 N 0 w -< ...J -< Q.

er w Q. Q. ::>

o 5 N o W -< ...J

~ a: w :t 9

rn ::> 0 er w u.. Z 0 III er -< 0

H

z -< (3 :> o c er o

Pennant Measures

Lower and Middle Coal Measures

Millstone Grit

Carboniferous Limestone

---------------......... ......... ........ . .........

Upper Old Red Sandstone :::;::::::;:::::!~

Lower Old Red Sandstone

Pridoli Serias

S-rl'<K floclC.S S-rA«POLE ~VR'I

Principal Caledonian Earth Movements Great unconformity

Ludlow Sarias r---c=-_....J "ItESJh/A-rE~ W'fST (Cc/V.,-/Cn "NO

Wen lock Saria.

Llandovery Series

Skomer Volcanic$

Caradoc Saria.

Llandailo Series

~SHl<l\Te~ ",eST ("''''1''1.0

MPr~ LoSS .s f\N~ ~ME:"'F"~D""'t.ST '1f\S CVV(l.r?R'1

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Thin beds 0/ ash and other ""~J./..l)y Q) 1I~4t.Q. 'I volcanic rocks occur S"1'",It"'e.'L£ lo\!:/lIl)

Lla~~:~~~:r!~~ intermittently in the Arenig. -(""" 'I' ""I.V'I DIJ F"A o<'''~ Llanrian Volcanic. Uanvirn and Liantieilo Series CA (~ ~,...

Sa.lyham Volcanic. 'fI(/?' F G A~ ... E "'U1\~P\I WlHI"-/e SAN\), 9. ill' Arenig Saria. "'-'--'-'-"'-'-"'-'-'-' .,. ~ I

~ { u.,." ' ''''_ ~ Menevian Series ._._. WHlr.-sA/IIb.S' [3 ... '1 ~ Solva Series .-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-. SOl-V" o Ca.rfai Series :;:::::,:::::;:::::::::,:::::::::::: W" l'fi';SAI' b5 SAY

Great unconformity Pebidian ••• '. • )"ftt.iO Fe M..N~ <t oRG~

Volcanic Se"as • • • • • I ..., . • •••••• ' Roc.~ ROc.A:, Intruded by - - •• r \01. S ~I'\j

.:.:: • • • \. ... IT£ AN bS Dim.tia" Granite ; ,~~.~, ., # , ... V "'.. ,

'.,,'.', .. .J

Figure I. Strcrtlgraphlcal column of the rock sequence in South Wales, simplified and generalised (after British Regional Geology, South Wales, with modifications). The locality Information as plotted by a student, Mlchael Halleron.

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (7993)

4. Give students a series of palaeogeographical maps of the area. with the local palaeogeography blanked out. as shown in Figure 2 (the maps used here are palaeogeographical maps of the whole British Isles. however it is quite possible to use more detailed maps of your field area, if they are available). Ask students to plot the localities they visit. day by day, onto the relevant palaeogeographical maps. This should allow them to join up the missing lines towards the end of the week, to produce their own version of the palaeogeography of the area, based on the evidence they have collected. The example maps shown in Figure 2 were taken from 'British Phanerozioc Palaeogeographies'. Figure 2A shows the lower part of the 'doctored' map, with a piece of white paper stuck over the relevant area, and the coastline redrawn. Figure 2B shows the plots of an 'A' level student, Andrew Hague, based on the evidence he collected . Figure 2C shows the 'right' answer on the complete map, as published. Through carrying out this exercise for all the geological periods represented in the area, the students gain a real feel for the change in geography and environment over time and they also find out how such maps are actually constructed. In Pembrokeshire, nearly all the geological periods represented are suit­able for this approach.

5. At the end of the field excursion, (or, when they have seen all the rocks of a certain period that they will see during the excursion) ask the students to write up their fieldwork in terms of a geological history of the area. based on the evidence that they personally col­lected in the field. An example for the Precambrian, written by Yvonne Ledger, is shown in Figure 3. It illustrates that a long report may not be necessary, providing it includes the locality names and the evi­dence for what the area was like at the time. The students will need help with slotting in folding episodes, metamorphism and intrusive activity, but nevertheless should be able to relate all they have seen during the excursion into an overall space/time picture. They will find this difficult, and some will need more help than others, but the exercise encourages students to con­sider all the localities they have visited, and all the evidence they have gathered, and to put them together in a sensible way. This type of exercise could be very useful for assessment in the 'A' level Geology examina­tions ofthe future.

From Pembrokeshire to the whole British Isles

Through carrying out these exercises, the students have to apply a large number of geological skills and can come away with a real 'feel' for the geology of an area. This work on a small area will reflect the geology of the whole of the British Isles in its move through space and time.

I am grateful to Michael Halleron, Andrew Hague and Yvonne Ledger for allowing me to use their work as examples. Duncan Hawley gave me some very useful com­ments on an earlier draft, for which I thank him. I am also grateful for permission to use parts of the publications listed below. Palaeogeographical maps reproduced with permission from Oxford Brookes University.

References

Guion, PD .• Scurry, D.GA, and Robinson, CA, 1978. British Phanerozoic Palaeogeographies. pub. Oxford Polytech­nic. The Natural Environment Research Council, 1975. British Regional Geology, South Wales. pub. Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

145

Figure 2 Po'oeogeographlco' mops of the Ordovlcion period

52°

- - -=-j:-.

o 50 100 150 , .... -

200 ... SOO

km

ORDOVICIAN

Erosional Landmass

She"y and Graplolitic Facies

Persistent She"y Facies

--=-----=--------- Persistent Graptolitic Facies

Projection: Conical with two stlndard parallels

.. ' Q

...•... ....~ " '!v' .... ' ~l::)

v Volcanic5

'* o o

PRE -LA TE CARADOC FAUNAS

American

Baltic

Anglo -FrenCh

2A Is the 'ower pore of 0 "doctored' mop with the Pembrokeshlre area b'onked out.

52°

o 50 100 I

km

ISO

ORDOVICIAN

Erosional Landmass

-:-:+:-+ She"y and Graptolitic Facies

Persistent Shelly Facies

:=::::=:: Persistent Graptolitic Facies

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v

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PRE-LATE CARAOOC FAUNAS

American

Baltic

Anglo - French

~ ... s '" c..-p~tJc.... -~ ~

28 shows the some mop with the po'oeogeorroPhy p'otted by 0 student. Andrew Hague.

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993) 146

560

00

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~~'" .... ') ... , ........ _ . ......;-.j ,.~. } .l

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..... .....

............

© OXFORD POLYTECHNIC 1 978 (afterWILLlAMS 1976)

le shows the complete mop os published (for source, see references).

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt. 4 (7993) 147

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Figure 3 A description of the Precambrlan In PemblOkeshlre, by student Yvonne Ledger, based on the evidence she was able to collect.

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt. 4 (7993) 148

The School's Skeleton: A Role Play exercise on the weathering of school buildings (KS2 ... or olderl)

Jane Bayley

The following investigation was carried out by myself and a group of my student teachers with 7 - 11 year olds: the children were very responsive and we enjoyed it too, so I hope that this may inspire others to try it too!

Two analogies which proved effective in getting over the concept of weathering are:

I. The building materials were likened to a skeleton which, with age, tends to become more brittle and prone to breakdown.

2. A bicycle left out in the rain breaks down by rusting, emphasising the importance of water in the weathering process.

The role play

The children were to imagine themselves as building surveyors who were to make recommendations on repairs to the school buildings.

Preparation

Children received their Surveyars' Training Course which consisted of two parts: firstly, in the classroom, children were shown weathered and unweathered samples for comparison, ideally samples broken open to show the unaltered core. Secondly, a section of wall, carefully chosen to illustrate the effects of such as dampness including the position of damp proof courses, leaky gutters, splashing downspouts etc. plant growth and bird droppings on the location of flaking, cracked or crumbling materials, was used to encourage children to notice associations. Next, children were asked if they could explain why these associations might exist e.g. moss would hold water which could break rocks down in the same way that iron rusts when wet; on a cold wall water could freeze thus expanding to open up cracks; plant roots could force cracks open; organic chemicals could attack rocks e.g. the ammonia from bird droppings attacks limestone; acids from lichens attack all rocks.

The survey

The class was divided into groups, each receiving maps showing compass directions and outlines of the elevations of different buildings chosen according to their age and ability. Children were asked (i) to locate features such as mosses,lichens, leaking gutters and downspouts, damp proof courses, drip moulds over doors and windows in order to focus their attention upon the importance of moisture in weather­ing and (ii) to note any evidence of age of the buildings.

Discussion of results

Children were asked the following questions using appropriate lan­guage

I. Where is weathering least and best developed? Why do you think this is? Note the importance of the direction a wall faces -aspect - here.

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993)

2. Which is the worst and best building material? Why? Consider the age of the buildings.

3. How could weathering be reduced? Which variables could be changed? e.g. leaky gutters, building materials. Which could not be changed? e.g. climate and aspect.

Presentation of findings

Individuals presented a surveyor's report in the form of

i) a written report in the form of (a) a letter to their headteacher or (b) a newspaper article using the computer software 'Front Page Extra', or

ii) an oral report to the class, or iii) maps, diagrams, photos and samples for display, or iv) a trail to show off weathering blackspots on a map.

The Context

The study might form part of a theme such as Buildings / Our Settlement / Materials from the Earth and addresses N.C. Science AT I levels I - 4, AT 6 levels I - 4, + AT9 level 3 and N.C. Geography. P.O.S. KS 2 15(a), 18(d), 18(e), 19(a), 19(b) and using and applying geographical skills. An excellent introduction for KS2 teachers with many other activities is to be found in Exploring Earth Science by C. Creary, S. Pryor & M. Revell (1992) Northants County Council p. 31 - 44. Other useful publications for background and related activities on building materials, though intended for older children are: Science of the Earth Series: Unit I: "Will my Gravestone Last?" and Unit 7: "Neighbourhood Stone Watch" published by E.S.TA and available from Geo supplies 16 Station Road, Chapeltown, Sheffield, S304SH. 'Rocks Around You' Hobsons publishers. p 12 - 13 contains a photocopiable caption - matching exercise suitable for more able I I year olds on town centre buildings. Intermediate Technology's supporters materials 2 1.10.91 contained an interesting practical exercise using a milk bottle to determine the suitability of clay for brickmaking.

More advanced background is to be found in: 'Crumbling Walls', by H. Viles & R. Cooke, p2. in the Geographical Review, Sept. 1991. 'The Impact of Acid Rain on Building Stone' by S. Trudgill, in the Geographical Review, Jan. 1993. The 'Acid Drops' project devised by Watch, 22 The Green, Nettleham, Lincoln is designed for 8 - 13 year olds.

Jane Bayley Trinity College Carmarthen

149

Dulling the Tool of Language

James H, She a

The Editor of our sister publication, the Journal of Geological Education considers the use, and misuse, of words. This article appeared as an Editorial in the May 1993 of that journal (VolA I , No.3).

During the course of carrying out my duties as a Professor of Geology and Editor of this Journal, one of the things I spend a great deal of time doing is reading. I probably spend an average of five to seven hours a day reading one kind of material or another, and one of the problems I encounter is that, like most editors I suppose, I am always very much aware of word meanings, grammar, structure, syntax, and context. Not that I consider myself an authority on any of these topics; I most assuredly am not. But, I do pay close attention to such arcane matters. In fact, even when I am not wearing my Editor's hat, I find myself unconsciously critiquing what I read, and this habit is often a problem because I tend to get frustrated and irritated with sloppy, careless use of the English language. Consider a few exam­ples.

One of the most commonly misused words of recent years in my opinion is the word "quality". Somehow, "quality" seems to have been transformed into an adj'ective as in the following sentences. "What we need is more qua ity candidates for political office." "I only wish we had many more quality students." "If company X builds enough quality cars, they will be able to compete in the world market."

Whenever I read or hear such usage, I always want to ask the perpetrators whether they would be satisfied with low-quality candi­dates, students, or cars. Fortunately, this pattern has not yet been extended to quality'S cousin, "quantity", that is, we don't yet hear people asking for "quantity leaders" or "quantity graduate students." Perhaps, in time we will see laments such as, 'What we need is quantity quality candidates for the Senate," by which we will all be expected to understand that what is meant is that we need large numbers of high-quality candidates for the Senate.

Another common pattern of word usage I have noticed recently is the desire to give certain words extra "punch" or emphasis by teaming them up with prefIXes sucha as "pro" or "co" as in "pro­active" or "co-equal". In both of these instances the prefix adds absolutely nothing of value, since "pro-active" simply means "active" and "co-equal" means nothing more than "equal." The only effect they have is to brand the user as someone who, in attempting to be sophisticated in word usage, has revealed himself or herself as, at best, careless and unthinking.

Another example of this tendency to try to create substance where

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol, 18, pt, 4 (1993)

none exists is the term "distance learning." When I first ran across this term, I thought it referred to instances of students learning about "distance," whatever that might mean, but what it really seems to refer to is learning that takes place at some distance from the source of information, for example, students watching a television lecture or taking part in what we used to simply call "conference calls", either by telephone or through other electronic means. In fact, I am told that there is even a journal devoted to "distance learning," and this gives me an idea. I think I'll submit a paper entitled "The ultimate in efficient, low-cost, random access, environmentally sensitive distance learning completely without electronic aids." The paper will, of course, be about something called "books," a teaching device whose efficacy is increasingly denigrated these days despite its obvious advantages. My students, for example, seem to feel that books are deficient as learning aids because they can't just turn them on, kick back with a beer, and be educated.

Still another of my pet peeves has to do with the negative connota­tion the word "chemicals" has acquired in recent years. There seem to be people who think that all "chemicals" are at least dangerous if not highly toxic. Some time a~o, as I was listening to a NPR (the American National Public Radio) talk show about some environmen­tal issue or other, the guest kept referring to "chemicals" as if they were the bane of human existence and ought to be outlawed. He even went so far as to contrast water and ammonia (which he said were natural and wholesome) with the dreaded noxious "chemicals" which he said were polluting the environment. Many of my students seem to have the same low opinion of "artificial chemicals" inasmuch as they use that term as a synonym for pollutants while waxing poetic about the purity and goodness of "natural materials." Another indicator of the same sort of thinking is the fact that supposedly natural "sea salt" is all the rage among new age cooks these days.

All of a sudden we seem to have lost a hundred and fifty years of chemistry and have regressed to the days when living matter was regarded as having some "vital essence" that was missing from mere artifical materials. How is it possible in the United States in 1993 to be ignorant of the fact that every single material thing is a "chemical" that water, ammonia and oxygen are enormously reactive "chemi­cals", and that in most instances there is no significant difference between natural and artificial samples of the same material.

Words and language are powerful tools, but like most tools, they can be dulled and even disabled by misuse.

James H. Shea University of Wisconsin-Parkside Box NO.2000 Kenosha Wisconsin 53141 U.S.A.

lOO

Tips and techniques

Compiled by Frank Henderson

A clipboard plus

This clipboard cum "data base" should prove valuable to pupil and teacher alike. For the pupil a number of useful field aids are made available in an easily accessible format, and for the teacher there is the reassurance that small items like the grain size card are not as likely to get lost as usual. Add your own refinements and develop a sUitably customised board!

Steve McArdle

ATG CARD

SIDE I

ATG CARD

SIDE 2

PROTRACTOR (PHOTOCOPY)

SCHOOL NAME

DEPT. SERIAL NO.

STRIP OF GRAPH PAPER. COLOUR ON AL TER­NATE I CM SQUARES

CLIPBOARD

A mobile mini-museum

How often have you been with a group looking for fossils on a site with pupils or students who are unsure as to exactly what they might expect to find! Do you help things along by bringing a few examples previously collected, in true "Blue Peter" style! Do you stuff them in a pocket and hope to fish them out when the time arrives! Well, why not consider this idea! A really strong waterproof display unit for mounted specimens can be easily knocked up from the waterproof plastic containers that supermarkets use for small quantities of fruit. SpeCimens can be attached to expanded polystyrene from the same source using bluetack, and the container can be carried around in a rucsac together with hammers, lumps of rock, etc. and will survive rough usage.

Based on an idea by Anton Kearsley

EST A ANNUAL COURsEAND CONFERENCE

BIRMINGHAM 1994 The 1994 Annual Course and Conference will be held at Birmingham University on the 16th-18th September, with Dr A.T. Thomas and Dr D.J. Gobbett (Solihull 6th Form College) as co-convenors. Derek Gobbett will be organising the programme, while Alan Thomas will deal with exhibitions and all organisational and financial matters. The theme of the meeting will be The E.arth Sciences in Society.

It is anticipated that keynote lectures and will be published in the ESTA journal. Contributors to workshops are also invited to submit short summaries for publication when these are suitable.

The closing date for bookings and payment for the Conference will be the 31 st July 1994. Booking forms will be circulated in Volume 19, part one of Teaching Earth Science (anticipated in late January - February 1994).

Please address any enquiries to: Dr A.T. Thomas (ESTA Conference) School of Earth Sciences University of Birmingham Edgbaston Birmingham BI5 2TI Tel.021-414-4178 (direct line); 6751 (secretary).

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt, 4 (7993) 151

NEWS

Talking Science+

Can you give an interesting, lively talk on a science or technology subjectl If you have experience as a public speaker and would like to communicate your ideas on science or technology or engineering or economics of the history of science or, in fact, on any subject which could fall under the broadest definition of the word science, then the British Association would like to hear from you.

The British Association is administering a COP US initiative to set up a national database of speakers on science and technology. The scheme is currently funded by the Department of Trade and Industry and is intended for anyone looking for a speaker for an informal community group or it could be from the organiser of an interna­tional conference.

If you would be willing to have your details added to the Talking Science+ database please send your name and address to Jane Mole at the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Fortress House, 23 Savile Row, London WIX lAB (Tel. 071-494-1658).

Dinosaur Stamps

Look out for a recent set of stamps from Canada, honouring Cana­dian dinosaurs. This set forms the third of a four-year series on Canadian prehistory, and includes Massopondylus, the only dinosaur known to have lived in eastern Canada, Albenosaurus, a carnivore slightly smaller than the well known T. rex, Styracosaurus, a relative of Triceratops, and Platecarpus, a mososaur. The Canadian National Philatelic Centre, Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada B2G 2R8 (T el. 902-863-6550) has more details. Both Australia and New Zealand are also issuing dinosaur stamps.

Taking a school party to Germany?

The German Youth Hostel Association (DJH) has just issued an attractive brochure Taking School Parties to Germany. This features 45 of the 640 German hostels, offering overnight, and two to seven day packages. Some of the hostels are in mountainous regions, such as Meinerzhagen in Westphalia, and Clausthal-Zellerfeld on the upper Harz plateau. Some information is given on excursions and sightsee­ing from each hostel, although geological possibilities are not specifi­cally mentioned, with the exception of some caves and mining and mineral museums. Seven days full board costs typically just over DM200. The brochure is obtainable free of charge from the YHA, Trevelyan House, 8 St. Stephen's Hill, St. Albans, Herts AL I 2DY (TeI.0727-845047), or from Deutsches Jugendherbergswerk PO Box 1455, D 32704 Detmold, Germany (Tel. 01049-5231-740146).

Youth Hostel Schools Packages in England and Wales

Hard on the heels of the German brochure described above comes a similar publication, Groups Away, from the Youth Hostels Association for England and Wales (St. Albans address given above). Hostels are listed by area, quoting size and price, and the availability of classroom (meeting room or field study facilities), leaders' rooms and grounds available for games. The educational resource material for each area is highlighted, providing essential information for planning a trip. Packages offering an inclusive price for transport, itinerary planning and booking are also available, with free planning visits offered to those taking full board groups of ten or more.

A separate leaflet describes the YHA's two activity centres, at Edale in the Peak District National Park and Llangollen in North Wales. Both offer a wide range of multi-activity programmes, with all-

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt. 4 (7993)

inclusive prices for three, five and seven day programmes available throughout the year.

From now until 15th March 1994, groups of ten people or more can stay in the comfort of Rotherhithe YHA and Conference Centre situated just one mile from Tower Bridge, for only £ I 0.50 bed and breakfast per person per night!

Discounted prices are also available for groups taking half or full board at £ 14.00 and £ 15.50 respectively. What's more, one FREE place for every ten people will be given to groups taking advantage of the full board option.

For further information please contactJo Dollimore, telephone 0727 855215. For reservations please contact Rotherhithe YHA and Conference Centre, telephone 071 2322114 or fax 071 2372909.

The Met. Office

It was good to see a Met. Office stand at the Leeds conference. The Office provides an educational service, with a range of teaching and reference material for use in schools. Items available include curriculum-linked resource packs, wallcharts and leaflets. Metfax is a s,ervice .of dial-up weather information for schools and colleges. ThiS prOVides surface charts, weather reports, satellite pictures and news, facts and information, available to any school with a Fax machine. Much of this information is updated at frequent intervals: for example the Meteosat pictures are updated three times a day, and the plotted map of weather reports for the UK every three hours. To receive further details write to Met. Office Education, Sutton House, London Road, Bracknell, Berks, RG 12 25Y.

On Wenlock Edge

Much Wenlock Museum has a new geological exhibition "On Wenlock Edge". . Dr. Jane Me, the Curator recently appointed to South Shropshire Museums, has succeeded in creating an exciting experi­ence whereby the structure and geological evolution of Wen lock Edge unfolds literally before one's eyes. A simple mechanism tilts the formations and, at the turn of a knob, removes the overlying strata to reveal the present day configuration. Complementing this, a hands­on display o~ Siluria~ ~os~ils toge.ther with a model of a contempora­neous sea gives a VIVid Impression of the Silurian environment. In addition, in this are~ of the exhibition a wide range of fossils is displayed together With examples of different formations of the area. The exhibition moves on to show the effect of the limestone on the vegetation, and man's exploitation of the limestone over the years. [Fro.m a r~port by.Susan Beale, of the Shropshire Geological Society, published In the Circular of the Geologists ASSOciation.]

Chatterley Whitfield Mining Museum

This, Britain's first e~er mining muse~m, closed at the beginning of August, due to finanCial problems. It IS hoped that a rescue deal will be forthcoming.

RIGS Exposure

Our last ~hree issues .hav~ contained articles describing a new cat­egory o,f slte.of geo!oglcallmportance: RIGS, or Regionally Important Geological slte~. ~/gs Exposure is a new periodical, sponsored by the ~SNC, The Wildlife Trusts Partnership and the Geologists' Associa­tion, ,:",hl~h covers matters related to the designation of RIGS, the organisation of RIGS groups, news and educational matters. Write fo~ copies to the RSNC, The Wildlife Trusts Partnership, The Green, Wltham Park, Waterside South, Lincoln LN5 7JR.

152

Natural Science Collections in the Midlands of England

The Register of Natural Science Collections in the Midlands of England (edited by Graham Walley) is a new 320 page publication published by the All Midlands Collections Research Unit. It records over 2,000 collections in both public and private hands. The Register is a huge information resource for all of those engaged in research in both the natural environment and on the collectors themselves, taking the form of an attractive loose-leaf A4 binder allowing for easy updating and annotation. The information is presented in eight cross-refer­enced indices to cater for every conceivable line of enquiry.

The Register costs £27(incl. p+p; overseas £40, payment in sterling). and is obtainable from the West Midlands Area Museums Service. Hanbury Road. Stoke Prior. Bromsgrove B60 4AD.

CD-ROM: Geography - the Physical World

Interactive Learning Productions. of North Street Court. North Street East. Newcastle upon Tyne NE I BHD. is producing an interac­tive multimedia CD-ROM on the above subject. They would like to

LETTER

ESTA - the initials

John Collins writes: Your recent note in our journal reminded me of the debate the last time a change of name was made. I was a member of council when this was discussed. I pointed out that another teacher organisation was already called ESTA. The suggestion I made at the time was BRITISH EARTH SCIENCE TEACHERS (BEST). I liked it then. I still like it. it is much more saleable. Be one of the BEST. I am one of the BEST etc. I leave others to decide on the merits of BEST but it is certainly catchy.

To advertise in this journal

Telephone Andy Dickinson on 051-424-9358

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993)

hear from anyone who could provide information and photographs to illustrate the programme.

The disc, which is being written for the 11-16 year age group, will present the student with a series of case studies from around the world. Each will focus on one or more aspect of physical geography and will explain the origin of the landscape and the interaction of people with it. Using text, photographs. video. maps illustrations and animations they hope to produce a programme that is more stimulat­ing than traditional methods of teaching. Contact Neil Thurman if you feel that you could help.

International Educational Information on CD­ROM

A new CD-ROM release provides. for $900. unprecedented access to the literature of education in Great Britain, Australia and Canada. It comprises the British Education Index back to 1976, and the British Education Theses Index back to 1950. together with the Australian and Canadian equivalents: a total of 21.000 references. About 4.000 records will be added at each quarterly update. Enquiries to Philip Sheffield. British Education Index. Brotherton Library, University of Leeds. Leeds LS2 9JT.

B.Sc. Honours Degree in EARTH SCIENCE

Geology and Physical Geography combine in a study of the Earth's environments and resources.

The modular degree scheme offers each

student a broad spectrum of options in

Earth Science and other complementary

and contrasting subjects, giving the flexibility to structure a degree course of their choice.

Further details from:-

Neil Bowden, Earth Science,

Liverpool John Moores University,

Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF.

\~: ~~LiverpOOI John Moores University

153

REVIEWS

TITLE Biofacts and Spacefacts

BY Susan Goodman

DATE OF PUBLICATION 1993

PUBLISHER Oxford University Press

ISBN Spacefacts 0 19 910277 5 Biofacts 0 19 9102767

PRICE Softback £3.99

NO. PAGES 160

These two books contain, as their titles would suggest, a wealth of fascinating factual information which is organised thematically.

Biofacts is divided into three unequal parts: 'Human Body'; 'Animals' and 'Plants and Fungi'. Each of these is sub-divided into sections of between two and four pages with a heading under which there are about one to five short, snappy 'bullet' paragraphs which give the factual information in an easily accessible, but mature, style. Some of this information is of the type which any well informed person might have at their fingertips but much is of a more obscure or esoteric type, however it all makes interesting and stimulating reading.

Spacefacts is divided into 'Solar System'; 'Stars'; 'Space Travel' and 'Star Gazing'. Each is appropriately organised into sub-headings and again these are very well illustrated with excellent photographs and diagrams. For example, under 'Jupiter' there are photographs taken by Voyager I in addition to three pages of factual information which is presented in a very concise form. (At the equator of Jupiter you would be spinning at 28,400 mpht)

They are not the sort of books which can be used for standard reference because the information is not organised with structured learning in mind and it is not easy to predict much of what is included under each heading. For example, if we look up 'elephants' then we are told how to distinguish between African and Asian sub-species, given data about size and weight, diet, teeth, digestion, age before weaning and senses. Interesting nuggets of information which will help with quizzes, but will be of less help with GCSE revision. These would make excellent presents for those who revel in facts and knowledge; those who enjoy reading 'The Guinness Book of Records', for example. Such people would dip into these books at random and always find something of interest.

Most pages contain either high quality photographs or clear diagrams to illustrate the item and although there may be a few errors, such as describing the final stage of digestion as "excretion", at £3.99 these small attractive books must be a bargain.

John A Fisher Bath University

Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 18, pt. 4 (1993)

TITLE Landcare for kids

DATE OF PUBLICATION 1989

PUBLISHER Dept. of Conservation, Forests and Lands, 240 Victoria Parade, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia.

PRICE 10 Australian dollars and postage from Australia

NO. PAGES 4 x A4 booklets of 48,40, 32 + 28 pages (flexicover), 3 colourful freizes for infants and an audio tape of 10 songs.

This package of resources for primary children is considered ex­tremely good value and a highly inspired and inspiring means of teaching about soil and sustainable agriculture and its links with earth science. It was produced as part of the highly successful Australian movement, 'Landcare'. It is fun to use: children love the highly instructive songs with words such as "so save your kitchen food scraps, don't put them in the bin, develop a "sense of Humus" and the many activities suggested. The Teachers' Guide acts as an effective reference and, although there needs to be some selection of materi­als to match the needs of our National Curriculum, this is relatively easy to do because of the extensive use of matrices. Other minor points to consider relating to its Australian origin are the occasional need to translate words e.g. 'chook' for chicken, and 'grade' for class, and the need to use some different examples of introduced pests and native species in the 'Aliens from Other Lands' activity.

I hope that the use of this resource might help to contribute to the success of the recent initiative taken by the SA.F.E. Alliance (Sustain­able Agriculture, Food and Environment*) to launch the LANDCARE movement in Britain. Maybe we can manage to take action to help halt soil degradation before it threatens agricultural welfare as seri­ously as it has in Australia?

*The SAFE Alliance, 38 Ebury Street, London SW I W OLU. Tel: 071 8235660. Fax: 071 8235673.

Jane Bayley Lecturer in Geology and Geography Trinity College of Higher Education Carmarthen

154

Earth Science Teachers' Association THEMATIC TRAILS

GEOLOGY AND THE BUILDINGS OF OXFORD Paul Jenkins A walk through the city of Oxford is likened to visiting an open-air museum. Attention is drawn to the variety of building materials both ancient and modern, used in the fabric of the city. Discussion of their suitability, durability, susceptibility to pollution and weathering, mainte­nance and periodic replacement is raised. 44 pages, 22 illustrations, ISBN 0 948444 09 6 Thematic Trails (1988) £1.95

GEOLOGY AT HARTLAND QUAY Chris Comford& Alan Childs

In a short cliff-foot walk along the beach at Hartland Quay, visitors are provided with a straightforward explanation of the local rocks and their history. Alternative pages provide a deeper commentary on aspects of the geology and in particular provides reference notes for examining the variety of structures exhibited in this dramatic location. 40 pages, 47 illustrations, ISBN 0 948444 126 Thematic Trails (1989) £1.95

THE CLIFFS OF HARTLAND QUAY Peter Keene Interpreting the shapes of coastal landforms is introduced as a method of understanding something of the environmental history of this dramatic coastal landscape. A short walk following the coastal path to the south of Hartland Quay puts this strategy into practice. 40 pages, 24 illustrations. ISBN 0 948444 05 3 Thematic Trails (1990) £1.95

STRAWBERRY WATER TO MARSLAND MOUTH Peter Keene

A short cliff-top walk between the small but spectacular coastal coombes of Welcome Mouth and Marsland explains what beaches, streams and valley sides can tell us of the history of this coastal landscape. 40 pages, 24 illustrations, ISBN 0 948444 06 I Thematic Trails (1990) £1.95

VALLEY OF ROCKS; L YNTON Peter Keene & Brian Pearce The drama of the valley is explored both by offering explanation for the spectacular scenery and by recalling its theatrical setting as seen through the eyes of those who have visited the valley in the past. 44 pages, 35 illustrations, ISBN 0 948444 25 8 Thematic Trails (1990) £1.95

THE CLIFFS OF SAUNTON Chris Cornford & Peter Keene

I n a short cliff-foot walk along the beach at Saunton, visitors are prOVided with an explanation for the local rocks that make up the cliff and the shore. Alternative pages provide a deeper commentary on aspects of the geology and a chance on the return walk to reconstruct the more recent history of this coast by a practical examination of the cliff face. 44 pages, 30 illustrations, ISBN 0 948444 24 X Thematic Trails (May 1993) £1.95

INTERPRETING PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS Peter Keene A field interpretation guide for beginners. A simple teaching model using an adapted graphic log sheet. Of wide general educational application, but designed for use with the following trails: Westward Ho! Coastal Landscape Trail', Valley of Rocks, Lynton', 'The Cliffs of Saunton', 'Strawberry Water to Marsland Mouth', 'Prawle Peninsula Landscape Trail' and 'Burrator Dartmoor Landform Trail' 10 pages, 10 illustrations Thematic Trails (1993 edition) £1.00

MENDIPS New Sites for Old; a student's gUide to the geology of the east Mendips. This guide gives a detailed description of 39 safe, accessible sites chosen for their educational potential. 192 pages, 46 illustrations, ISBN 086139 319 8 (NCC 1985) £4.50

MALVERN H ILLS; a student's guide to the geology of the Malverns. D. W. Bullard (1989)

The booklet includes detailed description of 21 geological sites of interest in the area. 73 pages, 3 I illustrations, ISBN 086139 548 4 (NCC) £4.00

WENLOCK EDGE; geology teaching trail M. J. Harley (1988) Six sites suitable for educational fieldwork are described and suitable exercises outlined. 22 pages, 15 illustrations. ISBN 086139 403 8 (NCC) £1.50

BURRATOR. DARTMOOR LAND FORM TRAIL Peter Keene & Mike Harley (1987)

An interactive circular 6 mile walk exploring the evolution of tor and valley scenery on Dartmoor. 21 pages, 12 illustrations. ISBN 086139 385 6 (NCC) £ 1.50

THE ICE AGE IN CWM IDWAL. The Ice Age invested Cwm Idwal with a landscape whose combination of glaciological, geological and floristic elements is unsurpassed in mountain Britain. Cwm Idwal is readily accessible on good paths within a few minutes walk of the modern AS route through Snowdonia. 22 pages, 16 illustrations, ISBN 0951 11754 8 Addison Landscape Publications (1988) £2.65

SNOWDON IN THE ICE AGE Ken Addison illustrates and interprets the evidence left by successive glaciers on and around Snowdon itself - the last of which melted only 10,000 years ago - in a way which brings together the serious student of the Quaternary Ice Age, and the interested inquisitive visitor. 30 pages, 18 illustrations, ISBN 0 9511175 4 8 Addison Landscape Publications (1987) £2.85

THE ICE AGE IN Y GL YDERAU AND NANT FFRANCON Ice in the last main glaCiation in Wales carved the glacial highway of Nant Ffrancon through the heart of Snowdonia so boldly as to ensure its place amongst the best known natural landmarks in Britain. The phenomena is explained in a way that is attractive to both specialist and visitor alike. 30 pages, 20 illustrations, ISBN 0 951 I 175 3 X Addison Landscape Publications (1988) £2.85

LONDON. ILLUSTRATED GEOLOGICAL WALKS. BOOK I (The City) Adds to the well-known Pevsner accounts of the buildings of the City of London by offering comment upon the rock types used in familiar City streets. Maps set out the route clearly. No previous knowledge of geology is assumed. 98 pages, 98 photographs. 14 maps, ISBN 07073 0350 8 Geologists' Association (1984) £4.95

LONDON. ILLUSTRATED GEOLOGICAL WALKS. BOOK 2 (The West End) A wide range of exotic rock types are found in the shop fronts of Piccadilly, T ottenham Court Road and the office blocks of Central London. Again no previous knowledge of geology is assumed. 142 pages, 128 photos, 16 maps, ISBN 0 7073 0416 4 Geologists' Association (1985) £4.95

ORDERS TO: Colin Ross, 4 Wyvern Gardens, Dore, Sheffield S 17 3PR . • Officl,ll ord"r, will bp invoiced .• Cheque, ;md postal orders ,hould bp nlold,' pdy.lbl, to ESTA PronlOtloll' •

Key Stage 3 Science of the Earth 11-14 Units have been devised to introduce Earth Science to pupils at Key Stage 3 level as part of their National Curriculum studies in Science and Geography.

Each Unit occupies about one double period of teaching time and the Units are sold as 3-Unit packs. Units that are available now are:-

GW: Groundwork - Introducing Earth Science GWI - Found in the Ground GW2 - Be a Mineral Expert GW3 - Be a Rock Detective

LP: Ufe from the Past - Introducing Fossils LP I - Remains to be seen LP2 - A well-preserved specimen LP3 - A fate worse than death - fossilization!

ME: Moulding Earth's Surface - Weathering, Erosion and Transportation ME I - Breaking up rocks ME2 - Rain, rain and rain again ME3 - Landshaping

PP: Power from the past: coal (a full colour poster is available with this Unit for a p & P charge of £ 1.15 (inc. VA 1) please indicate if you do not require this. pp I - Coal swamp PP2 - Layers and seams PP3 - 'Unspoiling' the countryside

He: Hidden changes in the Earth: introduction to metamor­phism HC I - Overheated HC2 - Under Pressure HC3 - Under Heat and Pressure

M: Magma - introducing igneous processes M I - Lava in the lab. M2 - Lava landscapes M3 - Crystallising magma

SR: Secondhand rocks: Introducing sedimentary processes SR I - In the stream SR2 - Blowing hot and cold SR3 - Sediment to rock, rock to sediment

BM: Bulk constructional minerals BM I - What is our town made of? 8M2 - From source to site BM3 - Dig it - or not?

FW: Steps towards the rock face - introducing fieldwork FW I - Thinking it through FW2 - Rocks from the big screen FW3 - Rock trail

ES: Earth's surface features ES I - Patterns on the Earth ES2 - Is the Earth cracking up? ES3 - Earth's moving surface

E: Power source: oil and energy El - Crisis in Kiama - which energy source now? E2 - Black gold - oil from the depths E3 - Trap - oil and gas caught underground

WG: Water overground and underground WG I - Oasis on a desert island-the permeability problem WG2 - Out of Sight, out of mind? - waste disposal and ground water pollution WG3 - The dam that failed

I £3.25 each (post free) I

EARTH SCIENCE

TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION

Key Stage 4

Science of the Earth Units are designed to introduce Earth sciences to all in the upper secondary school and as such fill a void in present publishing. The Units cover material in Science in the National Curriculum, mainly Attainment Target 3.

The following are available only as 5-unit, bound sets.

Unit I: Unit 2: Unit 3: Unit 4:

Unit 5:

Unit 6: Unit 7: Unit 8: Unit 9: Unit 10:

Unit 11: Unit 12: Unit 13: Unit 14: Unit 15:

Unit 16:

Unit 17: Unit 18:

Will my gravestone last! Earthquakes - danger beneath our feet Fluorspar - is it worth mining! Building sedimentary structures - in the lab and millions of years ago Waste - and the hole-in-the-ground problem

Nuclear Waste - The way forward! Neighbourhood stone watch Moving ground Ground water supplies: A modern Jack & Jill story Astrogeology - and the clues on the Moon

The Water Cycle Which roadstone! The geological time scale Temperatures and pressures in the earth Rock Power! - Geothermal energy resources

The Earth's patchwork crust - an introduction to plate tectonics Cool It! Liquid magma to solid rock Salts of the Earth

Unit 19: The day the Earth erupted - volcanoes Unit 20: 5.0.5. - Save our sites: Earth Science Conserva­

tion in Action

I £ I 0.50 per set (post free) I for Key Stage 3

A Teachers' Guide to the 'Science of the Earth' Approach

£1.00

Please note - to claim ESTA member prices on the above items, you must enclose a copy of this advertisement or an ESTA order form, or simply mention your ESTA membership.

ORDERS TO: Gpo SlIppllP~ Ltd., 16 St;ltlon RO;ld, Ch;lppltown. Shpfflt-'Id S30 4XH. T"I: (0742) 455746 • Officl.tI ord,'r, will btc' InV()ICt'd .• ChpqLlP~ ;lnd pu~t;ll urdpr~ ~hullld bp m.ld,' p.IY,lblt, to Gpo SlIppllP~ Ltd.

Earth Science Teachers' Association N.B. All items are posted free of charge.

GRAIN SIZE SCALE Plastic cards specially printed for ESTA (6 x 9 cm credit card size). They show grains from coarse sand down to silt.

30p each 20p each for 20 to 99 copies 100 copies or more £ 15 1000 copies £ 100

FILM STRIPS (These are available as unmounted strips)

I. METAMORPHIC ROCKS by Con Gillen 24 frames. showing metamorphic terrains. rocks and photomicrographs of metamorphic rocks and minerals . £4.50 per unmounted strip

2. GEOLOGY FROM SPACE (PLATE TECTONICS) 12 frames of satellite imagery from NASA and USGS showing aspects of plate tectonics as viewed from space. The notes that accompany the strip were written by Steve Flitton and include annotated sketches of the frames which are copyright free for class use. £3.50 per unmounted strip .

POSTCARDS

I. GEOLOGY OF THE LAKE DISTRICT (21 x 16cm) 40p each. 10 or more 30p each .

2. THE FLOOR OF THE OCEANS (14 x 9cm) miniature version of wall map. 25p each. 10 or more 20p each.

3. BUILDING STONES A set of 16 postcards depicting building or ornamental stones to be found in towns and cities throughout the country. All at natural size. £3.50

BOOKLETS & WORKSHEETS

I. SAFETY IN EARTH SCIENCE FIELDWORK Guideline notes on fieldwork leadership. Recommendations of the ESTA Fieldwork Committee. £1.00.

2. DOWN TO EARTH IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL Some ideas to assist in the delivery of the Earth Science component of the National Curriculum. A selection of recent items published in "Teaching Earth Sciences". £3.25.

3. LET'S LOOK AT CHINA CLAY, published by MIMCU . Masses of information. could be used from Primary to A-level. The pack consists of 42 worksheets, a pupil resource book and a teacher's guide. £5.00.

4. LET'S LOOK AT SAND, published by MIMCU . Masses of information could be used from primary to A level' A companion to "Let's look at China Clay". It consists of 65 worksheets. a pupil resource book and a teacher's guide. £5 .00.

5. DOWN TO EARTH: Earth Science and the National Curriculum KS I An easy to use handbook aimed at KS I. It highlights the Earth Science components of the National Curriculum and shows how they can be integrated into topic themes for infants. £9.00

187 250 375 500 2 1

750 1000 1500 2000.um 0 .5 0 - 1 phi

Fme Sand Medium Sand Coarse Sand V Coarse IGranules

6, HOW THE EARTH WORKS: Earth Science at the National Curriculum KS3. Designed to help the busy science teacher. with no special expertise, deliver the Earth Science component of the National Curriculum. £ 12.50

7. EXPLORING EARTH SCIENCE: Earth Science Activities for Key Stages I & 2. Price £ 15 .00.

8. EARTH SCIENCE EDUCATION FORUM DIRECTORY A directory for school teachers implementing the Earth Science component of the National Curriculum. Published jointly by the Geographical Association and the Geological Society. Regular price 0 .50. ESTA members price £5.00

9. PLANET EARTH: Usborne Science and Experiments. A practical introduction to Earth Science and Physical Geography suggesting many activities and projects. Price: £4.50

MAPS AND WALLCHARTS

I. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN published by the Geological Society of London The chart consists of a full colour tectonic map of Britain and the surrounding seas and twenty small block diagrams showing the detailed structure of specific areas . (Size approx. 106 x 87 cm) . £3.50 for folded chart

2. GEOTHERMAL MAP OF THE UNITED KINGDOM published by BGS UsefUl for Unit 15 - Rock Power This coloured chart consists of a map (scale I: 1.500.000) showing the geothermal potential of the UK along with annotations describing the major sites and projects. Size approx. 80 x 80 cm. £4.00 per folded mop

l. THE FLOOR OF THE OCEAN published by Marie Tharp UsefUl for Unit 16 - Earth's patchwork crust and forthcoming 11-14 Unit -Earth's surface features. Specially imported by EST A from the USA. Printed on laminated paper, a superb map shOWing the relief featues of the ocean floor in graphic detail. £ 14. 00 per rolled mop.

4. LE PUYS VOLCANOES (AUVERGNE) Published by the French Bureau of Geology and Mines and the Auvergne Volcanoes Regional Park. UsefUl for 11- 14 unit - Magma. A folded geological map of the region a~ I: 25.000 scale colourfully illustrates the volcanic sites - £9.00. An accompanying sheet of 16 postcards has been cut into 4-A4 sized sheets for easier mailing - £5 .00. Set of mops and photos - £ /3.00

5. THE GEOLOGICAL COLUMN Published by Manchester Museum . This six panel colour leaflet covers plant and animal evolution. plate tectonic processes. orogenic activity and palaeoclimates (mainly with reference to Britain) as well as giving the estimated duration of the periods. Seventh revised edition '1992 - £: 1.20

ORDERS TO: Colin Ross, 4 Wyvern Gardens, Dore, Sheffield S 17 3PR . • Official orders will be invoiced .• Cheques and postal orders should be made payable to ESTA Promotions.