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Techniques and Concepts of High-Energy Physics XII
Techniques and Concepts of High-Energy PhysicsXII
NATO Science SeriesA Series presenting the results of scientific meetings supported under the NATO ScienceProgramme.
The Series is published by IOS Press, Amsterdam, and Kluwer Academic Publishers in conjunctionwith the NATO Scientific Affairs Division
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The NATO Science Series continues the series of books published formerly as the NATO ASI Series.
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Advanced Study Institutes are high-level tutorial courses offering in-depth study of latest advancesin a field.Advanced Research Workshops are expert meetings aimed at critical assessment of a field, andidentification of directions for future action.
As a consequence of the restructuring of the NATO Science Programme in 1999, the NATO ScienceSeries has been re-organised and there are currently Five Sub-series as noted above. Please consultthe following web sites for information on previous volumes published in the Series, as well as details ofearlier Sub-series.
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Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry – Vol. 123
Techniques and Conceptsof High-Energy Physics XII
edited by
Harrison B. ProsperFlorida State University,Tallahassee, Florida
and
Michael DanilovITEP,Moscow, Russia
Springer-Science+Business Media, B. V.
Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute onTechniques and Concepts of High-Energy Physics XIISt. Croix, Virgin Islands, U.S.A.13–24 June 2002
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved© 2003 Springer Science
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmittedin any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exceptionof any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being enteredand executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
+Business Media Dordrecht Academic Publishers in 2003
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2003
ISBN 978-1-4020-1591-5 ISBN 978-94-010-0076-5 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-94-010-0076-5
Originally published by Kluwer
Contents
Preface
THE STANDARD MODEL AND THE TOP QUARK
Scott Willenbrock
xi
1
1
2
3
4
5
Introduction
The Standard Model
Virtual Top Quark
Top Strong Interactions
Top Weak Interactions
1
2
11
17
26
NEUTRINO PHYSICS
M. C. Gonzalez- Garcia
1 Lecture 1: Neutrino Masses
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Standard Model of Massless Neutrinos
1.3 Introducing Massive Neutrinos
1.3.1 Dirac and Majorana Neutrino Mass Terms
1.4 Lepton Mixing
1.5 Direct Determination of m.,
2 Lecture 2: Neutrino Oscillations
2.1 Neutrino Oscillations in Vacuum
2.2 Laboratory Searches for Oscillations
2.2.1 Short Baseline Experiments at Accelerators
2.2.2 Disappearance Experiments at Reactors
2.2.3 Long Baseline Experiments at Accelerators
2.3 Neutrinos in Matter: Effective Potentials
2.4 Evolution in Matter: Effective Mass and Mixing
2.5 Adiabatic and Non-adiabatic Transitions
3 Lecture 3: Solar and Atmospheric Neutrinos
3.1 Solar Neutrinos
3.1.1 Experiments
3.1.2 The Solar Neutrino Problem
3.1.3 Oscillations in Vacuum and in Matter: MSW Effect
3.1.4 Two-Neutrino Oscillation Analysis
3.2 Atmospheric Neutrinos
3.2.1 Two-Neutrino Oscillation Analysis
3.2.2 vp, --t Ve
3.2.3 vp, --t Vr and vp, --t Vs
43
43
43
45
464749
50
52
52
555658
59596062
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71
72
7478828484
89
vi
THE SUPERSYMMETRIC UNIVERSE
John Ellis
1 Getting Motivated 89
1.1 Defects of the Standard Model 89
1.2 The Electroweak Vacuum 91
1.3 Why Supersymmetry? 92
1.4 What is Supersymmetry? 93
1.5 (S)Experimental Hints 96
2 Simple Models 96
2.1 Deconstructing Dirac 96
2.2 Simplest Supersymmetric Field Theories 98
2.3 Further Aspects of Supersymmetric Field Theories 102
2.4 Building Supersymmetric Models 104
3 Towards Realistic Models 108
3.1 Supersymmetry Breaking 108
3.2 Supergravity and Local Sup ersymmetry Breaking 110
3.3 Effective Low-Energy Theory 111
3.4 Sparticle Masses and Mixing 114
3.5 The Lightest Supersymmetric Particle 116
3.6 Supersymmetric Higgs Bosons 118
4 Phenomenology 120
4.1 Constraints on the MSSM 120
4.2 Benchmark Supersymmetric Scenarios 123
4.3 Prospects for Discovering Supersymmetry 123
4.4 Searches for Dark Matter Particles 130
5 Lepton Flavour Violation 132
5.1 Why Not? 132
5.2 Neutrino Masses and Mixing in the Seesaw Model 133
5.3 Renormalization of Soft Supersymmetry-Breaking Pa-rameters 139
5.4 Exploration of Parameter Space 140
5.5 Leptogenesis 141
5.6 Flavour-Violating Decays of Charged Leptons 144
5.7 Lepton Electric Dipole Moments 148
6 Concluding Remarks 150
WEIGHING THE UNIVERSE
lames Rich
VII
159
1
2
Introduction
1.1 Baryons
1.2 Cold Dark Matter
1.3 Photons
1.4 Neutrinos
1.5 The Vacuum
1.6 The total density fhDark Matter
2.1 Wimps
2.2 Axions
2.3 Baryonic Dark Matter
159
162
163
168
168
172
175
175
177
179
181
COSMOLOGY, INFLATION AND THE PHYSICS OF NOTHING 189
William H. Kinney
1 Introduction 189
2 Resurrecting Einstein's greatest blunder. 190
2.1 Cosmology for beginners 190
2.2 Einstein's "great est blunder" 194
2.3 Critical density and the return of the age problem 198
2.4 The vacuum in quantum field theory 201
2.5 Vacuum energy in cosmology 203
3 The Cosmic Microwave Background 206
3.1 Recombination and the formation of the CMB 206
3.2 Sachs-Wolfe Effect 212
3.3 Acoustic oscillations and the horizon at last scattering 212
4 Inflation 215
4.1 The flatness problem 216
4.2 The horizon problem 216
4.3 Inflation 218
4.4 Inflation from scalar fields 221
4.5 Density fluctuations from inflation 223
4.6 The primordial power spectrum 225
4.7 Inflationary zoology and the CMB 227
5 Looking for signs of quantum gravity in inflation 232
6 Conclusion 241
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SILICO N DETECTORS 245Alan Honma
1 Int rodu ct ion 245
2 Silicon St rip Detector Principles of Operation 2462.1 T he p-n J unction (Diode) 2462.2 Properties of the Deplet ion Region 2472.3 Charge Collection 2482.4 Double-sided Detectors 2492.5 Leakage Currents, Breakdown, Defects 249
3 Silicon Strip Detector Performance 2513.1 Position Resolution 2513.2 Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N) 252
4 Radiation Damage to Silicon Devices 2534.1 Damage from Ionization Energy Loss 2534.2 Non-ionizing Energy Loss (NIEL) 253
5 Silicon Sensor Fabrication 2565.1 Silicon Crystal ("ingot") Production 2565.2 Wafer Processing 2575.3 Final Steps 259
6 Construction of Detector Modules 2606.1 Mechanical Support Structure (Frame) 2606.2 Sensor Design Choices 2616.3 Module Dront-end Electronics and Connectivity 261
7 Front-end Electronics 2627.1 Choice of Front-end Chip Design 2627.2 Choice of Hybrid Circuit Technology 2637.3 Connectivity Technology 264
8 Silicon Detectors in Experiments 2658.1 A Recent Silicon Strip Detector: CLEO at CESR 2668.2 An LHC Silicon Strip Detector: CMS 267
9 Other Types of Silicon Detector 2679.1 Silicon Pixel Devices 2679.2 Silicon Pad Devices 2699.3 Silicon Drift Devices 270
10 Conclusions 270
IX
GASEOUS DETECTORS: THEN AND NOW 273
Archana Sharma
1 Int roduct ion and Historical Overview 273
2 Single Wire Proportional Chamber (SWPC) 275
2.1 Primary and Total Ionization 275
3 Multiwire Proportional Chambers 290
3.1 Principle of Operation 290
3.2 Performance of a Position Sensitive MWPC 293
3.3 Read-out Methods of the MWPC 295
3.3.1 Charge division with a resistive anode wire 295
3.3.2 Resistivity coupled cathode strips and wires 295
3.3.3 Strip cathode 296
3.3.4 Wedges and strip cathode 297
3.3.5 Chevron Pads 299
3.4 Simple Derivat ives of the MWPC 299
4 Drift and Diffusion of Charges in Gases Under the Influence ofand Electric Field 301
4.1 Magnetic Field, B=O 301
4.2 B n eq 0, Electric Field Parallel to Magnetic Field 306
5 Large Volume Tracking 309
5.1 Drift Chambers (DC) 309
5.2 Time Projection Chamber (TPC) 314
5.2.1 Effect of Pollutants and Contaminants on Drift 319
5.2.2 Pad Response Function 319
5.2.3 Measurement Accuracy of TPCs 321
5.2.4 Positive Ion Feedback Problem and Distortions: Gating 323
5.2.5 Signal Weighting Field: Computations for ComparingDifferent Readout 326
5.3 Gaseous Detector Aging 330
6 Limitations in Wire Chambers and Future Perspectives 335
NUCLEI AT THE BORDERLINE OF THEIR EXISTENCE 341
Yu. Ts. Oganessian
1 Int roduct ion 342
2 Nuc1ear Shells and the Stability of Heavy Elements 345
3 Reactions of Synthesis 348
4 Strategies of Experiments and Experimental Equipment 350
x
5
6
7
8
9
Index
Experiments Devoted to the Synthesis of Superheavy Nuclei48Ca + 244pu Reaction 355
Experiments with the 248Cm_target. Synthesis of Element 116 358
Even-odd Isotopes. Experiments with 238U and 242pu 362
Comparison with Theoretical Predictions 369
Consequences and Prospects 372
377
PARTICIPANTS 381
Preface
The twelfth Advanced Study Institute (ASI) on Techniques and Concepts of High Energy Physics was held at the Hotel on the Cay in St .Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands in June 2002. The Institute attracted 11lecturers and 42 advanced PhD students and recent PhD recipients inexperimental particle physics from 14 different countries. The scientificprogram covered a broad sweep of topics that are expected to remain ofinterest for many years to come. The topics in this volume complementthose in earlier volumes (published by Kluwer) and should be of interestto many physicists.
The main financial support for the Institute was provided by theScientific Affairs Division of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) . The Institute was eo-sponsored by the U.S. Department ofEnergy (DOE), the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) ,the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) , the Florida State University (FSU) - Offices of the Provost and the Dean of Arts and Sciences ,the Department of Physics and the FSU High Energy Physics Group- and the Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics (ITEP,Moscow).
We thank the students for their part in making this ASI a success andthe lecturers for their hard work in preparing lectures, enthusiasticallydelivered, and for effectively engaging the students in discussion. Wethank those who contributed the splendid manuscripts. We acknowledge, and are thankful for, the sound advice we received from the members of our Advisory Committee, whose names are listed in the back ofthe volume. We thank Gavin Nesom and Diane Weikal for organizingthe pleasant , and civilized , wine tasting evening, Yildirim Mutaf for organizing the excellent student presentations and Zandy-Marie Hillis ofthe United States National Park Service for her fascinating descriptionof the marine life and geology of St. Croix.
We thank Pat Rapp for support from the United States Department ofEnergy. We thank Kathy Mork , the Institute Secretary, for her tirelesseffort in keeping track of the numerous details we forgot and Marion
xii
Hazlewood for her hospitality, and that of her staff, at the Hotel onthe Cay, as well as Earl Powell at the King Christian Hotel. HurchellGreenaway and his staff worked hard to keep us fed and entertained. Wethank him heartily.
Finally, we thank Dr . Fausto Pedrazzini for his patience and strongsupport and the NATO Division of Scientific Affairs for their cooperationand support.
HARRISON B. PROSPER
MI CHAEL DANILOV
