THE BREAKDOWN OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
From Oligarchy to Empire
In this book, Christopher S. Mackay recounts the last century of the Roman Republic in a readable narrative treatment. Within this narrative he analyzes the breakdown of the traditional Republican form of government as a result of the administrative and political crises brought about by the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean basin in the Middle Republic. He also shows how the many reforms instituted by Augustus, which effectively created the new imperial form of government, were a reaction to the failings of the Republic. Illustrated with an extensive collection of coin images that document the changes in contemporary political ideology, this volume also focuses on the political significance of the key personalities, includ-ing Marius, Sulla, and Caesar, who played a large role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic.
Christopher S. Mackay is a professor in the Department of History and Classics at the University of Alberta.
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THE BREAKDOWN
OF THE ROMAN
REPUBLIC
FROM OLIGARCHY TO EMPIRE
Christopher S. MackayUniversity of Alberta
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-51819-2 - The Breakdown of the Roman Republic: From Oligarchy toEmpireChristopher S. MackayFrontmatterMore information
cambridge university pressCambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo
Cambridge University Press32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, ny 10013-2473, usa
www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521518192
© Christopher S. Mackay 2009
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2009
Printed in the United States of America
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication dataMackay, Christopher S., 1962–
The breakdown of the Roman republic : from oligarchy to empire / Christopher Mackay.
p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.isbn 978-0-521-51819-2 (hardback)1. Rome – History – Republic, 265–30 b.c. 2. Rome – Politics and government – 265–30 b.c. I. Title.dg254.m25 2009973 .05–dc22 2008048943
isbn 978-0-521-51819-2 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-51819-2 - The Breakdown of the Roman Republic: From Oligarchy toEmpireChristopher S. MackayFrontmatterMore information
Kelliae meae
coniugi atque adiutrici
optime de me merenti
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-51819-2 - The Breakdown of the Roman Republic: From Oligarchy toEmpireChristopher S. MackayFrontmatterMore information
vii
Abbreviations page ixMaps xi
Introduction 1
1 Historical Background 10
2 Tribunate of Ti. Gracchus 36
3 Tribunates of C. Gracchus 58
4 Numidia, Senatorial Failures, and the Rise of C. Marius 84
5 Ascendancy of C. Marius 100
6 The Italian Allies, M. Livius Drusus, and the Social War 118
7 Sulla, Marius, and Civil War 134
8 Roman Territorial Expansion before the First Mithridatic War 147
9 First Mithridatic War 161
10 Sulla’s Victory in Civil War 173
11 Sulla’s Settlement 185
12 The 70s b.c.: Attacks on the Sullan Regime and the Rise of Pompey 196
13 Third Mithridatic War, War with the Pirates, and the Ascendancy of Pompey 210
14 The 60s b.c.: Rome in the Absence of Pompey 222
Contents
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viii
– Contents –
15 Consulship of Cicero 229
16 Consulship of C. Caesar 238
17 Caesar in Gaul 252
18 Last Decade of the Free Republic 263
19 Civil War and Caesar’s Victory 285
20 Caesar’s Domination and Assassination 304
21 Turmoil after the Ides of March 315
22 Struggle of the Warlords 337
23 Final Showdown 351
24 The Augustan Settlement and the “Restored” Republic 362
Epilogue 397
Appendix: Roman Nomenclature 405Chronology 413Suggestions for Further Reading, Ancient and Modern 421Bibliography 433Index 435
Illustrations of Roman coinage follow page 294.
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-51819-2 - The Breakdown of the Roman Republic: From Oligarchy toEmpireChristopher S. MackayFrontmatterMore information
ix
BMCRR: Grueber, Coins of the Roman RepublicOGIS: Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones SelectaeRRC: Crawford, Roman Republican CoinageRS: Crawford, Roman Statutes
Abbreviations
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-51819-2 - The Breakdown of the Roman Republic: From Oligarchy toEmpireChristopher S. MackayFrontmatterMore information
BRITAIN
IRELAND
GALLIACOMATA
(58)
NEARERSPAIN(197)
FURTHERSPAIN(197)
NARBONENSIS(CA. 120)
CISALPINEGAUL
(CA. 80)
AL P S
S A H A R A
SARDINIA(227)
CORSICA
SICILY(227)
CRETE(67)
EGYPT(30)
SYRIA(64)
CYRENAICA(74)
AFRICA(146) CYPRUS
(ANNEXED TOCILICIA, 57)
CILICIA (CA. 102)
GALATIA (25)
MACEDONIA(146)
PANNONIA)61(
ASIA(133)
BITHYNIA AND PONTUS
ILLYRICUM(59)
(64)
liN
e
Danube
Rhine
English Channel
Baetis
Maeander
Don
Black Sea
RedSea
CaspianSea
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
A T L A N T ICO C E A N
0 250 500 kilometers
0 250 500 miles
Map 1. Major Provinces
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-51819-2 - The Breakdown of the Roman Republic: From Oligarchy toEmpireChristopher S. MackayFrontmatterMore information
0 50 100 kilometers
0 50 100 miles
SARDINIA
CORSICA
SICILY
A
L
PS
CISALPINE
GAUL
UMBRIA
ETR
URI A
PI C
EN
I U
M
PAELIGN I
VESIT
IN
M ARRUNIC
I
NERF-T
NAI
SAMNITES
MARSI
AILUPA
LUCANIA
BU
RT
TUI
M
CALABRIA
LATIUM
IL
LY
RI
CU
M
TyrrhenianSea
IonianSea
M e d i t e r r a n e a nS e a
A
d r i a t i cSe a
FucineLake
Tiber
Po
Rubicon
AFRICA
Rome
BovillaeSacriportus
MinturnaeTeanum Sidicinum
PuteoliMisenum Mt. Vesuvius
Ostia
Brundisium
Tarentum
Syracuse
CarthageUtica
Ancona
Ariminum
Asculum
Corfinium
Praeneste
Velitrae
Arpinum AeserniaBorianum
Beneventum
Grumentum
Naulochus
AusculumVenatrumFregellae
Bononia
Luca
Mutina
Vercellae
Perugia
Clusium
Volaterrae
Naples
NolaCapua
Map 2. Italy
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-51819-2 - The Breakdown of the Roman Republic: From Oligarchy toEmpireChristopher S. MackayFrontmatterMore information
0 100 200 kilometers
0 100 200 miles
M e d i t e r r an
ea
n
Se a
ATLANTICOCEAN
NorthSea
Adr i at i c Sea
English Channel
Loire
Seine
Rhine
Elbe
SARDINIA
Corsica
HELVETII
PANNONIA
GAULCISALPINE
ITALY
AE
DU
I
LLA
SEGORBO
NUMIDIAAFRICA
TRIPOLITANIA
S A H A R A
MAURETANIA
S P A I N
G A U L
G E R M A N Y
BRITAIN EA
GL
EB
CELTIBERI
SU
LT
IA
IN
SICILY
BAL EARI C I S.
AL P S
QA UIINAT
ILLYRI CUM
Rome
Syracuse
Cirta
Brundisium
Carthage
Utica
ThapsusHadrumentum
TarentumNaples
Arausio
Narbo Martius
Numantia
Massilia
Vercellae
Gergovia
AquaeSextiae
TeutoburgForest
Uxellodunum
Tolosa
Munda
VENETI
Danube
Map 3. Western Europe
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Map 4. Greece and the Near East
0 50 200 kilometers
0 50 200 miles
BALKANS
C A U C A S U S
CYPRUS
CRETE
C Y R E N A I C A
A R A B I A
AEOBUE
RHODES
JUDAEA
ITALY
THRACE
MACEDONIA
THESSALY
LYCIA
ISA
A
IRUASI
APELOPONNESUS
EPI RU
S
C I L I C I AP
AMPHYLIA
AIGYRHP
CAPPADOCIAASIA MINOR
BITHYNIA
AITaLAG
syria
ARMENIAPONTUS
NORTHMESOPOTAMIA
P A R T H I A / P E R S I AM
ES
OP
OT
AM
IA
MEDIA
C O L C H I S
PAPHLYGONIA
Crimea
PH
OE
NI C
IA
I LLYR I CUM
Lemnos
Lesbos
Delos
CnidosLaodiceaRhodes
Mytilene
B l a c k S e a
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
aeScitai
rdA
R e dS e a
P e r s i a nG u l f
Ca
s
pi a
nS
ea
Euphrates
Tigris
Oro
nte
s
Nil e
Tyre Damascus
Antioch
CarrhaeNisibis
Tigranocerta
Cabira
Zela
Heraclea
AncyraCyzicus
Brundisium
Tarentum
NicopolisActium
Dardanus
Philippi
Sparta
Pharsalus
Athens
Pergamum
Apollonia
Dyrrhacium
ThyatiraPitane
Smyrna
Byzantium Dastira/Nicopolis
Phraaspes
Ctesiphon
Seleucia
JerusalemCyrene
Alexandria
Danube
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Aegean Sea
IonianSea
AmbracianGulf
CopiacLake
LEMNOS
EUBOEA
CORCYRA
BO EOT I A AT
TI
CA
T HE S S A L Y
MA
CE
DO
NI A
Corinth
Megara
Chaeronea
Pharsalus
Philippi
Orchomenos
Sparta
Methone
NicopolisActium
Piraeus
Patrae
Athens
Eleusis
0 50 100 kilometers
0 50 100 miles
P E L O P O N N E S O S
Map 5. Greece
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-51819-2 - The Breakdown of the Roman Republic: From Oligarchy toEmpireChristopher S. MackayFrontmatterMore information
THE BREAKDOWN OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
From Oligarchy to Empire
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-51819-2 - The Breakdown of the Roman Republic: From Oligarchy toEmpireChristopher S. MackayFrontmatterMore information