Nov. 2018Price : ` 100
Volume 2Issue 11
IMF Appoints Gita Gopinath
as Chief Economist
Stories
EnvironmentScience and Technology
Mapping India
Human�HistoryHealth FoodHealth Tips
Akbar-Birbal Tales
Panchatantra Tales
Hitopadesha Tales
of Sportsof Frenchof MusicHISTORY
The Universe
Culture of India
Sports – International
The 2018 ITTF Men's World Cup was a table tennis
competition held in Paris, France, from 19 to 21
October 2018. It was the 39th edition of the ITTF-
sanctioned event, and the third time that it was staged
in Paris.
2018 ITTF Men's World Cup
In total, 20 players qualified for the World Cup:
l 18 players from the five Continental Cups held
during 2018
l A host association representative
l A wild card, selected by the ITTF
A maximum of two players from each association
could qualify. As reigning World Champion, China's
Ma Long was invited to take part, but withdrew prior to
the event. His place was taken by Lin Gaoyuan.
Final:
Fan Zhendong, China defeated Timo Boll, Germany
11-9, 11-5, 11-6, 9-11, 11-8
Australia and Pakistan are currently touring the
United Arab Emirates between 29 September 2018
and 28 October 2018. The teams engaged in 2 Test
Matches and 3 Twenty20 Internationals. Pakistan won
the Test matches 1-0, with the first Test drawn.
The Scores:
First Test: Match Drawn
Pakistan: First Innings: 482 all out, Mohammad
Hafeez 126 (208), Haris Sohail 110 (240), Peter Siddle
29-11-58-3.
Australia: First Innings: 202 all out, Usman Khawaja
85 (175), Aaron Finch 62 (161), Bilal Asif 21.3-7-36-6.
Pakistan: Second Innings: 181/6 declared, Imam-ul-
Haq 48 (104), Asad Shafiq 41 (56), Jon Holland 20-3-
83-3.
Australia: Second Innings: 362/8, Usman Khawaja
141 (302), Travis Head 72 (175), Yasir Shah 43.5-9-
114-4.
Australia and Pakistan tour
of United Arab Emirates
Second Test: Pakistan won by 373 runs.
Pakistan: First Innings: 282 all out, Sarfraz Ahmed 94
(129), Fakhar Zaman 94 (198), Nathan Lyon
27-5-78-4.
Australia: First Innings: 145 all out, Aaron Finch 39
(83), Mitchell Starc 34 (45), Mohammad Abbas 12.4-
4-33-5.
Pakistan: Second Innings: 400/9 declared, Babar
Azam 99 (171), Sarfraz Ahmed 81 (123), Nathan Lyon
43-8-134-4.
Australia: Second Innings: 164 all out, Marnus
Labuschagne 43 (78), Travis Head 36 (53),
Mohammad Abbas 17-2-62-5.
05
Sports – International
2018 Summer Youth Olympics
The 2018 Summer Youth Olympic Games, officially
known as the III Summer Youth Olympic Games, and
commonly known as Beunos Aires 2018, were an
international sports, cultural, and educational event
held in Beunos Aires, Argentina between 6 and 18
October 2018. They were the first Summer Youth
Olympic Games held outside of Asia, also first in the
Southern and Western Hemispheres, and the first
Youth Games for either summer or winter held outside
Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total
Total 240 241 263 744
2Russia 18 12 591
18 China 9 9 362
15Japan 12 12 39 3
13Mixed NOCs 13 13 39-
12 Hungary 7 5 244
11Italy 10 13 345
7Iran 3 4 146
6UAE 5 7 187
5France 15 7 278
Medal Table:
29
5Ukraine 7 6 189
108Remaining 136 166 41011-93
Eurasia. It was the second Olympic Games held in
South America after the 2016 Summer Olympics in
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
2018 World Taekwondo Grand Prix
The 2018 World Taekwondo Grand Prix is the 6th edition of the World
Taekwondo Grand Prix series. This is the first year where it will be five
Grand Prix events. The results of the Manchester Grand Prix:
Men 58Kg:
GOLD SILVER BRONZE
Armin Hadipour, Iran Kim Tae-hun, South Korea Adrian Vicente, Jesus Tortosa, Spain
Men 68Kg:
Lee Dae-hoon, South Korea Mirhashem Hosseini, Iran Si Mohamed Ketbi, Belgium
Bradly Sinden, Great BritainMen 80Kg:
Raul Martinez, Spain Damon Sansum, Great Britain Seif Eissa, Egypt
Nikita Rafalovich, Uzbekistan
Men +80Kg:
Vladislav Larin, Russia In Kyo-don, South Korea Sajjad Mardani, Iran
Sun Hongyi, China
Men
06
Sports – International
Women 49Kg:
GOLD SILVER BRONZE
Sim Jae-young, South Korea Hung Yu-Ting, Chinese Taipei
Jade Jones, Great Britain Zhou Lijun, China
Women 67Kg:
Lauren Williams, Great Britain Matea Jelic, Croatia
Women +67Kg:
Zheng Shuyin, China Bianca Walkden, Great Britain
Skylar Park, Canada
Raheleh Asemani, Belgium
Victoria Tamez, Mexico
Nur Tatar, Turkey
Maria Espinoza, Mexico
Gao Pan, China
Women
Women 57Kg:
Panipak Wongpattanakit, Thailand
Miyu Hamada, Japan
England is touring Sri Lanka
between 5 October 2018 and 27
November 2018. Both the teams
will engage in 5 One Day
Internationals, 3 Test Matches,
and 1 Twenty20 International.
England is leading the One Day
International series 3-0 with the
first match concluding with No
Result.
The Score:
First One Day International: The
match was abandoned after 15
overs were bowled to England
due to rain. Hence, the match
concluded with No Result.
Second One Day International:
England won by 31 runs by
Duckworth-Lewis Method
England: 278/9, Eoin Morgan 92
(91), Joe Root 71 (83), Lasith
Malinga 10-1-44-5.
Sri Lanka: 140/5 in 29 overs,
Thisara Perera 44 (49) not out,
Dhananjaya de Silva 36 (50) not
out, Chris Woakes 5-0-26-3.
Third One Day International:
England won by 7 wickets (match
reduced to 21 overs per side due
to rain).
Sri Lanka: 150/9, Niroshan
Dickwella 36 (20), Sadeera
Samarawickrama 35 (34), Adil
Rashid 5-0-36-4.
England: 153/3 in 18.3 overs,
Eoin Morgan 58 (49) not out,
Jason Roy 41 (26), Amila Aponso
3.3-0-27-2.
Fourth One Day International:
England won by 18 runs by
Duckworth-Lewis Method
Sri Lanka: 273/7, Dasun Shanaka
66 (66), Niroshan Dickwell 52 (70),
Moeen Ali 10-0-55-2.
England: 132/2 in 27 overs, Jason
Roy 45 (49), Joe Root 32 (57) not
out, Akila Dananjaya 7-0-27-2.
Sri Lanka vs England 2018, 1st ODI, Dambulla
England Tour of Sri Lanka 201807
The Pakistan Women team toured Bangladesh
between 2 October 2018 and 8 October 2018. The
two teams engaged in 1 One Day International and 4
Twenty20 Internationals. The One Day International
was won by Bangladesh, whereas Pakistan won the
Twenty20 Internationals 3-0, with the first match
abandoned due to rain. The scores:
First Twenty20 International: Abandoned due to
rain, without toss.
Second Twenty20 International: Pakistan won by 58
runs, the match was reduced to 14 overs per side due
to wet outfield.
Pakistan: 88/5, Javeria Khan 25 (18), Nahida Khan 18
(18), Nahida Akter 3-0-19-2.
Bangladesh: 30 all out in 12.5 overs, Rumana Ahmed
9 (12), Anam Amin 3-3-0-3.
Sports – International
Pakistan Women Tour
of Bangladesh 2018
Third Twenty20 International: Pakistan won by 7
wickets.
Bangladesh: 81/8, Nigar Sultana 19 (29), Rumana
Ahmed 12 (9), Nashra Sandhu 4-0-16-2.
Pakistan: 85/3 in 18.1 overs, Nahida Khan 33 (40),
Javeria Khan 31 (37) not out, Rumana Ahmed
4-0-10-1.
Fourth Twenty20 International: Pakistan won by 7
wickets.
Bangladesh: 77 all out, Rumana Ahmed 24 (31),
Fahima Khatun 14 (15), Natalia Pervaiz 4-0-20-3.
Pakistan: 78/3 in 14.5 overs, Javeria Khan 36 (29),
Muneeba Ali 18 (23) not out, Salma Khatun
2.5-0-13-1.
Only One Day International: Bangladesh won by 6
wickets.
Pakistan: 94 all out in 34.5 overs, Javeria Khan 29
(46), Ayesha Zafar 18 (36), Khadija Tul Kubra 9.5-1-
20-6.
Bangladesh: 95/4 in 29 overs, Fargana Hoque 48
(81), Rumana Ahmed 34 (70), Sana Mir 8-1-20-2.
Pakistan won the Twenty20 Internationals 3-0
The United States Grand Prix is a motor race that has
been held in the United States on and off since 1908,
when it was known as the American Grand Prize. The
race later became part of the Formula One World
Championship. As of 2017, the race has been held 47
times, and it has taken place at 10 different locations
in total. Since 2012, it has been held every year at the
Circuit of the Americas in Elroy, Texas, 12 miles south
of Austin.
Lewis Hamilton held the pole position. Kimi
Raikkonen of Ferrari won the race, followed by Max
Circuit of the Americas 2018
Kimi Raikkonen of Ferrari won the race
Verstappen of Red Bull Racing – TAG Heuer, followed
by Lewis Hamilton, Mercedes.
08
Sports – International
West Indies cricket team is currently touring India
between 29 September 2018 and 11 November 2018.
The two teams will engage in 5 One Day
Internationals, 2 Test Matches, and 3 Twenty20
Internationals. Of these, India won the Test series 2-0.
India is leading the One Day Internationals 1-0.
The scores:
First Test: India won by an innings and 272 runs.
India: First Innings: 649/9 declared, Virat Kohli 139
(230), Prithvi Shah 134 (154), Ravindra Jadeja 100
(132) not out, Devendra Bishoo 54-3-217-4.
West Indies: First Innings: 181 all out, Roston Chase
53 (79), Keemo Paul 47 (49), Ravichandran Ashwin
11-2-37-4.
West Indies Tour of India 2018
India won the Test series 2-0
West Indies: Second Innings: 196 all out, Kieran
Powell 83 (93), Roston Chase 20 (24), Kuldeep Yadav
14-2-57-5.
Second Test: India won by 10 wickets.
West Indies: First Innings: 311 all out, Roston Chase
106 (189), Jason Holder 52 (92), Umesh Yadav 26.4-
3-88-6.
India: First Innings: 367 all out, Rishabh Pant 92
(134), Ajinkya Rahane 80 (183), Jason Holder 23-5-
56-5.
West Indies: Second Innings: 127 all out, Sunil
Ambris 38 (95), Shai Hope 28 (42), Umesh Yadav
12.1-3-45-4.
India: Second Innings: 75 for no loss, Prithvi Shah 33
(45), Lokesh Rahul 33 (53), Roston Chase 4-0-14-0.
First One Day International: India won by 8 wickets.
West Indies: 322/8, Shimron Hetmyer 106 (78),
Kieran Powell 51 (39), Yuzvendra Chahal 10-0-41-3.
India: 326/2 in 42.1 overs, Rohit Sharma 152 (117)
not out, Virat Kohli 140 (107), Devendra Bishoo
10-0-72-1.
New Zealand women team toured Australia between
29 September 2018 and 5 October 2018. The two
teams engaged in 3 Twenty20 Internationals.
Australia won the series 3-0. The scores:
First Twenty20 International: Australia won by 6
wickets.
New Zealand: 162/5, Katey Martin 56 (34) not out,
Sophie Devine 43 (33) Ashleigh Gardner 3-0-22-2.
Australia: 164/4 in 17.4 overs, Rachael Haynes 69
(40) not out, Meg Lanning 56 (44), not out, Sophie
Devine 4-0-31-2.
Second Twenty20 International: Australia won by 6
wickets.
New Zealand: 145/8, Suzie Bates 77 (52), Amy
Satterthwaite 27 (19), Megan Schutt 4-0-15-3.
New Zealand Women Tour of Australia 2018
Australia: 149/4 in 18.5 overs, Alyssa Healy 57 (41),
Elyse Villani 50 (39) not out, Sophie Devine 4-1-26-1.
Third Twenty20 International: Australia won by 9
wickets.
New Zealand: 103 all out in 19 overs, Katey Martin 35
(34) not out, Amy Satterthwaite 14 (17), Ellyse Perry
4-0-21-4.
Australia: 105/1 in 12.3 overs, Alyssa Healy 67 (44),
Beth Mooney 29 (28) not out, Sophie Devine 3-0-14-1.
09
Sports – International
Zimbabwe Tour of South Africa 2018Zimbabwe toured South Africa between 30
September 2018 and 14 October 2018. Both
countries engaged in 3 One Day Internationals and 3
Twenty20 Internationals. South Africa won the One
Day Internationals 3-0 and the Twenty20
Internationals 2-0. The last Twenty20 International
was abandoned without a ball being bowled.
The scores from the second One Day International
onwards that were played in October are:
Second One Day International: South Africa won by
120 runs.
South Africa: 198 all out in 47.3 overs, Dale Steyn 60
(85), Aiden Markram 35 (49), Tendai Chatara
9-1-42-3.
Zimbabwe: 78 all out in 24 overs, Hamilton
Masakadza 27 (40), Donald Tripano 12 (16) not out,
Imran Tahir 6-1-24-6.
Third One Day International: South Africa won by
4 wickets.
Zimbabwe: 228 all out in 49.3 overs, Sean Williams
69 (79), Brendan Taylor 40 (44), Dale Steyn
9.3-1-29-3.
South Africa: Reeza Hendricks 66 (82), Heinrich
Klaasen 59 (67), Donald Tiripano 9-0-35-2.
South Africa won the ODI 3-0 and the Twenty20 Internationals 2-0.
First Twenty20 International: South Africa won by
34 runs.
South Africa: 160/6, Rassie van der Dussen 56 (44),
David Miller 39 (34), Kyle Jarvis 4-0-37-3.
Zimbabwe: 126 all out in 17.2 overs, Peter Moor 44
(21), Brandon Mavuta 28 (14), Imran Tahir 4-0-23-5.
Second Twenty20 International: South Africa won
by 6 wickets.
Zimbabwe: 132/7, Sean Williams 41 (28), Brendan
Taylor 29 (35), Robbie Frylinck 4-0-20-2.
South Africa: 135/4 in 15.4 overs, Jean-Paul Duminy
33 (26) not out, Quinton de Kock 26 (23), Sean
Williams 3-0-25-2.
The South African Women team toured West Indies
between 16 September 2018 and 6 October 2018.
The two teams engaged in 3 One Day Internationals,
and 5 Twenty20 Internationals. The One Day
International series was a draw resulting in 1-1, with
the second match abandoned due to rain and
concluding in No Result. The Twenty20 International
series was a draw resulting in 2-2, with the third match
South Africa Women Tour of West Indies 2018
being abandoned
without even a
toss due to rain.
T h e l a s t t w o
T w e n t y 2 0
I n t e r n a t i o n a l s
were played in
October 2018.
The scores:
Fourth Twenty20 International: South Africa women
won by 8 wickets.
West Indies: 135/3, Natasha McLean 57 (61) not out,
Deandra Dottin 28 (15), Tumi Sekhukhune 4-0-27-2.
South Africa: 136/2 in 18.4 overs, Lizelle Lee 54 (38),
Laura Wolvaardt 54 (57) not out, Afy Fletcher
4-0-12-1.
Fifth Twenty20 International: South Africa women
won by 3 wickets.
West Indies: 155/5, Hayley Matthews 70 (52),
Shemaine Campbelle 28 (17), Saarah Smith 2-0-24-2.
South Africa: 156/7, Lizelle Lee 42 (24), Chloe Tryon
31 (22), Shamilia Connell 3.5-0-20-2.
10
Sports – International
Australia Women and Pakistan Women Tour of Malaysia 2018
Australia women and Pakistan women are touring
Malaysia between 18 October 2018 and 29 October
2018. The two teams will engage in 3 One Day
Internationals and 3 Twenty20 Internationals.
Australia won the One Day International series 3-0.
The scores:
First One Day International: Australia won by 5
wickets by Duckworth-Lewis Method. The match was
reduced to 41 overs per side due to rain and the target
set at 92.
Pakistan: 95 all out in 37.2 overs, Javeria Khan 21
(27), Sana Mir 21 (60) not out, Megan Schutt
7.2-4-17-3.
Australia: 95/5 in 22.2 overs, Alyssa Healy 26 (26),
Rachael Haynes 24 (34), Sana Mir 7-0-26-3.
Second One Day International: Australia won
by 150 runs.
Australia: 273/7, Meg Lanning 124 (106), Rachael
Haynes 79 (82), Nashra Sandhu 10-1-54-3.
Pakistan: 123 all out in 40.1 overs, Nahida Khan 66
(114), Sophie Molineux 9-2-14-4.
Third One Day International: Australia won by
89 runs.
Australia: 324/7, Alyssa Healy 97 (75), Ashleigh
Gardner 62 (37) not out, Sana Mir 10-2-53-3.
Pakistan: 235/7, Aliya Riaz 51 (69), Sidra Ameen 41
(74), Ashleigh Gardner 10-1-44-3.
Australia won the One Day International series 3-0
Japanese Grand Prix 2018
for 20 years and gained a reputation as one of the
most challenging F1 circuits. In 1994 and 1995,
Japan also hosted the Pacific Grand Prix at the T1
Circuit, making Japan one of only seven countries to
host more than one Grand Prix in the same season,
the others being Great Britain, France, Spain,
Germany, Italy, and the United States of America. In
2007, the Grand Prix moved back to the newly
redesigned Fuji Speedway. After a second race at Fuji
in 2008, the race returned to Suzuka in 2009, as part
of an alternating agreement between the owners of
Fuji Speedway and Suzuka Circuit, perennial rivals
Toyota and Honda. However, in July 2009, Toyota
announced it would not host the race at Fuji
Speedway in 2010 and beyond due to a downturn in
the global economy, and so the Japanese Grand Prix
was held at Suzuka instead. Suzuka has hosted the
Japanese Grand Prix every year since 2009.
Lewis Hamilton of Mercedes held the pole position
and won the race. He was followed by Valtteri Bottas
of Mercedes, followed by Max Verstappen.
11
The Japanese Grand Prix 2018 is a race in the
calendar of the FIA Formula One World
Championship. Historically, Japan has been one of
the last races of the season, and as such, the
Japanese Grand Prix has been the venue for many
title-deciding races, with 13 World Champions being
crowned over the 30 World Championship Japanese
Grands Prix that have been hosted. Japan was the
only Asian nation to host a Formula One race until
Malaysia joined the calendar in 1999.
The first two Formula One Japanese Grands Prix in
1976 and 1977 were held at the Fuji Speedway before
Japan was taken off the calendar. It returned in 1987
at Suzuka, which hosted the Grand Prix exclusively
Current Affairs - National
AICTE to Establish Country’s First Training
and Learning Academy
All India Council for
Technical Education
(AICTE) will establish
I n d i a ’ s f i r s t A I C T E
Training and Learning
Academy (ATAL) in Jaipur,
Rajasthan. This academy will
provide upgraded teaching methods and
modules to make technical education more effective
and accountable.
Three more ATAL academies will come up at
Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala), Guwahati (Assam),
and Baroda (Gujarat) by 2019. Faculties of technical
education will be trained on an eight-module course
in these academies over a period of five months. The
training will be mandatory for new teachers from 2019
onwards, and it will be necessary for existing teachers
and assistant teachers to apply for promotions. The
respective State Governments have provided
infrastructure and land for the setting-up of these
academies.
AICTE is a statutory body established in November
1945. It comes under the aegis of the Department of
Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resources
Development. It is a national-level council for
technical education and is responsible for planning
and coordination of technical education, and
management of the education system in India. It
accredits graduate and post-graduate programmes
at Indian institutions. It is headquartered in New Delhi.
Sikkim was awarded the UN Food and Agriculture
Organisation’s (FAO) Future Policy Gold Award (Gold
Prize) for its achievement in becoming the world’s
first totally organic agriculture state. Sikkim was one
among 51 nominees from around the world. Policies
from Brazil, Denmark, and Quito (Ecuador) were
jointly awarded Silver Prize.
The prize honours exceptional policies adopted by
political leaders who have decided to act, no longer
accepting widespread hunger, poverty, or
environmental degradation. This award is nicknamed
the “Oscar for best policies”. Previously, it was
awarded for policies combating desertification,
violence against women and girls, nuclear weapons,
and pollution of the oceans. This year’s award was
based on the central theme of agro-ecology policies
and was co-organised by FAO, World Future Council
(WFC), and IFOAM – Organics International. Agro-
ecology has potential to increase farmers’ earnings
and make farms more resilient to climate change as
erratic rainfall and extended dry periods hamper food
production.
Sikkim is the first organic State in the world and all
Sikkim world's First Organic State
farmlands in the state are certified organic. Sikkim’s
policy approach reaches beyond organic production
and has proven transformational for its citizens. It
primarily focusses on socio-economic aspects such
as consumption and market expansion, cultural
aspects as well as health, education, rural
development, and sustainable tourism.
The policy implemented by the state has phased out
chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and achieved total
ban on sale and use of chemical pesticides within the
state. The transition has benefitted more than 66,000
farming families in the state.
Transition to 100 percent organic state also greatly
benefits the tourism sector and the number of tourists
have increased by
over 50 percent
between 2014 and
2017 . W i th th i s
Sikkim has set an
excellent example for
other Indian states to
successfully upscale
agro-ecology.
17
Cambodia
Cambodia is a Southeast Asia nation whose
landscape spans low-lying plains, the Mekong Delta,
mountains and Gulf of Thailand coastline. Phnom
Penh, its capital, is home to the art deco Central
Market, glittering Royal Palace, and the National
Museum's historical and archaeological exhibits. In
the country's northwest are the ruins of Angkor Wat, a
massive stone temple complex built during the
Khmer Empire.
Cambodia, officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a
country located in the southern portion of the Indo-
China peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is 1,81,035
Central Market in Phnom Penh
square kilometres in area, bordered by Thailand to
the northwest, Laos to the northeast, Vietnam to the
east, and the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest. The
sovereign state of Cambodia has a population of over
15 million. The official religion is Theravada
Buddhism, practised by approximately 95 percent of
the population. The country's minority groups include
Vietnamese, Chinese, Chams, and 30 hill tribes. The
capital and largest city is Phnom Penh, the political,
economic, and cultural centre of Cambodia. The
kingdom is an elective constitutional monarchy with a
Norodom Sihamoni, King of Cambodia
18
monarch, currently Norodom Sihamoni, chosen by
the Royal Throne Council as head of state. The head
of government is the Prime Minister, currently Hun
Sen, the longest serving non-royal leader in
Southeast Asia, ruling Cambodia since 1985. In 802
AD, Jayavarman II declared himself king, uniting the
warring Khmer princes of Chenla under the name
“Kambuja”. This marked the beginning of the Khmer
Empire, which flourished for over 600 years, allowing
successive kings to control and exert influence over
much of Southeast Asia and accumulate immense
power and wealth. The Indianised kingdom facilitated
the spread of first Hinduism, and then, Buddhism to
much of Southeast Asia and undertook many
religious infrastructural projects throughout the
region, including the construction of more than 1,000
temples and monuments in Angkor alone. Angkor
Wat is the most famous of these structures and is
Royal Palace as seen from acros Tonle Sap River
Cambodia Sculptures
designated as a World Heritage Site. After the fall of
Angkor to Ayutthaya in the 15th century, a reduced
and weakened Cambodia was then ruled as a vassal
state by its neighbours. In 1863, Cambodia became a
protectorate of France, which doubled the size of the
country by reclaiming the north and west from
Thailand.
Cambodia gained independence in 1953. The
Vietnam War extended into the country with the US
bombing of Cambodia from 1969 until 1973.
Following the Cambodian coup of 1970, which
installed the right-wing pro-US Khmer Republic, the
deposed king gave his support to his former
enemies, the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge
emerged as a major power, taking Phnom Penh in
1975 and later, carrying out the Cambodian genocide
from 1975 until 1979, when they were ousted by
Vietnam and the Vietnamese-backed People's
Republic of Kampuchea, supported by the Soviet
19
Union in the Cambodian-Vietnamese War (1979 – 91).
Following the 1991 Paris Peace Accords, Cambodia
was governed briefly by a United Nations Mission
(1992 – 93). The UN withdrew after holding elections
in which around 90 percent of the registered voters
cast ballots. The 1997 factional fighting resulted in the
ousting of the government by Prime Minister Hun
Sen, and the Cambodian People's Party, who remain
in power as of 2018.
Cambodia is a member of the United Nations since
1955, ASEAN, the East Asia Summit, the WTO, the
Non-Aligned Movement, and La Francophonie.
According to several foreign organisations, the
country has widespread poverty, pervasive
corruption, lack of political freedom, low human
development, and a high rate of hunger. Cambodia
has been described by Human Rights Watch's
Southeast Asian Director, David Roberts, as a
“vaguely communist free-market state with a
relatively authoritarian coalition ruling over a
superficial democracy”. While per capita income
remains low compared to most neighbouring
countries, Cambodia has one of the fastest growing
economies in Asia, with growth averaging 7.6 percent
over the last decade. Agriculture remains the
dominant economic sector, with strong growth in
textiles, construction, garments, and tourism leading
Cardamom Mountains rain forests
Cambodia has an area of 1,81,035 square kilometres
and lies entirely within the tropics, between latitudes
10 degrees and 15 degrees North, and longitutes 102
degrees and 108 degrees East. It borders Thailand to
the north and west, Laos to the northeast, and
Vietnam to the east and the southeast. It has a 443-
kilometre coastline along the Gulf of Thailand.
to increased foreign investment and international
trade. The American World Justice Project's 2015
Rule of Law Index ranked Cambodia 76 out of 102
countries, similar to other countries in the region.
Country: Kingdom of Cambodia
Capital and largest city: Phnom Penh
Motto: Nation, Religion, King
Anthem: Majestic King
Official Language: Khmer
Government: Unitary dominant-party parliamentary elective constitutional monarchy
King: Norodom Sihamoni
Prime Minister: Hun Sen
President of the Senate: Say ChhumLegislature: Parliament
Population 2008 Census: 1,33,95,682
Currency: Riel (KHR)
20
Cambodia's landscape is characterised by a low-
lying central plain that is surrounded by uplands and
low mountains and includes the Tonle Sap (Great
Lake) and the upper reaches of the Mekong River
delta. Extending outward from this central region are
transitional plains, thinly forested and rising to
elevations of about 650 feet above sea level.
To the north, the Cambodian plain abuts a sandstone
escarpment, which forms a southward-facing cliff
stretching more than 200 miles from west to east and
rising abruptly above the plain to heights of 600 to
1,800 feet. This cliff marks the southern limit of the
Dangrek Mountains.
Flowing south through the country's eastern regions
is the Mekong River. East of the Mekong, the
transitional plains gradually merge with the eastern
highlands, a region of forested mountains and high
plateaus that extend into Laos and Vietnam. In
southwestern Cambodia, two distinct upland blocks,
the Kravanh Mountains and the Damrei Mountains,
form another highland region that covers much of the
land area between the Tonle Sap and the Gulf of
Thailand.
In this remote and largely uninhabited area, Phnom
Aural, Cambodia's highest peak rises to an elevation
of 5,949 feet. The southern coastal region adjoining
the Gulf of Thailand is a narrow lowland strip, heavily
wooded and sparsely populated, which is isolated
from the central plain by the southwestern highlands.
The most distinctive geographical feature is the
inundations of the Tonle Sap, measuring about 2,590
square kilometres during the dry season and
expanding to about 24,605 square kilometres during
the rainy season. This densely populated plain, which
is devoted to wet rice cultivation, is the heartland of
Cambodia. Much of this area has been designated as
a biosphere reserve.
Cambodia's biodiversity is largely founded on its
seasonal tropical forests, containing some 180
recorded tree species, and riparian ecosystems.
There are 212 mammal species, 536 bird species,
240 reptile species, 850 freshwater fish species, and
435 marine fish species recorded by science. Much
of this biodiversity is contained around the Tonle Sap
Lake and the surrounding biosphere.
The Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve is a reserve
surrounding the Tonle Sap Lake. It encompasses the
lake and nine provinces: Kampong Thom, Siem
Reap, Battambang, Pursat, Kampong Chhnang,
Banteay Meanchey, Pailin, Oddar Meanchey, and
Preah Vihear. In 1997, it was successfully nominated
as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Other key habitats
include the dry forest of Mondolkiri and Ratanakiri
provinces and the Cardamom Mountains ecosystem,
including Bokor National Park, Botum-Sakor National
Park, and the Phnom Aural and Phnom Samkos
wildlife sanctuaries.
The Worldwide Fund for Nature recognises six
distinct terrestrial ecoregions in Cambodia – the
Cardamom Mountains rain forests, Central Indochina
dry forest, Southeast Indochina dry evergreen forest,
Southern Annamite Range tropical forest, Tonle Sap
freshwater swamp forest, and Tonle Sap-Mekong
peat swamp forest.
Mekong Delta river21
Special Coverage
Frances H. Arnold George P. Smith
Nobel Prizes
Alfred Nobel's
The Nobel Foundation, a private institution
established in 1900, has ultimate
responsibility for fulfilling the intentions in
Alfred Nobel's will. The main mission of
the Nobel Foundation is to manage
Alfred Nobel's fortune in a manner that
ensures a secure financial standing for
the Nobel Prize over the long term and
that the prize-awarding institutions are
guaranteed independence in their
work of selecting recipients.
The Foundation is also
tasked with strengthening
the Nobel Prize's position by
administering and developing
the brands and intangible assets
that have been built up during the
Nobel Prize's history, which spans more
than 100 years.
The Nobel Foundation also strives to safeguard the
prize-awarding institutions' common interests and to
represent the Nobel organisation as a whole. In the
past two decades, a number of outreach activities
have been developed with the aim of inspiring and
disseminating knowledge about the Nobel Prize.
In the year 2018, 12 new laureates have been
awarded for achievements that have conferred the
greatest benefit to humankind.
Nobel Prize in Physics
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018 was awarded "for
groundbreaking inventions in the field
of laser physics" with one half to Arthur
Ashkin "for the optical tweezers and
their application to biological
systems" and the other half jointly
to and Donna Gerard Mourou
Strickland "for their method of
generating high-intensity, ultra-soft
optical pulses".
Their inventions have revolutionised laser
physics. Extremely small objects and
incredibly rapid processes are
now being seen in a new light.
A d v a n c e d p r e c i s i o n
instruments are opening up
unexplored areas of research and a
multitude of industrial and medical
applications.
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2018 was awarded with
one half to "for the directed Frances H. Arnold
evolution of enzymes" and the other half jointly to
George P. Smith and Sir Gregory P. Winter "for the
phage display of peptides and antibodies".
This year's Nobel Laureates have been inspired by
the power of evolution and used the same principles –
genetic change and selection – to develop proteins
that solve humankind's chemical problems.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2018 was
Arthur Ashkin Gerard Mourou
22
James P. Allison
Tasuku Honjo
awarded to and James P. Allison
Tasuku Honjo "for their discovery
of cancer therapy by inhibition of
negative immune regulation". The
Laureates have shown how
different strategies for inhibiting
the brakes on the immune system
can be used in the treatment of
cancer. Their discoveries are a
landmark in our fight against
cancer.
Nobel Peace Prize
The Nobel Peace Prize 2018 has
been awarded jointly to Denis
Mukwege and Nadia Murad for
courageously combating war
crimes and seeking justice for
victims. Both Laureates have
made a crucial contribution to
focusing attention on, and
combating, war crimes. Denis
Mukwege is the helper who has
devoted his life to defending these
victims. Nadia Murad is the
witness who tells of the abuses
perpetrated against herself and
others. Each of them, in their own
way, has helped to give greater
visibility to war-time sexual
violence, so that the perpetrators
can be held accountable for their
actions.
Nobel Prize in Economic
Sciences
William D. Nordhaus
The Nobel Prize in Economic
Sciences 2018 has been awarded
to William D. Nordhaus "for
integrating climate change into
l o n g - r u n m a c r o e c o n o m i c
analysis" and Paul M. Romer "for
i n t e g r a t i n g t e c h n o l o g i c a l
i nnova t ions in to long- run
macroeconomic analysis". Their
f indings have signi f icant ly
b r o a d e n e d t h e s c o p e o f
e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s b y
constructing models that explain
how the market economy
in teracts wi th nature and
knowledge.
This year's Laureates have
designed methods for addressing
some of our time's most basic and
pressing questions about how we
create long-term sustained and
sustainable economic growth.
Their contributions provide us with
fundamental insights into the
causes and consequences of
technological innovation and
climate change.
The 2018 Nobel Prize in Literature
has been postponed, and not
announced yet.
Nadia Murad and Denis Mukwege
23
Rugby Union, commonly known in most parts of the
world as rugby, is a contact team sport which
originated in England in the first half of the 19th
century. One of the two codes of rugby football, it is
based on running with the ball in hand. In its most
common form, a game is between two teams of 15
players using an oval-shaped ball on a rectangular
field with H-shaped goalposts on each try line.
Rugby union is a popular sport around the world,
played by male and female players of all ages. World
Rugby School
Rugby, previously called the International Rugby
Football Board and the International Rugby Board
has been the governing body for rugby union since
1886, and currently has 101 countries as full
members and 18 associate members.
In 1845, the first football laws were written by Rugby
school pupils; other significant events in the early
development of rugby include the Blackheath Club's
decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and
the split between rugby union and rugby league in
1895. Historically, an amateur sport, in 1995
restrictions on payments to players were removed,
making the game openly professional at the highest
level for the first time.
Rugby union spread from the Home Nations of Great
Britain and Ireland, and was absorbed by many of the
countries associated with British Empire. Early
exponents of the sport included Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, and France. Countries that
have adopted rugby union as their de facto national
sport include Fiji, Georgia, Madagascar, New
Zealand, Samoa, and Tonga.
24
International matches have taken
place since 1871, when the first
game took place between
Scotland and England at Raeburn
Place in Edinburgh. The Rugby
World Cup, first held in 1987, takes
place every four years. The Six
Nations Championship in Europe
and The Rugby Championship in
the southern hemisphere are
o the r ma jo r i n te rna t i ona l
competitions, held annually.
The history of rugby union follows
from various football games
played long before the 19th
century, but it was not until the
middle of that century that the
rules were formulated and
codified. The code of football, later
known as rugby union, can be
traced to three events: the first set
of written rules in 1845; the
Blackheath Club's decision to
leave the Football Association in
1863; and the formation of the
Rugby Football Union in 1871. The
code was originally known simply
as “rugby football”. It was not until
a schism in 1895, over the
payment of players, which
resulted in the formation of the
separate code of rugby league,
that the name “rugby union” was
used to differentiate the original
rugby code. For most of its history,
rugby was a strictly amateur
football code, and the sport's
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s f r e q u e n t l y
imposed bans and restrictions on
players who they viewed as
professional. It was not until 1995
that rugby union was declared an
“ o p e n ” g a m e , a n d t h u s ,
professionalism was sanctioned
by the code's governing body,
World Rugby – then known as the
International Rugby Football
Board.
Although rugby football was
codified at Rugby School, many
rugby playing countries had pre-
existing football games not
dissimilar to rugby. Forms of
traditional football similar to rugby
have been played throughout
Europe and beyond. Many of
these involved handling of the
ball, and scrimmaging formations.
For example, New Zealand had Ki-
o-rahi, Australia marn grook,
Japan kemari, Georgia lelo burti,
the Scottish Borders Jeddart Ba'
and Cornwall Cornish hurling,
Central Italy Calcio Florentino,
South Wales cnapan, East Anglia
Campball and Ireland had caid, an
ancestor of Gaelic football.
The first detailed description of
what was almost certainly football
in England was given by William
FitzStephen in about 1174 – 1183.
He described the activities of
London youths during the annual
festival of Shrove Tuesday:
“After lunch, all the youth of the city
go out into the fields to take part in
a ball game. The students of each
school have their own ball; the
workers from each city craft are
also carrying their balls. Older
citizens, fathers, and wealthy
citizens come on horseback to
watch their junior competing, and
to re l ive thei r own youth
vicariously: you can see their inner
passions aroused as they watch
the action and get caught up in the
fun being had by the carefree
adolescents.”
Numerous attempts were made to
ban football games, particularly
the most disruptive forms. This
was especially the case in
25
England, and in other parts of
Europe, during the Middle Ages
and ear ly modern per iod.
Between 1324 and 1667, in
England alone, football was
banned by more than 30 royal and
local laws. The need to repeatedly
proclaim such laws demonstrated
the difficulty in enforcing bans on
popular games. King Edward II
was so troubled by the unruliness
of football in London that, on 13
A p r i l 1 3 1 4 , h e i s s u e d a
proclamation banning it.
“Forasmuch as there is great
noise in the city caused by
hustling over large balls from
which many evils may arise which
God forbid; we command and
forbid, on behalf of the King, on
pain of imprisonment, such game
to be used in the city in the future.”
In 1531, Sir Thomas Elyot wrote
that English “Footeballe is
nothinge but beastlie furie and
extreme violence.”
Football games that included ball
carrying continued to be played
over the century, right up to the
time of William Webb Ellis' alleged
invention. One form, recorded as
early as 1440 and which persisted
until the 19th century, was an East
Anglican game called variously
Camping, Campan, Camp-ball,
and Campyon which was explicitly
based on carrying the ball and
tossing it from player to player in
order to continue the advance.
According to an observer writing
in 1823 (ironically the year of
rugby's “invention”).
“Each party has two goals, ten or
fifteen yards apart. The parties, ten
or fifteen on a side, stand in line,
facing each other at about ten
yards' distance midway between
their goals and that of their
adversaries. An indi f ferent
spectator throws up a ball the size
of a cricket ball midway between
the confronted players and makes
his escape. The rush is to catch
the falling ball. He who first can
catch or seize it speeds home,
making his way through his
opponents and aided by his own
sidesmen. If caught and held or
rather in danger of being held, for
i f caught with the ball in
possession he loses a snotch, he
throws the ball (he must in no case
give it) to some less beleaguered
friend more free and more in
breath than himself, who if it be not
arrested in its course or be jostled
away by the eager and watchful
adversaries, catches it; and he in
like manner hastens homeward, in
like manner pursued, annoyed
and aided, winning the notch or
snotch if he contrive to carry or
throw it within the goals. At a loss
a n d g a i n o f a s n o t c h a
recommencement takes place.”
Sir Thomas Elyot
William Webb Ellis26
An estimated one million dogs in the United States have
been named primary beneficiaries in their
owner’s wills.
Dogs are capable of understanding up to 250 words and gestures. The average dog is as intelligent as a two-year-old child.
Goats have rectangular
pupils.
French is a Romance Language of the Indo-
European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin
of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages.
French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken
Latin in Gaul, and more specifically, in Northern Gaul.
Its closest relatives are the other languages
historically spoken in northern France and in
southern Belgium, which French has largely
Northern Gaul
supplanted. French was also influenced by native
Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia
Belgica and by the (Germanic) Frankish language of
the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to
France's past overseas expansion, there are
numerous French-based creole languages, most
notably Haitian Creole. A French-speaking person or
nation may be referred to as Francophone in both
English and French.
French is an official language in 29 countries across
five different continents, most of which are members
of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
(OIF), the community of 84 countries which share the
official use or teaching of French. It is spoken as a first
language in France, Canadian provinces of Quebec,
Ontario and New Brunswick as well as other
Francophone regions, Belgium (Wallonia and
Brussels), western Switzerland (cantons of Bern,
Fribourg, Geneva, Jura, Neuchatel, Vaud, Valais),
Monaco, parts of the United States (Louisiana, Maine,
New Hampshire, and Vermont), and by various
communities elsewhere. French is the fourth most
widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union.
Of Europeans who speak other languages natively,
approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as a
second language. French is the second most taught
foreign language in the European Union. French is
also the 18th most natively spoken language in the
world, and is the second most studied language
worldwide.
As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the
16th century onward, French was introduced to new
territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Most
second-language speakers reside in Francophone
Africa, in particular, Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius,
Senegal, and Ivory Coast.
27
French has a long history as an international
language of literature and scientific standards, and is
a primary or secondary language of many
international organisations including the United
Nations, the European Union, the North Atlantic
Treaty Organisation, the World Trade Organisation,
the International Olympic Committee, and the
International Committee of the Red Cross.
The discussion of the history of a language is typically
divided into “external history” that describes the
ethnic, political, social, technological, and other
changes that affected the language, and “internal
history” that describes the phonological and
grammatical changes undergone by the language
itself.
Before the Roman conquest of, what is now, France
by Julius Caesar (58 – 52 BC), much of present
France was inhabited by Celtic-speaking people
referred to by the Romans as Gauls and Belgae.
Southern France was also home to a number of other
remnant linguistic and ethnic groups including
Iberians along the eastern part of the Pyrenees and
western Mediterranean coast, remnant Ligures on the
eastern Mediterranean coast and in the alpine areas,
Greek colonials in places such as Marseille and
Antibes, and Vascones and Aquitani (proto-Basques)
in much of the southwest. The Gaulish speaking
population is held to have continued speaking
Gaulish even as considerable Romanisation of the
local material culture occurred, with Gaulish and Latin
co-existing for centuries under Roman rule, and the
last attestation of Gaulish deemed credible having
been written in the second half of the 6th century
about the destruction of a pagan shrine in Auvergne.
The Celtic population of Gaul had spoken Gaulish,
which is moderately well attested, with what appears
to be wide dialectal variation including one distinctive
variety, Lepontic. While the French language evolved
from Vulgar Latin, it was nonetheless influenced by
Gaulish. Chief among these are sandhi phenomena,
the loss of unstressed syllables, and the vowel
system. Syntactic oddities attributable to Gaulish
include the intensive prefix ro-, re-, emphatic
structures, prepositional periphrastic phrases to
render verbal aspect, the semantic development of
oui “yes”, aveugle
“blind”, and so on.
I n F r e n c h a n d
a d j o i n i n g f o l k
dialects and closely
related languages,
some 200 words of
Gaulish origin have
been retained, most
of which pertain to
folk life. Other Celtic
words were no t
borrowed directly,
but brought in through Latin, some of which had
become commonplace in Latin, as for instance braies
“knee-length pants”, chainse “tunic”, char “dray or
wagon”, daim “roe deer”, etain “tin”, glaive “broad
sword”, manteaux “coat”, vassal “serf or knave”.
Latin quickly took hold among the urban aristocracy
for mercantile, official, and educational reasons, but
did not prevail in the countryside until some four or
five centuries later, since Latin was of little or no social
value to the landed gentry and peasantry. The
eventual spread of Latin can be attributed to social
factors in the Late Empire such as the movement from
urban-focused power to village-centered economies
and legal serfdom.
From the 3rd century on, Western European was
invaded by Germanic tribes from the north and east,
and some of these groups settled in Gaul. In the
history of the French language, the most important of
these groups are the Franks in northern France, the
Alemanni in the modern German / French border
area, the Burgundians in the Rhone Valley, and the
Visigoths in the Aquitaine region and Spain. The
Frankish language had a profound influence on the
Latin spoken in their respective regions, altering both
the pronunciation, and the syntax. They also
introduced a number of new words. Sources
disagree on how much of the vocabulary of modern
French (excluding French dialects), comes from
Germanic words, ranging from just 500 words to 15%
of modern vocabulary to even higher if Germanic
words coming from Latin and other Romance
languages are taken into account.
Julius Caesar
28
ANCIENT EGYPT CIVILISATIONANCIENT EGYPT CIVILISATION
The pharaohs of the Middle
Kingdom restored the country's
stability and prosperity, thereby
stimulating a resurgence of art,
l i terature, and monumental
building projects. Mentuhotep II
and his Eleventh Dynasty
successors ruled from Thebes,
but the vizier Amenemhat I, upon
assuming the kingship at the
beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty
around 1985 BC, shifted the
nation's capital to the city of
Itjtawy, located in Faiyum. From
Itjtawy, the kings of the Twelfth
Dynasty undertook a far-sighted
land reclamation and irrigation
scheme to increase agricultural
output in the region. Moreover, the
military reconquered territory in
Nubia that was rich in quarries and
gold mines, while labourers built a
defensive structure in the Eastern
Delta, called the “Walls-of-the-
Ruler”, to defend against foreign
attack.
With the kings having secured the
country, militarily and politically,
and with vast agricultural and
mineral wealth at their disposal,
the nation's population, arts, and
religion flourished. In contrast to
elitist Old Kingdom attitudes
towards the gods, the Middle
Kingdom displayed an increase in
Mentuhotep II
expressions of personal piety.
Middle Kingdom l i terature
featured sophisticated themes
and characters written in a
confident, eloquent style. The
relief and portrait sculpture of the
period captured subtle, individual
details that reached new heights
of technical sophistication.
The last great ruler of the Middle
Kingdom, Amenemhet III, allowed
Semitic-speaking Canaanite
settlers from the Near East into the
Delta region to provide a sufficient
labour force for his especially
active mining and building
campaigns. These ambitious
building and mining activities,
however, combined with severe
HIS
TO
RY
Hu
man
Amenemhet III
29
Kim Ryholt, a professor of Egyptology at the University of Copenhagen
Nile floods later in his reign,
strained the economy and
precipitated the slow decline into
the Second Intermediate Period
during the later Thirteenth and
Fourteenth dynasties. During this
decline, the Canaanite settlers
began to assume greater control
of the Delta region, eventually
coming to power in Egypt as the
Hyksos.
The Second Intermediate Period
marks a period when Ancient
Egypt fell into disarray for a
second time, between the end of
the Middle Kingdom and the start
of the New Kingdom.
It is best known as the period
when the Hyksos made their
appearance in Egypt and whose
reign comprised the 15th dynasty.
The Thirteenth Dynasty of ancient
Egypt is often described with
Dynasties XI, XII, and XIV under
the group title Middle Kingdom.
Some writers separate it from
these dyansties and join it to
Dynasties XIV through XVII as part
of the Second Intermediate
Period. Dynasty XIII lasted from
approximately 1803 BC until
approximately 1649 BC, for 154
years.
The 13th dynasty was a direct
continuation of the preceding 12th
dynasty, with its first ruler believed
to be a son of Amenemhat IV. Kim
Ryholt, a professor of Egyptology
at the University of Copenhagen
and a specialist on Egyptian
history and literature, proposes
that the demarcation between the
two dynasties reflects the rise of
the independent 14th dynasty in
the Eastern Delta, an event which,
he proposes, occurred during
Sobekneferu's reign. As direct
heirs to the kings of the 12th
dynasty, pharaohs of the 13th
dynasty reigned from Memphis
over Middle and Upper Egypt, all
the way to the second cataract to
the south. The power of the 13th
dynasty waned progressively over
its 150 years of existence and it
finally came to an end with the
conquest of Memphis by the
Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty,
circa 1650 BC.
In later texts, this dynasty is
usually described as an era of
chaos and disorder. However, the
period may have been more
peaceful than was once thought
since the central government in
Itjtawy near the Faiyum was
sustained during most of the
dynasty and the country remained
relatively stable. The period was
undoubtedly characterised by
decline, with a large number of
kings with short reigns and only a
few attestations. It is clear that they
were not from a single family line,
and some of them were born
commoners. Unfortunately, the
true chronology of this dynasty is
difficult to determine as there are
few monuments dating from the
period. Many of the kings' names
are only known from odd
fragmentary inscriptions or from
scarabs.Thebes, Egypt
30
Towards the later half of the 13th
dynasty, the old capital of Itjtawy
was abandoned in favour of
Thebes. This event was triggered
by the invasion of the Eastern
Delta and the Memphite region by
Canaanite rulers. This marks the
end of the Middle Kingdom and
the beginning of the Second
Intermediate Period. This analysis
is rejected by Ryholt, however,
who notes that the stele of
Seheqenre Sankhptahi, reigning
towards the end of the dynasty,
strongly suggests that he reigned
over Memphis. Unfortunately, the
stele is of unknown provenance.
The chronological position of a
number of attested rulers could
not be conclusively determined
due to a lack of evidence.
Ryholt posits a ruler named
“ S o b e k h o t e p I S e k h e m r e
Khutawy” as the first king of this
dynasty. This is now the dominant
hypothesis in Egyptology and
Sobekhotep Sekhemre Khutawy
is referred to as Sobekhotep I.
Ryholt, thus, credits Sobekhotep I
with a reign of 3 to 4 years circa
1800 BC and proposes that
Khaankhre Sobekhotep II reigned
circa 20 years later in 1780 BC.
After allowing discipline at the
southern forts to deteriorate, the
government, eventually, withdrew
its garrisons and, not long
a f te rward , the fo r ts were
reoccupied by the rising Nubian
state of Kush. In the north, Lower
Egypt was overrun by the Hyksos,
a Semitic people from across the
Sinai. An independent line of kings
created Dynasty XIV that arose in
the western Delta during later
Dynasty XIII. Into this unstable mix
power, and that there was a
significant overlap between the
13th and 15th dynasties since
Sobekhotep IV was only a mid-
13th dynasty ruler; although one
of its most powerful kings.
Therefore, Manetho's statement
that the Hyksos 15th dynasty
violently replaced the 13th
dynasty could be a piece of later
Egyptian propaganda. Rather, the
13th dynasty's authority must
have been collapsing throughout
Egypt in its final decades and the
Hyksos state in the Delta region
simply took over Memphis and
ended the 13th dynasty 's
kingdom. However, this analysis
and the conclusions drawn from it
are rejected by Egyptologist
Robert Porter, who argues that
Khyan ruled much later than
Sobekhotep IV and that the seals
of a pharaoh were used long after
his death. Thus, the seals of
Sobekhotep IV might not indicate
that he was a contemporary of
Khyan.
Merneferre Ay was the last
Egyptian ruler of the 13th Dynasty
who is attested by objects in both
Lower and Upper Egyp t .
Henceforth, his successors, from
Merhotepre Ini on, are only
attested in Upper Egypt.
31
In Great Britain and
Japan, black cats are perceived as auspicious.
came invaders from the east
called the Hyksos who seized
Egypt “without striking a blow, and
having overpowered the rulers of
the land, they then burned our
cities ruthlessly, razed to the
ground the temples of gods….”
Their dynasty, called Dynasty XV,
was claimed to have replaced
Dynasties XIII and XIV in most of
the country.
However, recent archaeological
finds at Edfu could indicate that
the Hyksos 15th dynasty was
already in existence at least by the
mid-13th dynasty reign of king
Sobekhotep IV. In a recently
published paper in Egypt and the
Levant, Nadine Moeller, Gregory
Marouard, and N. Ayers discuss
the discovery of an important early
12th dynasty Middle Kingdom
administrative building in the
eastern Tell Edfu area of Upper
Egypt which was in continual use
into the early Second Intermediate
Period until the 17th dynasty,
when its remains were sealed up
by a large silo court. Fieldwork by
Egyptologists in 2010 and 2011
into the remains of the former 12th
dynasty building which was also
used in the 13th dynasty led to the
discovery of a large adjoining hall
which proved to contain 41
sealings showing the cartouche of
the Hyksos ruler Khyan together
with 9 sealings naming the 13th
dynasty king Sobekhotep IV. The
preserved contexts of these seals
shows that Sobekhotep IV and
K h y a n w e r e m o s t l i k e l y
contemporaries of one another.
This could mean that the 13th
dynasty did not control all of Egypt
when Sobekhotep IV acceded to
Isaac NewtonJohannes Kepler Aristarchos von Samos NicolausGalileo Galilei
High-energy gamma-ray photons
initially released with fusion
reactions in the core are almost
immediately absorbed by the
solar plasma of the radiative zone,
usually after travelling only a few
millimetres. Re-emission happens
in a random direction and usually
at a slightly lower energy. With this
sequence of emissions and
absorptions, it takes a long time
for radiation to reach the Sun's
surface. Estimates of the photon
travel time range between 10,000
and 170,000 years. In contrast, it
takes only 2.3 seconds for the
neutrinos, which account for
about 2% of the total energy
THE UNIVERSETHE UNIVERSE
Black Hole High Energy Gamma
production of the Sun, to reach the
s u r f a c e . B e c a u s e e n e r g y
transport in the Sun is a process
t ha t i n v o l v es p ho to ns i n
thermodynamic equilibrium with
matter, the time scale of energy
transport in the Sun is longer, on
the order of 3,00,00,000 years.
This is the time it would take the
Sun to return to a stable state, if
the rate of energy generation in its
core were suddenly changed.
Neutrinos are also released by the
fusion reactions in the core, but,
unlike photons, they rarely interact
with matter, so almost all are able
to escape the Sun immediately.
For many years, measurements of
the number of neutrinos produced
in the Sun were lower than
theories predicted by a factor of 3.
This discrepancy was resolved in
2001 through the discovery of the
effects of neutrino oscillation: the
Sun emits the number of neutrinos
predicted by the theory, but
neutrino detectors were missing
two-thirds of them because the
neutrinos had changed flavour by
the time they were detected.
The Sun has a magnetic field that
varies across the surface of the
Sun. The magnetic field varies in
time and location. The quasi-
periodic 11-year solar cycle is the
most prominent variation in which
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