THE HAGUE ACADEMY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW MONOGRAPHS

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THE HAGUE ACADEMY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

International Law for aWater-Scarce World

by

Edith Brown Weiss

MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERSLEIDEN • BOSTON

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Weiss, Edith Brown , 1942-International law for a water-sca rce world I by Edith Brown Weiss.

pages em . -- (The Hague Academy of international law monographs ; volume 7)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-90-04-25040-6 (hardback : alk. pap er) -- ISBN 978-90 -04-25°41-3 (e-book) I.

Water--Law and legislation. 2. Water rights (International law) 3. Right to water. I. Title.K3496.W45 2013341.4'4--dc23

2013027422

ISBN 978-90 -04 -25040 -6 (hardback)ISBN 978-90 -04 -25041-3 (e-book)

Copyright 2013 The Hague Academy of International Law.

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Table of Contents

List of Figu res and Tables

Listof Acronyms and Abbreviations

Acknowledgments

Introduct ion: The Fresh Water CrisisI. The Problem of Fresh Water AvailabilityII. The Problem of Water QualityIll. Implications for Water Law

Chapter I Principles of Inte rna t iona l Water LawI. International Water Law Principles

A. Absolute territorial sovereigntyB. Absolute ter ritorial integrityC. Prior appropriationD. Restricted sovereignty and community of interests

II. Obligations in International Water LawA. The substantive rulesB. The procedural rulesC. Liability

III. The Trea tment of Ground WaterA. Territorial sovereigntyB. Protection of recharge and discharge areasC. Preventio n of pollut ionD. Conservation of fossil aquifers

IV_ Concluding Comments

ix

xi

xv

1

379

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12

151621

2S26

32

353640

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4748

49

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Chapter II Challenges For Inte rnational Water LawI. Critique of Existing Water Law

A. The hydrological and ecological perspe ctivesB. The intergenerational perspectiveC. The market perspective

S1

51S2

5658

vi Table of Contents

D. The water demand perspectiveE. The water security perspect ive

Foreign land and water investmentsVirtual water issues

II. Fresh Water as a Global ResourceA. Fresh water resource depletion and degradation as a global threatB. Fresh water resou rces as a common concern of humankindC. Global data on fresh water

Ill . Concluding Comments

Cha pter III Intern ational Water AgreementsI. The History of International Water Agreements

A. The database for international water agreementsB. The global historical trends

Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and beforeThe twen tieth cenluryThe twenty-first centuryEvolution in content of the agreementsGround water in international agreements

C. Historical trends by regionEuropeAfricaAsia-M iddle EastNorth-Central AmericaSout h AmericaComparisons among regions

D. The agreements as living instrumentsII. The Overarching Agreements

A. The 1997 United Nations Convent ion on the Law of Non­Navigational Uses of International Watercourses

B. ILC Draft Articles on Transboundary AquifersC. Other global legal instruments: ILA Rules and the Bellagio

Draft TreatyIll. Concluding Comments

Chapter IV Settlement of International Water DisputesI. Trends in the Characteristics of International Water Disputes

A. The subject matter of disputes: the rise of competing usesB. The disputants: increasing importance of new actors

II. Dispute Settl ement ProceduresA. International judicial settlementB. International arbitrationC. Fact-finding commissionsD. ConciliationE. Mediation and good offices

Table of Contents vii

60 F. Negotiation 14262 G. The experiment with NGO international water tribunals 14363 H. Rhine navigation tribunals 14766 I. National courts 14767 Ill. Provisions for Dispute Settlement in International Water Agreements 15167 IV. Concluding Comments 15770

75 Chapter V Fresh Water Institution s 16176 I. History and evo lution 161

II . Scope and coverage 16679 Ill. Structure and function 17080 A. Problem identification and assessment 17180 B. Information collection and monitoring 17382 C. Information dissemination and exchange 17484 D. Coordination of national and international activities 17585 E. Subst antive norm and rulemaking 17588 F. Supervision and enfo rcement 17791 G. Direct operational activities 17893 H. Dispute resolution 17996 I. Concluding observat ions 18096 IV. Effectiveness 18099 V. Concluding Observations 188

102

104 Chapter VI Right to Water 191107 I. The Intragenerational Right to Water 196108 A. Water qua lity 196109 B. Water quantity 197111 C. Reasonable access 199

D. Information, participation, non-discrimination , and access to111 justice 20 5114 II. The Int ergenerational Aspects of the Right to Water 205

Ill. . Legal Bases for A Right to Water 209116 A. Developments in international recog nition of a human right to119 water 209

B. A Right to water as embedded in international human rights law 214121 Right to adequate standard of living 215123 Right to food 216123 Right to health 217126 Right to life 218128 Right to development 220128 Independent right to water 222133 Concluding comments 223135 IV. Implementing a Right to Water 224139 V. The Right to Water in National Const itutions and Local Instruments 227139 VI. Indigenous Peop les' Right to Water 231

viii Table of Contents List of Figures and Tables

A. Definition of indigenous peopleB. Internat ional recognition of indigenous right to water

VII. The Accompanying Right to Sanit ationVIII.Concluding Comments

Chapter VII Water Markets and International Trade LawI. Transboundary Water Movements

A . Water flows in international watercourses and transboundaryaquifers

B. Transboundary market in water pro duct sC. Transfers of bulk water

Treaty-based international water transfersGovernment to government co ntractual transfersTransfers between government and foreign private partyTransfers between private parties in different countriesEfforts to limit bulk transfers of water

II. The Relevance of WTO GATT 1994 to Water MarketsA. Water as a good or productB. The applicable GATT provisions

III. Should WTO GATT 1994 Apply to Bulk Water Transfers?IV. Options for Clarifying W hether WTO GATT 1994 Applies

A. Statement and o rdinary decisionB. Authoritative interpretat ion of the Agreem entC. WaiverD. Amendment

V. Water subs idies and water-related domestic supportVI. Virtu al Water Transfers

A. The concept of virtual water transfersB. Water footprints and water-intensity sta nda rdsC. Tariff adjustments and quotas to regulate imports and exports

of water-intensive productsVII. Co ncluding Comments

List of Cases and Arbitrations

Bibliography

Index

232234240241

243245

246249251251 Figures252255 fig . II1-1.

255256 fig . II1-2.

259 fig . II1-3·

259 f ig. II1-4.

263 f ig. II1-5·266268 f ig. II1-6.

269 fi g. II1-7.

270272 Fig. II1-8.

274276 fig . II1-9.

278278 fig . II1-1O.

280Fig. II1-11.

282284 fi g. II1-12.

285 f ig. II1-13.

289 Fig. II1-14.

317 Fig. II1-15.

fi g. II1-16.

Fig. IV-l.

Table IV-l.

Eighte enth- and Nineteenth-Century Trends by TreatySubject Maller 84Twentieth Cen tury Trends by Treaty Subject Matter 86Treaty Subject Maller '90'-'950 87Treaty Subject Maller '95'-2000 88Twenty-first-Century Trend s by Treaty Subje ct Maller byRegion 89Trends in Treaty Subject Maller 2000-2010 90New Water Agre ements in Europe by Treaty Subject Mat-ter, 1901-1950 97

New Water Agre ements in Europe by Treaty Subject Mat-ter, 1951-2000 98

New Water Agreements in Africa byTreaty Subject Maller,19 0 1- 19 50 100

New Water Agre ement s in Afr ica by Trea ty Subject Maller,195~2000 101

New Water Agreements in Asia by Treaty Subject Maller,1901~19So 10 3

New Wate r Agre ements in Asia by Treaty Subject Maller,19 5 1- 2000 104

New Water Agreem ent s in North-Cent ral America byTreaty Subject Maller, 1901-1950 106New Water Agreements in North-Central America byTreaty Subject Matt er, '95'-2000 106New Water Agreem ent s in South America by Treaty Sub-ject Matter, 1901-1950 107New Water Agreements in South America by Treaty Sub-ject Matter, 1951 -20 0 0 108

International Joint Comm ission: Canada-United StatesReferences under Article [X of th e 1909 Boundary WatersTreaty 137Cases Brought before the Second Internationa l Water Tri-bu nal, that Went to a Jury Hearing 144

x Listof FiguresandTables List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

Fig. IV-2.

Fig. IV-3.

Tables

Table IV-l.

New International Water Agreements with Dispute Reso­lution Provisions by Decade by RegionTypes of Dispute Resolution Procedures in New Interna­tional Water Agreements

Cases Brought before the Second Intern at ional Water Tri­bunal, that Went to a Jury Hea ring

153

154

144

CBDCEDAW

CESCR

C1CPlata

CRCDAN!DAEUWFDEUGATTGEFGEOHRCIACHRIBRDIBWC

ICCPRICESCR

Ie)ICPDR

ICPR

!DBIJCIKSO

Convention on Biological DiversityConvention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrim­ination Against WomenUnited Nations Committee on Economic, Social andCultural RightsComite Intergubernamental Coordinador de los Paisesde Ia Cuenca del Plata(Intergovernmental Coo rdinating Comm ittee for theCountr ies of the Plata Basin)Convention on the Rights of the ChildDanish International Development AgencyEuropean Union Water Framework DirectiveEuropean UnionGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and TradeGlobal Environment FacilityGlobal Environment O utloo kUnited Nat ions Human Rights CouncilInter-American Commission on Human RightsInternational Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentInternational Boundary Water Commission (Mexico­United States)Internation al Covenant on Civil and Political Right sInternational Covenant on Economic, Social and Cul­tural Right sInternational Court of JusticeInternational Commission for the Protection of the Dan­ube RiverInternational Commission for the Protection of theRhineInter-American Development BankInte rnational Joint Commission (Canada-United States)International Comm ission for the Protection of the OderRiver

xii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xiii

ILAILCILOIPCClUCNIWTMDGMEAMERCOSURMRCNACEC

NAFTANGOOHCHROKACOMOMVS

PCAPCIIPICSACOSANSADCSCMSIDA

TBTTRIPSUDHRUN DRIP

UNFAOUN Watercourses

ConventionUNDPUNECEUNECE Watercourse

Convention

UNEPUNESCO

UNFCCC

UNGA

International Law Associa tionInternational Law Co mmissionInternational Labour OrganizationIntergovern mental Panel on Climate ChangeInternational Union for the Conservation of NatureInternational Water TribunalMillennium Development GoalsMu ltilateral Enviro nmental AgreementMercado Comun del Sur (Southern Common Market)Mekong River CommissionNorth American Commission on Environmental Coop­erationNorth American Free Trade AgreementNon-governmental OrganizationOffice of th e High Com miss ioner for Human RightsOkavango River Basin Water CommissionOrganisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senega l(Senegal River Basin Orga nization)Permanent Court of ArbitrationPermanent Court of International JusticePermanent Indus CommissionSouth Asian Conference on SanitationSouthern African Development Com munitySubsidies and Countervailing MeasuresSwedish Int ern ational Development Cooperation Agen­cyTechnica l Barriers to TradeTrade-Related Aspec ts of Int ellectu al Property RightsUniversal Decla rat ion of Human RightsUnited Nat ions Declaration on the Rights of IndigenousPeoplesUnit ed Nat ions Food and Agriculture O rganizationUnited Nations Convention on the Law of Non-Naviga­tional Uses of International WatercoursesUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUnited Nations Economic Com miss ion for EuropeUnite d Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Conventio n on the Protection and Use of Trans­boundary Watercourses and International LakesUnited Nations Environment ProgrammeUnited Natio ns Educational, Scientific and Cultural Or­ganizationUnite d Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChangeUnited Nations Gene ral Assembly

UNICEFUSAIDwcoWHOWSSDWTO

United Nations Childre n's FundUnited States Agency for Internat ional DevelopmentWorld Commission on DamsWorld Health Organiza tionWorld Summit on Sustai nable Developmen tWorld Trade Organizat ion