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ACTION RESEARCH The Impact of Incentives and Rewards on Student Learning McClean (2016)
ACTION RESEARCH
The Impact of Incentives and
Rewards on Student Learning
McClean (2016)
Introduction
“I am always ready to learn although I do not always like being taught”. These
words belong to the late British statesman, Winston Churchill (Langworth, 2008); but
these words can also be true for any student in the mind of a teacher.
In today’s classroom there are many reasons for why students are performing
unsatisfactory or why students are unmotivated. Reasons one might hear are school work
is too difficult, the subject matter is irrelevant and the teachers are boring just to name a
few. Therefore teachers have attempted to make learning more attractive, engaging and
palatable.
Much research has been carried out to answer the questions of how to get students
motivated and how to keep them motivated in the classroom (Harter, 1981; Hidi &
Harackiewicz, 2000). As a result two schools of thought have been developed: those that
hold to the constructivist theory of teaching and those who don’t (Woolfolk, 2001).
The constructivist approach to teaching stems from the idea that once students are
actively involved in the teaching-learning process they become more invested in their
learning and play an active role in their education (Shuell, 1996; Charles, 2011). Thus
resulting in them being more motivated and eager to learn and be taught. Since seeing
children actively participating in class activities sometimes translates to motivation, some
teachers have employed the use of incentives to encourage and keep students motivated
on tasks (Covington & Mueller, 2001; The Gale Group Inc, 2003; Ali, Tatlah, & Saeed,
2011).
This action research aims to investigate the impact of incentives and rewards on
student learning. It focuses on the impact of tangible versus intangible rewards on student
motivation in Mathematics at the 2nd form year level. The term tangible rewards refers to
prizes and gifts; while intangible rewards refers to words of affirmation or
encouragement.
The following questions are asked and the research is aimed at answering these
questions.
1. What impact does tangible rewards have on student motivation?
2. What impact does intangible rewards have on student motivation?
3. What attitudes do students have towards tangible rewards?
4. What attitudes do students have towards intangible rewards?
Literature Review
Educational psychologists have long recognised that motivation is important for
supporting student learning (Lai, 2011, p. 4). According to Anita Woolfolk (2001, p. 366)
motivation speaks to “the internal state that arouses, directs and maintains behaviour”.
This same motivation psychologists have discovered, can be broken down into two
categories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Woolfolk, 2001).
Intrinsic motivation refers to the engagement in an activity with no reason other
than the enjoyment and satisfaction of engagement itself (The Gale Group Inc, 2003).
While extrinsic motivation refers to being engaged in an activity for the sake of earning
something (Giles-Brown, 2010) . The goals of extrinsically motivated engagement might
be the attainment of tangible rewards such as money, prizes or other benefits or the
avoidance of punishment. Since the latter type of motivation is widely used by teachers to
measure a student’s involvement in the teaching-learning process (Baranek, 1996); this
study will use this as one of the measures of student motivation in mathematics.
It has been noted by Lai (2011, p. 14) that motivation for students varies from
subject to subject and this may be dependent on the student’s interests. According to
Gottfried (1990) motivation in mathematics appears to be related to the student’s
perception of their competence and the teacher’s ratings of mathematics achievement.
Other researchers noted that students tend to attach more value to activities at which
they excel thus making students more motivated to learn subjects in which they
experience success (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
The older children get the more their attitudes and interests tend to deteriorate
with respect to subjects such as mathematics, art and science (Epstein & McPartland,
1976; Eccles & Wigfield, 1992). Gottfried and colleagues (2001) also noted that motivation
and self-concept for students tends to increase in age, especially as students accrue more
educational experiences. Some researchers have concluded that children aged 8 – 11 tend
to have an accurate self-perception of their strengths and weaknesses across subject areas
(Guay, et al., 2010). Thus to measure the motivation in mathematics and the impact of a
rewards system on student motivation would be most appropriate amongst the 2nd form
year group.
None of these researchers mentioned the impact of incentives on student
motivation as it relates to mathematics hence the need for such a study. The focus of this
study is on the impact of intangible versus tangible rewards because most educators have
used incentives as a means of eliciting extrinsic motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan,
2001). This practice of incentives has gained both supporters and non-supporters.
Some researchers believe that the use of incentives to provoke a particular type of
behaviour from students within the classroom is detrimental (Deci E. , 1971). These
researchers hold the view that academic and social skills learned in schools should be
maintained by natural consequence and not artificial rewards. They argue that the use of
incentives leads to moral problems and damages the already existing intrinsic motivation
of students (Kohn, 1994). For example they state that sharing with another child should
come naturally and should not be a forced behaviour due to a rewards system. They also
argue that rewarding one child for good work could have a negative effect on another
student whose work is not to that standard (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001; Horner &
Spauling, 2009). These researchers all believe that rewards systems produce children who
fail to develop intrinsic and self-managed motivation because when the rewards go so
does the motivation. Many also maintain that this type of motivation comes at the
expense of interest in and excellence at whatever tasks the students are performing
(Kohn, 1994).
On the flip side, other scholars have noted that schools have successfully
employed the use of rewards systems for decades (Slavin, 1997) and rewards are an
effective, important and fundamental part of education (Akin-Little, Eckert, Lovett, &
Little, 2004; Reiss, 2005). These researchers believe that rewards can be used as stepping
stones or the foundation in building the intrinsic motivation of students (Cameroon &
Pierce, 1994; Horner & Spauling, 2009).
What both schools of thought for and against tangible rewards systems hold
common, is that verbal rewards or positive feedback does promote some level of
enhanced intrinsic motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001; Horner & Spauling, 2009).
In addition, there are some researchers who hold the view that there is room for both
tangible and intangible rewards in the motivation of students to learn. They state that
teachers must encourage and nurture intrinsic motivation while making sure that
extrinsic motivation supports learning (Brophy, 1988; Ryan & Deci, 1996; Deci, Koestner,
& Ryan, 1999).
This research topic was birthed due to all of the pros and cons for tangible and
intangible rewards system, plus the need to identify ways in which students are
motivated and stay motivated on subjects like mathematics. This study is aimed at adding
to or verifying the statements made by either side of the fence with respect to student
motivation in mathematics.
Methodology
This study was carried out on a second form class which contained 31 students. To
answer the questions raised for this research project; both quantitative and qualitative
data collecting methods were used. Observations during class sessions and questionnaires
were some of the instruments used to collect data. The time period over which the data
was collected spanned 6 weeks and the topic of consumer arithmetic was covered.
Below is the instructional plan that was used during the time of the study.
INSTRUCTIONAL PLAN FORM: 2α3 AGE RANGE: 12-13 years
TOPIC(S): Consumer Arithmetic
RATIONALE: This topic serves to educate students about the basics involved in the world of finance. This is done through deepening their
understanding of the terms and concepts surrounding buying and selling; plus implementing the calculation of wages, salaries, commission
and income tax. Students will be exposed to case studies and simulated real life scenarios as a means of assessing and assisting their decision
making processes with respect to finances.
COMMENTS: The class consists of 31 students of whom 15 are males and 16 are females. One young lady in the class must sit at the back of
the class due to eye problems and therefore any pictures or other visual aids that are used in the class are modified to accommodate her. In
addition within the class, there is an exchange male student from London, England.
At the Christ Church Foundation School the textbook used at the first year level is Mathematics for Caribbean Schools Book 2 by Althea
Foster and Terry Tomlinson. In addition the use of calculators is not permitted at this year level.
TOPICS/
CONCEPTS
GENERAL
OBJECTIVES
TEACHING
STRATEGIES/
METHODS
LEARNING
ACTIVITIES
RESOURCES/
TECHNOLOGIES
ASSESSMENT
PROCEDURES
FOLLOW-UP
ACTIVITIES C
onsu
mer
Ari
thm
etic
Define the terms
associated with
consumer
arithmetic
Educational
game [Maths
Taboo]
Questioning
Guided
Discovery
Viewing
Student
Demonstration
Playing a few
rounds of Maths
Taboo
Answering
questions related
to the consumer
arithmetic terms
Discussing the
terms and their
meanings
Creating a
glossary of the
terms
Matching the
terms to their
definitions
Index cards/ Strips of
paper
Notebooks
Laptop
Projector
Whiteboard
Oral answers
given
Correction of
written
definitions
Critiquing of
answers for
matching activity
Recap the work
covered in class
in preparation
for next class
TOPICS/
CONCEPTS
GENERAL
OBJECTIVES
TEACHING
STRATEGIES/
METHODS
LEARNING
ACTIVITIES
RESOURCES/
TECHNOLOGIES
ASSESSMENT
PROCEDURES
FOLLOW-UP
ACTIVITIES C
onsu
mer
Ari
thm
etic
Know simple
equations in
which the
consumer
arithmetic terms
are used
Use equations to
solve for
unknown
quantities in
consumer
arithmetic
questions
Inquiry
Questioning
Guided
Discovery
Peer Tutoring
Viewing
Cooperative
Grouping [Pairs]
Problem solving
Role Play
Discussing the
use of terms to
solve for other
terms
Creating
statements based
on the discussion
with the aid of a
PowerPoint
presentation
Converting the
statements to
mathematical
equations
Working in pairs
to solve simple
consumer
arithmetic
questions by
using equations
created
Whiteboard
Laptop
Projector
Whiteboard
Notebooks
Whiteboard
Laptop
Projector
Notebooks
Oral answers
given
Critiquing
written answers
Correction of
written answers
Prepare a
Consumer
Arithmetic chart
Further practice
on solving
simple consumer
arithmetic
questions
Website – www.mathsfoundation.weebly.com
TOPICS/
CONCEPTS
GENERAL
OBJECTIVES
TEACHING
STRATEGIES/
METHODS
LEARNING
ACTIVITIES
RESOURCES/
TECHNOLOGIES
ASSESSMENT
PROCEDURES
FOLLOW-UP
ACTIVITIES
Con
sum
er A
rith
met
ic Solve simple
worded problems
with consumer
arithmetic terms
Cooperative
Grouping
(Think, Pair,
Share)
Case Study
Educational
Games[Jeoparday
& Who Wants to
be a Millionaire]
Working in
groups to solve
simple consumer
arithmetic
worded
problems
Working in
teams to varying
levels of
problems as they
are projected
onto the board
Worksheets
Projector
Laptop
Speakers
Demonstrating
the corrections to
the questions
from the
worksheets
Revealing the
answers to the
questions that are
projected onto
the board
Visit the
website* to
practice further
questions
Since the impact of tangible versus intangible rewards on student motivation in
Mathematics at this year level was the focus of this research; for the first 3 weeks of the
study only intangible rewards like words of encouragement were used to motivate the
students. For the remaining 3 weeks a tangible rewards system was implemented within
the class.
During these 3 weeks each student in the class was given a business size
mathematics badge card; a sheet explaining how each badge is earned and a bookmark
sized progress card on which stars were placed to show progress. Artefacts of these
articles can be found in the Appendix B. At the end of the tangible rewards system
period, the student who amassed the most badges was given a prize from the teacher.
Students were tested during both trial periods of intangible and tangible rewards.
The tests were given in this way to observe if the incentive of a prize affected the
academic performance of the students. Samples of the tests and students’ work can be
found in the Appendix B.
Observations of student participation, such as answering and asking questions,
group collaboration and volunteering to do any tasks in class, were also carried out
before, during and after the implementation of the tangible rewards system. This was
done to obtain as accurate as possible the average number of students who actively
participated in class. This type of observation was used because participation is one of the
key indicators that teachers can use to identify students who exhibit high and low
motivation (The Gale Group Inc, 2003).
At the end of the 6 weeks, students were given a questionnaire designed by the
teacher. This instrument was used to gather information concerning the students’
attitudes towards the subject and tangible rewards. The ideas for some of the items used
in the questionnaire were obtained from a modified Fennema-Sherman attitudes scale in
mathematics (Doepken, Lawsky, & Padwa, 2007) and the Motivation and Engagement
Scale – High School (Martin, 2015).
The questionnaire consisted of 20 items in total. The general information about
gender and age were eliminated from the second drafting of the questionnaire since this
information was irrelevant to the research. Items 1 through 10 measured the students’
attitude towards the subject inside and outside of the classroom; items 11 through to 18
measured the students’ participation in the classroom. While the last two items measured
the students’ attitude towards tangible gifts and the effort they exert with respect to the
subject.
The final pool of items on the questionnaire were used because the feedback for
these items fulfilled the aim of the study. To measure the reliability of the questionnaire,
Cronbach’s alpha was calculated for the two sections of the questionnaire. The alpha
coefficient for both sections, items 1 – 10 and items 11 – 18, was 0.7.
For the presentation and analysis of the data collected, tables were used to show
the comparison of students’ tests results as well as student responses for items on the
questionnaire. Pie charts were also be used to illustrate the comparison for some of the
responses from the questionnaire. To show the average number of students who actively
participated in class throughout the study; the mean was tabulated from an excel
spreadsheet that was used by the teacher during the observations.
Results
As was aforementioned a questionnaire was used to gather some of the data.
Tables 1 through 3 show the data gathered from the questionnaire.
Table 1 shows the responses of students to the first 10 items in the questionnaire
Item Statement Disagree Neutral Agree
1 I am good at mathematics 1 8 20
2 I can get good grades in mathematics 2 1 26
3 I am sure that I can learn mathematics 0 1 28
4 I think I can handle more difficult mathematics 4 16 9
5 Most subjects I can handle but I do not do so well in
mathematics
21 5 3
6 I am willing to work hard in mathematics even if my
grade does not improve
2 2 25
7 If I can’t understand my schoolwork at first I keep
going until I do
2 8 19
8 I usually do more reading about mathematics outside
of class because I find mathematics interesting
17 7 5
9 Getting the best grades in mathematics is important
to me
1 9 19
10 I enjoy the challenge of learning more complicated
and new topics in mathematics
3 4 22
From this table it is clear that the majority of the class has a positive attitude
towards the subject and they also have confidence in their ability to do mathematics.
Table 2 shows student responses to items numbered 11 to 18 from the questionnaire
Item Statement Very
Often
Often Sometimes Never
11 I ask questions in class 6 6 15 2
12 I answer questions in class 10 7 11 1
13 I gladly work in groups when asked to by
the teacher
16 7 4 2
14 I come to class prepared ( with all the
instruments and textbook)
5 8 16 0
15 I volunteer to demonstrate solutions to
my classmates
4 9 8 8
16 I am bored 1 1 16 11
17 I do not pay attention to what is going on 0 1 7 21
18 I actively participate in every activity
during the lesson
13 11 4 1
The results in Table 2 show that most of the students believe that they participate
in class regularly.
Table 3 shows the students' responses to the last 2 items on the questionnaire
Item Statement Yes No
19 I usually work hard at mathematics 28 1
20 I would work harder at mathematics if I were getting a tangible prize
(gift)
16 13
Interestingly, almost half of the participants indicated that a tangible prize would
not motivate them to work harder in mathematics. This response could be one of two
reasons, this portion of the participants either believe that they are working at their
fullest potential already or they are intrinsically motivated more so than extrinsically
motivated.
The charts below pinpoint certain items from the questionnaire and show the
comparison of the responses for these items.
Figure 1 shows the students’ responses for items 3, 6, 8 and 10 from the questionnaire
These questions were chosen because they give a glimpse into the students’
attitudes towards the subject inside and outside of the classroom. An alarming 97% state
that they are sure that they can learn mathematics based on the results for item 3 and
86% state that they are willing to work harder in mathematics even if their grade does
not change due to the results for item 6. However 59% state that they do not read about
mathematics outside of the classroom. While based on the responses to item 10, 76% state
that they enjoy learning more complicated and new topics in mathematics.
2
17
3
1
2
7
4
28
25
5
22
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
3
6
8
10
Student Responses
Ite
m N
um
ber
A Visual Comparison of Students' Responses for Items 3, 6, 8 and 10
Disagree Neutral Agree
Figure 2 shows the student responses for items 11 to 18 from the questionnaire
These items show us the students’ self-assessment of their participation in their
mathematics classes. The majority of the students stated that they ask and answer
questions in class, they gladly work in groups when asked to and come to class prepared.
This is seen in the responses for items 11 to 14. Some 72% state that they have
volunteered to demonstrate solutions in their mathematics classes at some point in time.
Although 55% state that they get bored in the sessions sometimes, an overwhelming 97%
state that they pay attention in class most of the time and actively participate in activities.
This is seem in the results for items 16 through 18.
6
10
16
5
4
1
13
6
7
7
8
9
1
1
11
15
11
4
16
8
16
7
4
2
1
2
8
11
21
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Student Responses
Ite
m N
um
ber
A Visual Comparison of Students' Responses to Items Numbered 11 to 18
Very Often Often Sometimes Never
Figure 3 is a pie chart showing the responses of the students to item 19 on the questionnaire
Twenty-eight out of the twenty-nine students who took part in the survey
indicated that they worked hard in mathematics as shown in the pie chart above. Of all
the participants, only 55% stated that they would work harder if they were getting a
tangible prize. This is illustrated in the pie chart below.
Figure 4 is a pie chart showing the students' responses to item 20 on the questionnaire
97%
3%
Students'Responses to Item 19
Yes No
55%
45%
Students' Responses to Item 20
Yes No
The table below shows the results of the students for tests carried out during the
study. Test 1 was carried out when the students were motivated by words of affirmation
and encouragement. While test 2 was carried out when the tangible rewards system was
implemented.
Table 4 shows the test results for the students before and during the tangible rewards system
Student Code Test 1 % Test 2 %
Stu01 45 71
Stu02 100 abs
Stu03 65 76
Stu04 60 67
Stu05 95 100
Stu06 75 76
Stu07 40 60
Stu08 70 67
Stu09 45 69
Stu10 95 88
Stu11 55 55
Stu12 30 86
Stu13 40 60
Stu14 45 88
Stu15 50 81
Stu16 90 79
Stu17 55 62
Stu18 30 74
Stu19 abs 68
Stu20 80 83
Stu21 45 79
Stu22 75 55
Stu23 55 76
Stu24 75 79
Stu25 50 33
Stu26 95 93
Stu27 30 79
Stu28 55 86
Stu29 55 88
Stu30 100 100
Stu31 35 83
Figure 5 gives a visual representation of the comparison between test 1 and test 2 percentages for the students
When the percentages themselves are compared between tests for each student, 22
out of the 30 students had improved from test 1 to test 2 while one student’s percentage
remained unchanged. The chart below gives a better correlation of the distribution of the
percentages for both tests.
Figure 6 shows the frequency distribution of percentages for both tests
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Test
Per
cen
tage
Students
Comparison of Test Percentages for Each Student
Test 1 % Test 2 %
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Stu
den
ts
Frequency Distribution Comparison of Test 1 and Test 2 Percentages
Test 1 Test 2
The average percentage for test 1 was 62%; while for test 2 the average was 75%.
Before the tangible rewards system was implemented eleven out of the thirty students
who took test 1 gained over 70%. For test 2, twenty out of the thirty students who took
that test gained 70% or more. This means that before the incentives were introduced 37%
of the class was gaining at least 70% and when the incentives were introduced that
percentage rose to 67%.
On average 13 students would actively participate in class based on the
observations done before the tangible rewards system compared to 21 students during the
tangible rewards system. After the tangible rewards system the average fell to 15 students
actively participating in class.
Discussion
Based on the data collected from the various sources; this study proved that
rewards systems do have some impact on student motivation in mathematics. As
researchers stated tangible rewards do elicit some measure of extrinsic motivation and
this is seen in the increase in the average number of students who actively participated in
class.
During the time span when words of affirmation were used as motivation 42% of
the students were observed to be actively participating in class. When the incentives
were introduced, that percentage rose to 68% but afterwards fell to 48%. This drop in
observed participation after the rewards system confirms two things that researchers
stated:
1. When the incentives are gone so does the extrinsic motivation (Kohn, 1994)
2. Incentives can be used to elicit extrinsic motivation which could set the
foundation for intrinsic motivation (Cameroon & Pierce, 1994; Horner & Spauling,
2009)
This second statement was seen in the fact that although the average percentage of
students participating dropped after the incentives were gone; it was still greater than the
average percentage of the students participating before.
One of the incentives used during the tangible rewards system was the Wiz Kid
badge. A student earned this badge by gaining 70% or more in one test and two
assignments. As was stated earlier in the results section, the number of students gaining at
least 70% before the incentives was 37%, after the incentives this percentage rose to 67%.
This clearly indicates that incentives can impact positively on the quality of work
produced by students; since the topic was the same and both tests were weighted
similarly. In addition although 97% stated that yes they worked hard in mathematics;
55% still indicated that they would work even harder if they were given a tangible prize.
There was not enough evidence to clearly quantify how intangible rewards
impacted student motivation for this study. This could be due to the fact that researchers
have noted that verbal rewards have a greater impact on college aged students than on
children (Lai, 2011).
Responses to the items such as “I am willing to work hard in mathematics even if
my grade does not improve” and “I enjoy the challenge of learning more complicated and
new topics in mathematics”; show that there was some level of intrinsic motivation for
this particular sample of students. Overall the responses to the first 10 items on the
questionnaire show that there was a high level of self-competence amongst the sample
group. It was noted that high self-competence correlates to intrinsic motivation
(Gottfried, 1990).
Prior mathematics achievement and prior mathematics motivation was also stated
to be one of the motivators for students to be interested in learning mathematics
(Gottfried, 1990). This was clearly seen in the responses to items 2, 3, 4, and 10. Where
for item 2, 89% indicated that they achieved good grades in mathematics and items 3, 4
and 10 attest to the willingness of the students to learn mathematics inclusive of more
difficult topics. In addition the fact that 45% of the students stated that tangible rewards
would not motivate them to work harder in mathematics shows that almost half of the
class do not see incentives as an instrument of motivation.
Summary & Recommendations
The data gathered in this study showed that while tangible rewards do have an
impact on student motivation in mathematics; it is much harder to measure the impact of
tangible rewards on student motivation in mathematics. It appears that tangible rewards
can be used to positively encourage students to aim for higher marks in tests and
assignments. These rewards can also be used to elicit more involvement in classroom
activities. Tangible rewards can also be used as a stepping stone to encourage intrinsic
motivation in a small percentage of students.
The research carried out also showed with this particular age group, students are
fairly evenly matched with respect to their views on tangible rewards impacting their
motivation towards mathematics. The difference between those for and against the use of
tangible gifts as an instrument of motivation in mathematics was only 3.
One of the limitations encountered whilst carrying out the study was determining
which type of motivation was most affected by the use of either intangible or tangible
rewards. A recommendation for further research into this area is to measure the impact of
tangible versus intangible rewards on the intrinsic motivation of students in mathematics.
This recommendation is made because intrinsic motivation is said to be longer lasting and
it reinforces critical thinking skills (Lai, 2011) which are necessary for the learning of
mathematics. There is a need for teachers to know what it is that makes students
genuinely interested in and motivated to continue in mathematics as they grow older.
Once this is known then teachers can encourage and try to reproduce this type behaviour
in their students.
Another limitation encountered, which can serve as a precaution, was the
constant reinforcement of what the purpose of the rewards system was for. Some students
had misunderstandings about the way in which some of the badges were earned and tried
to undermine the process. There must be a clear understanding between the teacher and
the students as to what constitutes the earning of prizes when a rewards system is
implemented.
Overall there is place for both intangible and tangible rewards in the motivation of
students in mathematics. Intangible rewards help to encourage the students to keep
trying even when a task seems difficult while tangible rewards can be used to get them
started on a task. However tangible rewards should be used sparingly but not in a
controlling manner. One of the by-products of both rewards was the camaraderie forged
amongst the students. This is one of the fundamental blocks in the learning of
mathematics.
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