That Nation of Shopkeepers! -- Napoleon Bonaparte

Industrial Revolution Begins in BritainIndustrial Revolution Begins in Britain

• New Ways of WorkingNew Ways of Working– Industrial RevolutionIndustrial Revolution—greatly —greatly

increases output of machine-made increases output of machine-made goods.goods.

– Revolution begins in England in the Revolution begins in England in the middle 1700s.middle 1700s.

Industrial Revolution Begins in Industrial Revolution Begins in BritainBritain

• The Agricultural Revolution Paves the The Agricultural Revolution Paves the WayWay– EnclosuresEnclosures—large farm fields enclosed —large farm fields enclosed

by fences or hedgesby fences or hedges– Wealthy landowners buy, enclose land Wealthy landowners buy, enclose land

once owned by village farmers.once owned by village farmers.– Enclosures allowed experimentation with Enclosures allowed experimentation with

new agricultural methodsnew agricultural methods

“Enclosed” Lands Today

“Enclosed” Lands Today

The Enclosure Movement

The Enclosure Movement

Industrial Revolution Begins in BritainIndustrial Revolution Begins in Britain

• Rotating CropsRotating Crops– Crop rotationCrop rotation——

switching crops switching crops each year to each year to avoid depleting avoid depleting soilsoil

– Livestock Livestock breeders allow breeders allow only the best to only the best to breed, improve breed, improve food supply.food supply.

Satellite image of rotated crops in Kansas in June 2001

Industrial Revolution Begins in Industrial Revolution Begins in BritainBritain

• Why the Industrial Revolution Began Why the Industrial Revolution Began in Englandin England– IndustrializationIndustrialization—move to machine —move to machine

production of goodsproduction of goods– Britain has natural resources—coal, iron, Britain has natural resources—coal, iron,

rivers, harborsrivers, harbors– Expanding economy in Britain Expanding economy in Britain

encourages investmentencourages investment– Britain has all needed factors of Britain has all needed factors of

production—land, labor, capitalproduction—land, labor, capital

Great Britain’s Population Growth Great Britain’s Population Growth 1500-18501500-1850

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

1500 CE 1600 CE 1700 CE 1820 CE 1850 CE

Early CanalsEarly Canals

Britain’s Earliest Transportation Infrastructure

Mine & Forge [1840-1880]

Mine & Forge [1840-1880]ù More powerful than water is

coal.

ù More powerful than wood is iron.

ù Innovations make steel feasible. * “Puddling” [1820] – “pig iron.” * “Hot blast” [1829] – cheaper, purer steel. * Bessemer process [1856] – strong, flexible steel.

Metals, Woolens, & Canals

Metals, Woolens, & Canals

Coalfields & Industrial Areas

Coalfields & Industrial Areas

Coal Mining in BritainCoal Mining in Britain

1800 1 ton of coal 50, 000 miners

1850 30 tons 200, 000 miners

1880 300 million tons 500, 000 miners

1914 250 million tons 1, 200, 000 miners

Young Coal MinersYoung Coal Miners

Child Labor in the Mines

Child Labor in the Mines

Child “hurriers”

Child “hurriers”

British Pig Iron Production

British Pig Iron Production

Government Supports BusinessGovernment Supports Business

• England’s Economic AdvantagesEngland’s Economic Advantages– A central bankA central bank– Well-developed credit marketWell-developed credit market– Government encouraged technological Government encouraged technological

change and free marketschange and free markets• Supported capitalismSupported capitalism

– Labor surplusLabor surplus– Builds railroads, canals, and better Builds railroads, canals, and better

roadsroads

Technological AdvancementsTechnological Advancements

• Textile IndustryTextile Industry– Spinning Jenny—1770Spinning Jenny—1770

• 1 worker could run 8 1 worker could run 8 spindles instead of 1spindles instead of 1

– Water Frame—1779Water Frame—1779• Machine for spinning using Machine for spinning using

water powerwater power

– Spinning Mule—1779Spinning Mule—1779• Combined spinning jenny Combined spinning jenny

& water frame& water frame

– Rise of factory systemRise of factory system– Power Loom—1785Power Loom—1785

• Not widely adopted until Not widely adopted until 18501850

• Led to riots by hand Led to riots by hand weaversweavers

• Other InventionsOther Inventions– Steam Engine—1763Steam Engine—1763

• James Watt made steam James Watt made steam engines practical for engines practical for running machineryrunning machinery

– Cotton Gin—1793Cotton Gin—1793• Eli Whitney’s invention Eli Whitney’s invention

increased the available increased the available supply of cottonsupply of cotton

– Steamboat—1807Steamboat—1807• Robert FultonRobert Fulton

– Locomotive—1814Locomotive—1814• George StephensonGeorge Stephenson

Clockwise from top left: the spinning jenny, the water frame, the spinning mule, and the power loom

Clockwise from top left: the factory system, Watt’s steam engine, and Stephenson’s locomotive

Richard Arkwright:“Pioneer of the Factory

System”

Richard Arkwright:“Pioneer of the Factory

System”

The “Water Frame”

Factory ProductionFactory Production) Concentrates production in

oneplace [materials, labor].

) Located near sources of power

[rather than labor or markets].

) Requires a lot of capital investment[factory, machines, etc.] morethan skilled labor.

) Only 10% of English industry in 1850.

Textile FactoryWorkers in England

Textile FactoryWorkers in England

1813 2400 looms 150, 000 workers

1833 85, 000 looms 200, 000 workers

1850224, 000 looms

>1 million workers

The Factory SystemThe Factory System

Rigid schedule.

12-14 hour day.

Dangerous conditions.

Mind-numbing monotony.

Textile FactoryWorkers in England

Textile FactoryWorkers in England

Young “Bobbin-Doffers”

Young “Bobbin-Doffers”

• ““Carding” is a mechanical process that breaks up Carding” is a mechanical process that breaks up locks and unorganized clumps of fiber and then aligns locks and unorganized clumps of fiber and then aligns the individual fibers so that they are more or less the individual fibers so that they are more or less parallel with each other. This enabled them to be more parallel with each other. This enabled them to be more easily spun into thread. The old method was done by easily spun into thread. The old method was done by hand using these tools.hand using these tools.

carding carding machine-machine-replaces the replaces the hand process hand process of combing out of combing out the fibers the fibers before they before they can be spun can be spun into yarn or into yarn or thread.thread.

Inventions Spur IndustrializationInventions Spur Industrialization

– Factories—Factories—buildings that buildings that contain contain machinery for machinery for manufacturingmanufacturing

James Watt

Improvements in TransportationImprovements in Transportation

• Watt’s Steam EngineWatt’s Steam Engine– Need for cheap, convenient Need for cheap, convenient

power spurs development of power spurs development of steam enginesteam engine

– James Watt improves steam James Watt improves steam engine, financed by Matthew engine, financed by Matthew BoultonBoulton

– Boulton—an Boulton—an entrepreneurentrepreneur——organizes, manages, takes organizes, manages, takes business risks.business risks.

Matthew Boulton

Trevithick's 1804 locomotive. This full-scale replica of steam-powered railway locomotive is in the National Waterfront Museum, Swansea

The Railway Age BeginsThe Railway Age Begins

• Liverpool-Manchester RailroadLiverpool-Manchester Railroad–Entrepreneurs build railroad Entrepreneurs build railroad

from Liverpool to Manchesterfrom Liverpool to Manchester

The Impact of the Railroad

The Impact of the Railroad

Railroads on the Continent

Railroads on the Continent

Steam ShipSteam Ship

UrbanizationUrbanization

• Effects related to Effects related to urbanizationurbanization– Urban overcrowdingUrban overcrowding

• Poor housing & Poor housing & sanitationsanitation

• Rising crime ratesRising crime rates

– SuburbanizationSuburbanization– Government functions Government functions

shiftshift• Sewer systemsSewer systems

• Housing regulationsHousing regulations

• Police forcesPolice forces

Industrialization Changes LifeIndustrialization Changes Life

• Living ConditionsLiving Conditions– Sickness widespread; epidemics, like Sickness widespread; epidemics, like

cholera, sweep urban slumscholera, sweep urban slums– Life span in one large city is only 17 Life span in one large city is only 17

yearsyears– Wealthy merchants, factory owners live Wealthy merchants, factory owners live

in luxurious suburban homesin luxurious suburban homes– Rapidly growing cities lack sanitary Rapidly growing cities lack sanitary

codes and building codescodes and building codes– Cities also without adequate housing, Cities also without adequate housing,

education, and police protectioneducation, and police protection

Industrialization Changes LifeIndustrialization Changes Life• Working ConditionsWorking Conditions

– Average working day is 14 hours for 6 days a week, year Average working day is 14 hours for 6 days a week, year roundround

– Dirty, poorly lit factories injure workersDirty, poorly lit factories injure workers– Many coal miners killed by coal dustMany coal miners killed by coal dust

• Women & children are majority of laborers by 1816: Paid Women & children are majority of laborers by 1816: Paid less, Many lived in factory dormsless, Many lived in factory dorms

• Work became unpleasantWork became unpleasant– Workers separated from familyWorkers separated from family– Punctuality & efficiency stressedPunctuality & efficiency stressed– Poor working hours & wages, unemployment, & frequent Poor working hours & wages, unemployment, & frequent

accidentsaccidents• Labor riots were common (Luddites)Labor riots were common (Luddites)

Class Tensions GrowClass Tensions Grow

• The Middle ClassThe Middle Class– Middle classMiddle class—skilled workers, —skilled workers,

merchants, rich farmers, professionalsmerchants, rich farmers, professionals– Emerging middle class looked down on Emerging middle class looked down on

by landowners and aristocratsby landowners and aristocrats– Middle class has comfortable standard of Middle class has comfortable standard of

livingliving

Class Tensions GrowClass Tensions Grow

• The Working ClassThe Working Class– Laborers’ lives not improved; some Laborers’ lives not improved; some

laborers replaced by machineslaborers replaced by machines– Luddites and other groups destroy Luddites and other groups destroy

machinery that puts them out of workmachinery that puts them out of work– Unemployment is a serious problem; Unemployment is a serious problem;

unemployed workers riotunemployed workers riot

19c Bourgeoisie: The Industrial Nouveau

Riche

19c Bourgeoisie: The Industrial Nouveau

Riche

Criticism of the New Bourgeoisie

Criticism of the New Bourgeoisie

Stereotype of the Factory Owner

Stereotype of the Factory Owner

“Upstairs”/“Downstairs” Life

“Upstairs”/“Downstairs” Life

Factory Wages in Lancashire, 1830

Factory Wages in Lancashire, 1830

Age of Worker Male Wages Female Wages

under 11 2s 3d. 2s. 4d.

11 - 16 4s. 1d. 4s. 3d.

17 - 21 10s. 2d. 7s. 3d.

22 - 26 17s. 2d. 8s. 5d.

27 - 31 20s. 4d. 8s. 7d.

32 - 36 22s. 8d. 8s. 9d.

37 - 41 21s. 7d. 9s. 8d.

42 - 46 20s. 3d. 9s. 3d.

47 - 51 16s. 7d. 8s. 10d.

52 - 56 16s. 4d. 8s. 4d.

57 - 61 13s. 6d. 6s. 4d.

Industrial Staffordshire

Industrial Staffordshire

The New Industrial City

The New Industrial City

Problem of PollutionProblem of Pollution

The Silent Highwayman – 1858Father Thames Introduces His Offspring (Diphtheria, Scrofula, and Cholera) to the Fair City of London

Early-19c Londonby Gustave Dore

Early-19c Londonby Gustave Dore

Worker Housing in Manchester

Worker Housing in Manchester

Factory Workers at Home

Factory Workers at Home

Workers Housing in Newcastle TodayWorkers Housing in Newcastle Today

The New Urban Poor:A Dickensian Nightmare!The New Urban Poor:A Dickensian Nightmare!

Private Charities: Soup Kitchens

Private Charities: Soup Kitchens

Private Charities: The “Lady Bountifuls”Private Charities:

The “Lady Bountifuls”

Changing Family ValuesChanging Family Values

• Women withdrew from formal jobsWomen withdrew from formal jobs– New roles in caring for childrenNew roles in caring for children– Moral status improvedMoral status improved

• Education stressed by middle class Education stressed by middle class familiesfamilies

• Children seen as a source of Children seen as a source of emotional satisfactionemotional satisfaction

Cultural ChangesCultural Changes

• Rise of Mass Leisure CultureRise of Mass Leisure Culture– Widespread advertising creates Widespread advertising creates

consumer fads (bicycle)consumer fads (bicycle)– Newspapers become popularNewspapers become popular– Radio and motion picturesRadio and motion pictures– Organized sports: baseball, soccer, Organized sports: baseball, soccer,

boxing, horse racingboxing, horse racing– Family vacations for the wealthy and Family vacations for the wealthy and

middle classmiddle class

Adjustments to Industrial LifeAdjustments to Industrial Life

• Demographic TransitionDemographic Transition– Declining birth ratesDeclining birth rates– Declining death rates for childrenDeclining death rates for children– Family size decreasesFamily size decreases

• Life expectancy increasedLife expectancy increased– Discovery of germs by Louis PasteurDiscovery of germs by Louis Pasteur– Women began to outlive menWomen began to outlive men– Widespread use of vaccines by the Widespread use of vaccines by the

1880s1880s

Spread of Industrialization by Spread of Industrialization by 18501850

22ndnd Industrial Revolution Industrial Revolution• Scientific advances applied to industryScientific advances applied to industry

– Major advances in physics and chemistryMajor advances in physics and chemistry• Led by the U.S. and GermanyLed by the U.S. and Germany• Thomas Edison introduced electric lighting to Thomas Edison introduced electric lighting to

New York City in 1882New York City in 1882– General Electric and Westinghouse become General Electric and Westinghouse become

the first multinational corporationsthe first multinational corporations• New business structures: corporations, trusts, New business structures: corporations, trusts,

and cartelsand cartels

22ndnd Industrial Revolution Industrial Revolution

• Advances in communicationsAdvances in communications– Needed by business managers to control their Needed by business managers to control their

many branchesmany branches– Telegraph (1844) & telephone (1876)Telegraph (1844) & telephone (1876)

• Methods of Mass ProductionMethods of Mass Production– Electric power replaces steam powerElectric power replaces steam power– Henry Ford introduces the assembly line (1913)Henry Ford introduces the assembly line (1913)

• New waves of immigrationNew waves of immigration• Global industrialization: Russia, Canada, Mexico, and Global industrialization: Russia, Canada, Mexico, and

JapanJapan

New York City, 1910

Responses to IndustrializationResponses to Industrialization

• Changes in government functionsChanges in government functions– The “Constitutional Question” settled by The “Constitutional Question” settled by

18501850– The “Social Question”The “Social Question”

• Beginning of the welfare stateBeginning of the welfare state– Social insurance (worker’s compensation, Social insurance (worker’s compensation,

unemployment, etc.)unemployment, etc.)– Symbolized extension of governmentSymbolized extension of government

• Corresponds with the democratization of the Corresponds with the democratization of the political systempolitical system

Labor ReformLabor Reform

• Labor unionsLabor unions– Unions use collective bargaining and Unions use collective bargaining and

strikes to push for reformsstrikes to push for reforms– Britain attempted to outlaw labor unionsBritain attempted to outlaw labor unions

• Reform lawsReform laws– Combination Acts of 1825 – Legalizes labor Combination Acts of 1825 – Legalizes labor

unionsunions– Factory Act of 1833 – Child LaborFactory Act of 1833 – Child Labor– Mines Act of 1842 – Women and children Mines Act of 1842 – Women and children

cannot work undergroundcannot work underground

The Luddites: 1811-1816

The Luddites: 1811-1816

Ned Ludd [a mythical figure supposed to live in Sherwood Forest]

Attacks on the “frames” [power looms].

The Luddite TriangleThe Luddite Triangle

The LudditesThe Luddites

The Neo-Luddites Today

The Neo-Luddites Today

BritishSoldiers Fire on British

Workers:

Let us die like men, and not be sold

like slaves!

BritishSoldiers Fire on British

Workers:

Let us die like men, and not be sold

like slaves!

Peterloo Massacre, 1819

Peterloo Massacre, 1819

The Chartists

The Chartists

KeyKey

        Chartistsettlements

         Centres of Chartism

      Area of plug riots, 1842

The “Peoples’ Charter”

The “Peoples’ Charter”V Drafted in 1838 by William Lovett.

V Radical campaign for Parliamentary reform of the inequalities created by the Reform Bill of 1832.

Votes for all men. Equal electoral districts. Abolition of the requirement

that Members of Parliament [MPs] be property owners.

Payment for Members of Parliament.

Annual general elections. The secret ballot.

The ChartistsThe Chartists

A physical force—Chartists arming for

the fight.

A female Chartist

Anti-Corn Law League, 1845

Anti-Corn Law League, 1845

Give manufactures more outlets for their products.

Expand employment. Lower the price of bread. Make British agriculture more

efficient and productive. Expose trade and agriculture to

foreign competition. Promote international peace

through trade contact.

Positive Effects of the Industrial RevolutionPositive Effects of the Industrial Revolution

• Immediate BenefitsImmediate Benefits– Creates jobs, enriches nation, encourages technological Creates jobs, enriches nation, encourages technological

progressprogress– Education expands, clothing cheaper, diet and housing Education expands, clothing cheaper, diet and housing

improveimprove– Workers eventually win shorter hours, better wages and Workers eventually win shorter hours, better wages and

conditionsconditions• Long-Term EffectsLong-Term Effects

– Improved living and working conditions still evident todayImproved living and working conditions still evident today– Governments use increased tax revenues for urban Governments use increased tax revenues for urban

developmentsdevelopments

Thomas MalthusThomas Malthus

Population growth willoutpace the food supply.

War, disease, or faminecould control population.

The poor should have

less children.

Food supply will then keep up with population.

David RicardoDavid Ricardo

“Iron Law of Wages.”

When wages are high,workers have morechildren.

More children create alarge labor surplus thatdepresses wages.

The Utilitarians:Jeremy Bentham & John

Stuart Mill

The Utilitarians:Jeremy Bentham & John

Stuart Mill The goal of society is the greatest good for the greatest number.

There is a role to play for government

intervention to provide some social safetynet.

The Socialists: Utopians & Marxists The Socialists: Utopians & Marxists

People as a society would operate and own themeans of production, not individuals.

Their goal was a society that benefited everyone, not just a rich, well-connected few.

Tried to build perfect communities [utopias].

Government Response

Government Responsek Abolition of slavery in the

coloniesin 1832 [to raise wages in Britain].

k Sadler Commission to look intoworking conditions * Factory Act [1833] – child labor.

k New Poor Law [1834] – indoor relief. * Poor houses.

k Reform Bill [1832] – broadens thevote for the cities.

By 1850: Zones of

Industrializationon the European

Continent

By 1850: Zones of

Industrializationon the European

Continentù Northeast France.ù Belgium.ù The Netherlands.ù Western German states.ù Northern Italyù East Germany Saxony

Industrialization By 1850Industrialization By 1850

European Industrial Production

European Industrial Production

Shares in World Trade:

Leading European Nations

Shares in World Trade:

Leading European Nations

The Politics of IndustrializationThe Politics of

Industrializationù State ownership of some industries.

) RRs Belgium & most of Germany.

ù Tariffs British Corn Laws.ù National Banks granted a monopoly

on issuing bank notes.) Bank of England.) Bank of France.

ù Companies required to register with the government & publish annual budgets.

ù New legislation to:) Establish limited liability.) Create rules for the formation of

corporations.ù Postal system.ù Free trade zones Ger. Zollverein