THE MONIST CALL FOR PAPERS - Angelo State … publications...212 MARGARET SCHABAS Schabas, Margaret,...

THE MONIST CALL FOR PAPERS amp

Topics for Recent and Forthcoming Issues

Papers may now be submitted to the Editor of THE MONIST for publication in the folshylowing special issues each of which is devoted to a single general topic specified by the Edjtorial Board No paper can be considered which has been published elsewhere

Publication Deadline Date Volume General Topic for Papers

July 2005 883 Time Travel July 2004

Ocl200S 884 Ordinary Objects Oct 2004

Jan 2006 891 Truth Jan 2005

Apr2006 892 The Foundations of International Order Apr 2005

July 2006 893 Coming into Being and Passing Away July 2005

Oct 2006 894 Genetics and Ethics Oct 2005

Jan 2007 901 Sovereignty Jan 2006

Apr 2007 902 Scottish Philosophy Apr 2006

July 2007 903 Lesser Kinds July 2006

Oct 2007 904 Biomedical Ontologies Oct 2006

Jan 2008 91 1 Privacy Jan 2007

Apr 2008 91 2 Intentionality and Phenomenal Consciousness Apr 2007

july 2008 913 Marriage July 2007

Oct 2008 914 Europa Oct 2007

Jan 2009 921 Singular Causation Jan 2008

Instructions

Scholars in philosophy or related disciplines who wish to submit papers for any of the above special issues of THE MONIST should communicate well in advance with the Editor and ask for Special Instructions defining the scope of the general topics in which they are interested Papers may be from 4000 to 8000 words in length- or about 10 to 20 double-spaced typewritten pages includjng notes Two clear copies should be submitted (one clear copy from contributors outside the U S and Canada) and these will not be returned

Correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to

Professor Barry Smith

Department of Philosophy

University at Buffalo

Slate University of New York

135 Park Hall

Buffalo NY 14260-1 150 USA ph iSllli 111 lt0 1111 ffalt ltd tl

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THE MON lS) An International Quarterly Journal of eCIItIi 111(1 t IlIi( 1

FOUNDED 1888 BY EDWARD c IIIC I U R

Editor BARRY SMITH Managing Editor SHERWOOD J B SUCDIN

Production CRAIG W ODELL

Editorial Board HENRY E ALLISON Boston University DAVID M ARMSTRONG Univrrsity of Sydney ROBERTO CASATI CNRS ParisBuffalo DAGFINN F0LLESDAL Stanford University amp University of Oslo SUSAN HAACK University of Miami JOHN HALDANE University of SI Andrews Scotland RUDOLF HALLER University of Graz RUTH BARCAN MARCUS Yale University JOSEPH MARGOLIS Temple University WALLACE 1 MATSON Univrrsily of Calshyifornia at Berkeley KEVIN MULLIGAN University of Geneva J C NY(R1 Hungarian Academy of Sciences Budapest J OWENS Pcmtijical Institute of Mediaeval Siudies Toronto ANITA SILVERS San Francisco State University PETER M SIMONS Universily of Leeds JUliN

E SMITH Yale University SIR PETER STRAWSON Oxford University JAN WOLENSKI IUJii Ionian University Cracow ACHILLE C VARZI Columbia University

Historical Note Paul Carus Paul Carus the first editor of The Monist was born in Isenberg am Harz on July 111

1852 and died in La Salle nIinois on February 111919 After receiving his PhD degrle in philosophy and classical philology from Tiibingen University in 1876 he taught briefly at the State Military Academy at Dresden In search of freedom for expression of his independent views he migrated first to England and then to the United Sta[(s In 1887 he accepted the invitation of Edward C HegeJer (who later became his fathtrshyin-law) to edit The Open Court magazine a monthly journal devoted primarily to comshyparative religion In 1888 The Monist was established as a quarterly journal of Ihc phishylosophy of science and Paul Carus served as editor of both journals and as editor of Ihe Open Court Publishing Company until his death in 1919

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APRIL 2007 VOL 90 NO2

THE MONIST An International Quarterly Journal of General Philosophical Inquiry

FOUNDED 1888 BY EDWARD C HEGELER

EDITOR Barry Smith

ADVISORY EDITOR John Haldane

MANAGING EDITOR Sherwood 1 B Sugden

GENERAL TOPIC Scottish Philosophy

ARTICLES

JOHN HALDANE 147Scottish Philosophy

GORDON GRAHAM The Ambition of Scottish Philosophy 154

DANIEL N ROBINSON The Scottish Enlightenment and the American Founding 170

PAUL RUSSELL Humes Lucretian Mission Is it Self-refuting 182

MARGARET SCHABAS Groups versus Individuals in Humes Political Economy 200

JOHN GLASSFORD Sympathy and Sp~ctatorship in Scottish Writing After Hume 213

RYAN NICHOLS Natural Philosophy and its Limits in the Scottish Enlightenment 233

JAMES VAN CLEVE Reids Answer to Molyneuxs Question 251

DABNEY TOWNSEND Dugald Stewart on Beauty and Taste 271

JAMES RESER The Rise and Fall of James Beatties Common-sense Theory of Truth 287

JENNY KEEFE 297James Fenicr and the Theory of Ignorance

MARKWEBLIN 310Andersol 011 R~ id alld S(ollish Philosophy

326BOOKS RE( I ~IVhll bullbullbullbullbullbull bullbull

( I( II

212 MARGARET SCHABAS

Schabas Margaret 2001 David Hume on Experimental Natural Philosophy Money and Fluids History ofPolitical Economy 33 411-35

Searle John 1995 The Construction ofSocial Reality London Penguin Books Skinner Andrew 1967 Natural History in the Age ofAdam Smith Political Studies 15

32-48 __ 1993 David Hume Principles of Political Economy in David F Norton ed The

Cambridge Companion to Hume Cambridge Cambridge University Press Smith Adam 1976 An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations R

H Cambell and A S Skinner eds 2 vols Oxford Oxford University Press Sturn Richard 2004 The Sceptic as an Economists Philosopher Humean Utility as a

Positive Principle European Journal of the History of Economic Thought 113

345-75 Sugden Robert 2005 Why Rationality is Not a Consequence of Humes Theory of

Choice European Journal of the History ofEconomic Thought 121 113-18 Wennerlind Carl 2002 David Humes Political Philosophy A Theory of Commercial

Modernization Hume Studies 282 247-70 Wicksteed Philip Henry 1933 Political Economy and Psychology [1896] reprinted in

Lionel Robbins ed The Common Sense of Political Economy London George

RoutledgeWootton David 1993 David Hume the historian in David Fate Norton ed The

Cambridge Companion to Hume Cambridge Cambridge University Press

SYMPATHY AND SPECTATORSHIP

IN SCOTTISH WRITING AFTER HUME

A review of Edmund Busseds account of British empiricism by certain analytic philosophers is both suggestive and misleading I Scottish philosophers have often been cast as English or British for no better reashyson it would appear than that they follow so-called English empiricists chronologically or because of their geographic proximity or because they share a language with their Southern neighbors It is certainly the case that Bussed himself who first proposed that the skeptical epoche (broXry) cessation or skeptical refusal of classical philosophy had a peculiar impact upon philosophy of the British stamp did not make a clear distinction between the different traditions 2 In any event it is apparent that analytic philosophers have subsequently failed to appreciate the specific impact this skepticism had upon Scottish philosophy This is nowhere more obvishyous than in the case of David Burnes idea of sympathy No quality of hurnan nature is more remarkable than sympathy said Burne in his Treatise of Human Nature 3 For the most part the European continental engageshyment with Scottish philosophy has been ignored by contemporary analytshyic philosophy4 Yet this connection was made by Busser In the preface to his Ideas A General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology (I 9 13) he wrote One can then say that David Burnes Treatise (I 739) gives the first systematic sketch of pure phenomenology5

Following Busser and a number of contemporary writers I will briefly outline the phenomenology which is to be found in Burnes Treatise I will then explore three reports offamily tragedy which are subshysequently put to work by later Scottish writers and that appear to owe something to Burnes idea of sympathy The first case is a little-remarkedshyupon footnote in Adam Smiths Theory ofMoral Sentiments (I759) conshycerning a cause celebre of his own time the execution of the innocent fathcr Jean Calas The second example is a fictional account of family

~y ll ll lh y 1111 11 lpl~ 1 lill l ll lhip ill Stx)lti h Wrilinp tflcr Hume hy John Glassford hf iII ~ I 11 I 12 (middot Jlyri lhl Q2007 TIIF MONIST 1CltI Illillois 61J54

214 215 JOHN GLASSFORD

breakdown and alienation which forms the centerpiece of Robert Louis Stevensons unfinished novel Weir ofHermiston (1894) Weir is a tale of family crisis and a public execution on the streets of Edinburgh the hangshying ofDuncan lopp Finally in a series ofscattered comments on Dostoevskys Crime and Punishment made during the 1960s the Scottish existentialist R D Laing turned to literary representations of ego collapse in order to demonstrate the need for an upheaval in our understanding of family polshyitics6This peculiar tradition of sympathetic spectatorship is nowhere more apparent than when the subject is that of dysfunctional family relationships7

I

From Hegels Phenomenology of Spirit (1806) to Husserls mature writings and beyond phenomenologists have been concerned to explain the philosophical odyssey from the natural attitude to the phenomenologshyical attitude of philosophy itself The phenomenological attitude unlike the naIve standpoint of the natural attitude is a third-person spectator point ofview in which we phenomenologists become detached observers who contemplate how the world appears to consciousness rather than remaining submerged within that world8 The themes of Hegels famous preface to his Phenomenology ofSpirit set the tone of modem phenomeshynology (although interestingly that text has subsequently become de-coushypled from the Husserlian tradition of phenomenology) Can philosophy introduce itself and explain what it is trying to do Can philosophy legitshyimate itself before those who are not philosophers Can philosophy clarishyfy its own origins9 In this sense phenomenology is a technical term for a sub-branch of philosophy that emerges from the classical beginnings of the entire philosophical enterprise but with this difference phenomenolshyogy only attempts to doubt rather than actually doubts 10

According to the phenomenological perspective being one step removed from actual doubting creates a public experience In Humes terms this empathetic or bracketed space is a common point of view which presents itself to every spectator In the Treatise Hume clearly engages in such a procedure and is fully conscious of doing so He said We must therefore in every reasoning form a new judgmcnt as a chcck or controul on our first judgment or belief and must cnlarpc Olll view to comprehend a kind of history of all the instances WI(((111 ( 1 11 IlI1I k r


standing has deceivd us compard with those wherein its testimony was just and true 11 This is a move from Cartesian monological experience to dialogical or inter-subjective experience experiences which are more constant and universal said Hume 12 The family resemblance between Humes idea of sympathy with more recent phenomenology can be seen when we consider Husserls epoche Husserl held that to make a pheshynomenological judgment effected what he called a change of attitude (Einstellungsiinderung) but most critically this change of view brought about a further return (Riickgang) towards a transcendental view albeit a weak transcendental mode of experienceI3 In the Treatise Hume engaged in a similar procedure he distinguished between principles that were permanent irresistible and universal as opposed to those that were changeable weak and irregular14 According to Husserl this move was first made by Hume and here Husserl was surely correct after his skepticism had driven him into a state of melancholy and delirium Hume re-introduced the stabilizing force of this return when he left his study and returned to join his friends I dine I playa game of backgamshymon I converse and am merry with my friendsls The friends are always already there playing games in a relaxed and natural way The exhausting and unnatural demands ofphilosophy on the other hand are only engaged in sporadically and should not be sustained for too long Thus Hume s return to the social pleasure of the bourgeois parlor was not simply the resolution of an anxiety attack but a philosophical solution to the issues raised by the problems of philosophys self-understanding In short rejecting the atomistic mechanical and asocial first principles of Hobbes and Locke Hume presents the reader with a public mind a phenomenoshylogical we as the solution to the problem of knowledge 16

Humes philosophical motivations are too complex to be discussed here most contemporary scholars would agree that these motivations had much to do with preventing the abuse of philosophy by philosophical and thcological extremists of one kind or another17 However when Husserl thought of Hume as the first exponent of pure phenomenology be may have had in mind that Humes project remained closer than his own to the original spirit of the great classical skeptics such as Sextus Empiricus ls

Ancicnt Pyrrholl iall shpti cism was intended to lead to tolerance and open IllindcdlHsS vlll1 n I( lse to Humcs heart However this larger IvIlh oll i(11I IH(lI I ( 1 111 11(11 IIlt illlO Wly commit lIurnc to cithcr the final


position of skeptical philosophy as such or to the vulgar default position of everyday life and common sense Rather Hume positioned himself as epistemological mediator as a proto-phenomenologist said Husser who implicitly sought to limit the fragmenting centrifugal forces of modern life- science (Newtons experimental method of reasoning) markets and urbanization-upon individual ego integrity (despair) Hume sought to achieve this perhaps over ambitiously as he later recognized by presentshying to the public a system of epistemological discriminations concerning knowledge belief custom and convention which would enable the fruitshyful development of true philosophy9 In a radical epistemological departure from British empiricism Hume bracketed causal inquiry This phenomenological procedure allowed him to legitimate his own peculiar kind of self-experience (his philosophical skepticism) which was then given over to a weak transcendental subjectivity In a sense even the treashysured notion of causality often thought ofas an objective reality was conshystituted in and through the continuities and certainties of social experishyence according to Hume20

During the latter half of the eighteenth century and into the nineshyteenth the concept of sympathy was emerging as a technical philosophishycal expression of ever-increasing importance to the Scottish tradition The concept of inter-subjectivity led Hume and other Scots like Adam Smith towards a grammar of the consciousness and intentionality that functioned in and through the experience of others So on learning that Smith was preparing a second edition of his Theory of Moral Sentiments (1761) Hume wrote to Smith and raised a number of specific objections to Smith s account of sympathy Smiths refinement of Humes account of sympathy amounted to the idea that sympathy is always pleasurable because even if the sentiments communicated are not there remains a second level ofpleasure wmch is a kind ofreward for being able to empatillze at all even in painful or hurtful situations Hume recognized the signifishycance of Smiths refinement and objected with his usual playful sense of humor suggesting that if Smiths version of sympathy were correct hosshypitals for example would be places of entertainrnent21 Phenomenolshyogically speaking we not only experience for ourselves but we also expeshyrience the experiences of others (although not directly) This process opershyates through complex patterns of recognition As one conterllporary pheshynomenologist Robert Sokolowski has said Tr Ihe ()111 ~ 1 Jl l l t(l1l llI ers


certain sounds or makes certain grimaces I can be told that Trouble is coming or Dont give up now22

Turning to Adam Smith Smith rejected selfishness altruism and utility as the ultimate meta-theoretical ground of his own ethical system turning instead towards a relatively complex inter-subjective conception of empathy which was based upon Humes Smith anticipating Hegel held that recognition (or status) was the most basic human drive In the words of Sokolowski there is no self outside relations of inter-subjective apperception23 This phenomenological reading of Smith for example completely transforms our understanding of the role of markets in his sysshytem As one recent commentator has observed markets are a central mechanism for social integration derived not from strategic self-interest but rather from the inexorable struggle by human agents for moral approshybation and social recognition24

The Scottish concern with communication and performativity in lanshyguage-use as an integral element of sociability and with what the most Humean of Englishmen Edward Gibbon referred to as the cheershyful flow of unguarded conversation emerges from these same recognishytive concerns24 In is Essays Moral and Political (1742) Hume celebratshyed his own age and the recent departure from the great Defect of the last Age the scholastic philosophy that had closed its doors only to facilitate the moaping recluse Method ofStudy26 The relevance ofphilosophy he argued would only be demonstrated (in other words legitimated) were it drawn from common Life and Conversation27 According to Hume there was a Balance of Trade between philosophical discourse and the discourse of common life where one would amiably preserve and foster the other Famously Hume saw himself as one ofthe Ambassador[s] of this communication between the Materials of common life and the Manufacturing of the ideas which made some of these materials These commercial metaphors were certainly not lost on Smith who deployed them in his own full-blown social and cultural critique of mercantilism and in his own discourse ethics zs

This inter-subjective analysis of sociability was not only deployed against Cartesian solipsism and Lockes theory of ideas it also proved to he a uslt fll I mel hod for exploring the kind of communicative failures whidl anolllp i1niql 11 11H ()Ihcr problem children of modernity political 1I1101Il Y i lldl vldll iI middotiII W HiJl1 ly chllreh-state relations and the family


The family a mini-laboratory of sorts would provide fertile ground for this peculiar form of Scottish enquiry and prove to be a fruitful avenue of investigation into failures of language and communication In the Scottish tradition family breakdown often precipitated an existential crisis among individual agents which in tum led to injustice public humiliation and death This occurred because genuine communication between family members Gibbons unguarded conversation and Adam Smiths free communication of sentiments and opinions became distorted under cershytain conditions by strategic forms of communication especially heavily disguised ego desires such as the need for power autonomy status knowledge or money29

II

In his account of the Jean Calas case in the Theory 0 Moral Sentiments Adam Smith was obviously appalled by the complete existenshytial and communicative horror of blame-worthiness which was involved 30 The Calas case taken up by Voltaire and known throughout France was probably passed on to Smith by word of mouth while he lived in Toulouse or when he visited Voltaire Jean Calas was a Calvinist who was falsely accused of killing his own son in 1762 It was alleged that he committed the murder to prevent his son from converting to Catholicism Calas was tortured on the rack but continued to profess his innocence and eventually was burned at the stake Following Voltaires crusade against the injustice of the case the guilty verdict was annulled in 1765 Apparently the actual facts of the case were that Calass son had commitshyted suicide and the family had concealed the cause of his death to avoid the social stigma the shame and the legal problems associated with such an event Central to Voltaires indictment in his Treatise on Tolerance (1763) was the secrecy which was encapsulated in the authority ofL inarne especially over the family and over the court proceedings against Calas31

Smith remarked that despite all the unfortunate victim had been through-the public humiliation false accusations unfair court proceedshyings torture and the knowledge of his probable execution-these psyshychological and physiological traumas were hardly as bad as the existential trauma that Calas endured More terrifying Smith speculated was the idea that Calas was denied redemption from the one pC~ O Il wlto Illatlcrcd


most to him his minister Smith recounted the tale that while at the stake his minister exhorted him to confess the crime for which he had been condemned to which Calas is reported to have replied My Father can you yourself bring yourself to believe that I am guilty Positioning himself in the role of the spectator of this dreadful event Smith considshyered the agony of his mind and what possible comfort the philosopher would have been able to give the victim Smith much like Hume conshycluded that there was little comfort to be found there since that humshyble philosophy which confines its views to this life can afford perhaps but little consolation

Calas went to his death without any hope of spiritual equilibrium or earthly atonement32 This act of injustice invoked the physiological and emotional responses which were appropriate to horror in the listener producing a horror of the spectator33 This troubling response said Smith was not the result of some ultimate foundation such as religion utility or self-interest ideas he said that had misled several very emishynent authors but was an existential product ofmisrecognition caused by thoughts of how he will be remembered by his dearest friends and relashytions The guilty may overcome their fear of extinction but the unjustly accused because they are innocent always have to endure what Smith referred to as the horror of false infamy34 What defined an existential event such as this is a horrible event according to this phenomenology of social recognition was apparent in the physiological and emotional expression ofempathetic suffering induced when one hears ofsuch a case If a spectator for example inappropriately laughed on hearing such a story it would cast doubt upon either the whole nature of the event or upon the sanity of the individual concerned When we use our imaginashytions and place ourselves in the position of Calas we shiver with horror at the mere possibility of sharing such a fate

What Smith was pointing to in his re-construction of the Calas story was not simply a breakdown of the moral imagination but a tragedy of communicative collapse in French society as a whole A pathology of secrecy made the whole chain of events more or less inevitable but the spectator in this case Voltaire could see that this feeling of inevitability was misplaced Ilow could the minister attending the execution say other than he did til tb ~ ( ~ llldc lT1ned man given the information at his disposal Ill( ~Ilf (If li lt IW IllY lllhhllllll y hnri cd three-fold in the sccret world


of the family shamed by the suicide in the equally closed and secretive world of the French judicial process and in the excessive vanity of orgashynized religion In such cases the regulative force of the impartial spectashytor could only express the horror left to it The CaJas injustice would have stood unexamined were it not for the intervention of Voltaire acting in the role of the Humean ambassador between high and low culture but more importantly the whole episode is only made transparent once Smith further fictionalized the tragedy as one of profound inter-subjective failshyure After all Smith had no way of knowing if the minister really did say what he is reported to have said to the condemned man Smiths writingshyup of the Calas tragedy anticipated the procedure Hegel used with regard to his own analysis of Sophocles Antigone in his Phenomenology of Spirit Like Hegel after him Adam Smiths liberal ethical theory presents the third-party apperception of the we experience as a prerequisite of individual moral choosing Like those bumper stickers we see today on commercial vehicles that say How is my driving accompanied by a telephone number Smith always invites new players and a fresh interroshygation of experience

III

Another phenomenological account of family implosion is created by Robert Louis Stevenson in Weir of Hermiston (1894) Weir of Hermiston is a semi-autobiographical fictional account of filial disobedishyence between a hanging judge and his son in eighteenth-century Edinburgh35 The historical sources of this tale are more than likely based upon a real character Lord Braxfield the Lord Justice Clerk of Edinburgh from 1788-9936

Once again the case concerns the breakout of family crisis and again capital punishment is central to the story as is another act of spectatorshyship Lord Justice Clerk Weir has a son called Archie and we learn at the beginning of the story that the father and son are alienated from one another and from their mother Old Weir has little time for his family his principal concern is his status among his peers his character and posishytion which he is concerned to protect and with the views of the public which he doesnt really care about37 Evidence of the poor state of [~Il11ilshyial relations emerges while Archie is still a child While tntv l i n~ ill his

SYMPATHY AND SPECTATORS HIP

fathers coach through the dark and gloomy cobbled streets of Edinburgh the coach party is assailed by a stone-throwing mob described as French Atheists by his mother When the child later asks his mother Why she continues Keep me my dear This is poleetical Erchie Your faither is a great man my dear and its no for me or you to be judging him38 This maternal attempt to protect the child and to prevent and deny the boy any real knowledge of his fathers work is misguided and can of course only lead to much greater grief

Many years later by this time Archie is attending college and decides to visit his fathers court while in session Archie finds the court a place of horror and what he witnesses thrusts him forth forever into a changed world39 On trial and soon to be hanged is the criminal Duncan Jopp Unlike the Calas case here Jopps guilt is never in question We never learn of his crime but it is probably true to say that he is in no fit mental or physical condition to be tried for his life There is certainly injustice here The narrator tells us for example that Jopp is dazed and that he only appears to know what is going on during the course of the proceedings40 The spectacle only increases our and Archies sense of unease when we learn that court witnesses are bullied and intimidated by the Lord Chief Justice himself a sight too horrible to be conceived The narration draws upon the uncomfortable existential reality of the whole business by pointing out that the pathetic defendant is tending as best he can to a sore throat a throat which is shortly to be stretched by the hangshymans noose Robert Louis Stevenson presents the reader with an horrific portrait of a brutal class system in full swing a society in which dysfuncshytional bourgeois families are central to the topsy-turvy morality of the entire proceedings Justice in this example is a Calvinist sham and crushyelty abounds Archie on leaving the scene lies down in the grass and sick to his stomach he reflects that the bread with which he is fed is proshyduced by the wages of these horrors41

Although the nature of this injustice is quite different from that of the Calas case the existential basis of the horror is fed by the same source a dysfunctional family of emotional manipulators and non-recognizers Duncan Jopp probably does not deserve to be hanged and he certainly does not deserve to he humiliated by the bullying judge by the court proshyceedings and hy th l I itllal orplhlic slaughter There occurs a certain parshyody or dl VIIIIIIII wll i II Icfl lli sl to strip the wretch of his last claim to


manhood reflects Archie42 Then a few seconds after Jopp is hanged Archie screams out in public against his fathers judgment and against this God-defying murder 43 This outburst leads to a confrontation between father and son the upshot of which is that Archies career at the Scottish bar is declared over before it has begun Archie is later sent out to the familys country estate to be in the company of women and to passhytoral oblivion The cruel judge we must suppose strikes out at the defenshydants that come before him not because of his zeal to protect the public but from the resentment and anger he undoubtedly feels at being so burshydened with an ineffectual wife he does not love and foppish son the source of his principal disappointment

In any case Archie Weirs mental state deteriorates further as his isoshylation from polished society (as Hume would say) increases and he becomes the recluse of Hermiston44 We never find out what fate had in store for Archie unlike in the earlier historical example of Calas because Robert Louis Stevenson died while working on the concluding chapter of the book There are however a number of interesting variant endings which have subsequently come to light One such ending which is thought charshy

acteristic of Stevensons style involves a light-hearted lucky escape for the storys principal protagonist However as Karl Miller points out in his introshyduction to Weir the second variant reading was much more likely involvshying further mental collapse possibly a murder of a suitor and eventually the father pronouncing judgment on the son back in Edinburgh This secshyond ending is the kind of complete catastrophe that the story required

Two typically Scottish philosophical tools are wielded in this Stevenson text tools that make it a phenomenological masterpiece worthy of comshyparison with the later French existentialism of the twentieth century The first device is a crucial act of Smithean spectatorship which turns the story around and which supercharges the tale with moral ambiguity The second is Stevensons superb and surprising use of Scottish lowland dialect Taking the first example it is clear that Archies emotional crisis arose because of his inability to make intelligible the contradictory and parashydoxical world of his fathers public persona He embodies the values of justice order stability and legal studiousness but he appears to Archie a vulgar brutal and sadistic man45 On the other hand the reader of Weir soon discovers (as does Archie but too late to make a ltIi rrCf(middot c~) that his fathers emotional life contains more complex sunt ill 11 11 Il P Ili I ie ll lar


sobering for Archie is that he stumbles upon information that clearly indishycates that his father was a sensitive man who did hold tender paternal feelshyings for him However as in the case of the Calas family these feelings were never faithfully communicated

The truth comes to light when Archie meets Dr Gregory one of his fathers friends while out walking46 Gregory has heard of the act of filial disrespect and he pulls Archie to one side and tells him a disturbing tale from his childhood Gregory tells Archie that when Archie was a baby he contracted measles so bad were they that Dr Gregory expected Archie to die When the doctor knew for certain that there was a change for the betshyter in Archies condition he decided to tell the Lord Chief Justice Clerk and said Dr Gregory of that moment I distinctly heard him take his breath47 So Archies father loved him after all From this moment forshyward Archies self-abasement appears to be both complete and inevitable It never occurred to Archie that his cold distant and brutal father actualshyly loved him What must have been worse given the public nature of Archies protest this fact was known to his fathers friends and probably other non-family members as well

The second literary device deployed by Stevenson is the lowland Scottish dialect of the period Throughout the tale the brutal Lord Chief Justice speaks with a heavy Lowland dialect while his sensitive AngloshyScottish educated son has the kings English at his command To be sure both are caricatures in reality both father and son would have shared much of the Scottish vocabulary of the period but this only serves to make Stevensons writing an even more compelling phenomenology because we hear the voice of the Other The choice of a harsh provincial dialect for the senior law officer might seem odd perhaps even self-hatshying to contemporary Scottish ears The cultural binarism of Scots dialect and brutal vulgarity would be considered a debasement of the dialect by a culturally confident Scottish audience today (an audience that has now been culturally primed to recognize any hint of colonial stereotyping or deprecation) On the other hand this retrospective imposition of todays cultural standards reveal as Karl Miller has indicated elsewhere that Stcvenson was careful to give the authority figure the voice of the people or the strcet- the stonc-throwers and rabble-rousers-because Stevenson ~xpcc ts that IIIl Igt wi ll yi lkl knowledge of the privileged nature of the jlld e( ~ hrul dil y III 1111111 IVllliI l thl j udge always remains one of them


be holds up a mirror to the people of the street since he is both ofthe street and against the street In this example the patriarchal authority of the judge and father is deconstructed by Stevenson By exposing the contrashydictions of this authority Stevenson reveals reasons for the unnecessary humiliation of Jopp the destruction of the judges own family and the mental collapse and isolation ofArchie himself an isolation which is repshyresented by his exile to the dark and gloomy hills of the Hermiston estate

IV

The third and final example of spectatorship I shall consider is proshyvided by R D Laing48 R D Laings oeuvre constitutes an attempt to demonstrate through studies of family interaction and breakdown the significant role that inter-subjective experience and action play in the creshyation of mental illness Laing proposed that family breakdown was often caused by manipulative parents who use pretense collusion false and untenable positions delusions complementary identities and in particushylar damaging attributions and injunctions to get their children to do what they want them to do These phenomena and other communicative techshyniques are viewed by Laing as attempts to mask real strategic interests such as parental control over behavior control of household income the division of labor basic values leisure time group activities and so on In such circumstances language is a weapon which is used to veil the truth dissemble facts and produce masks and by these same parents to mainshytain respectability preserve honor assure status and protect ego interests from the gaze of what Smith would have called the impartial spectator (a phrase which I think Laing did not use but which always appears to be present in his work) In all of this Laing believed he remained loyal to the native tradition I adhere to the Scottish philosophy of common sense he said in one interview and in a phrase that clearly demonstrates Laings subtle reading of what this meant he said Scottish common sense is a very uncommon common sense an attempt to steer a way out of solipshysism or on the other hand crude materialism49

In Laings Self and Others there is a phenomenological analysis of Dostoyevskys Crime and Punishment Laing noted how in a very revealshying episode which lay at the heart of the story thc talc s anti-hcro Raskolnikov received a long letter from his motllf IlIilhl ill which


completely unhinges him In this letter Raskolnikovs mother informs her son that his sister Dunya will marry a loathsome insufferable old civil servant Luzhin It becomes clear that the motive for this marriage of conshyvenience is really money and position a fate little better than prostitution for his sister However perhaps because of this dreadful new arrangement Pu1cherias tone in the letter is somewhat sanguine concerning her sons academic progress since his sister will ensure her brothers financial stashybility But the long letter also contains a series of tortuous emotional cirshycumlocutions that leave the now-thoroughly-ashamed Raskolnilov in a completely impossible position On the one hand Raskolnikovs mother tells him that she knows how much he loves his sister and on the other she says I realize you would never allow your sister to be humiliated Yet she also makes clear that this humiliation of the sister is being undershytaken for his benefit But as Laing points out given the kind of person his mother also expects him to be in this letter how could he possibly be made happy by this state of affairs50 The final emotional twist of the knife is of the religious variety the significance of which would not have been lost on either Hume Smith or Stevenson when Pulcheria signs off she does so by praying that while in Moscow he has not become irrelishygious and Godless

Laings response to this is to invoke spectatorship Laing says We must think transpersonally not simply of the disturbance in the letter but also of its disturbing impact upon another51 Again the phenomenologishycal we is telling The language of the letter says Laing is full of injuncshytions and attributions that build layers of hypocrisy and which finally lead to a severe breakdown of ego identityY Laing points out that the sister and mother are claiming to have performed an act of Christian pietyshythey tell Raskolnikov that they are sacrificing their own needs-yet the godless jibe only seems to remind him that he is also supposed to receive it as a Christian But what would a Christian position mean for him in this situation asks Laing In truth the mother and sister hope that Raskolnikovs academic success will lift them out of their provincial trap but Pulcheria cannot resist her pious intonation against the modern spirshyit of godlessness Raskolnilov is at once being instructed against the tcmptations of base and vulgar matcrial ends while his mother and sister clltllrl y have 1 1( 11 t nds in mind Paraphrasing Laing while being given g rolllld 1( 11 f ll lll 1 l~r lllllll ll bittcmc~s shame guilt humiliation and


impotence Raskolnikov is simultaneously being told by his mother that he should be happy 53 This marks the turning point of Raskolnikovs final descent into criminality and his murder of the old money-lender followed by the anti-heros subsequent guilt complex nervous collapse confession and eventual punishment Raskolnikovs psychological and physiological response to this family crisis is virtually identical to that ofArchie Weirs

Almost all the time he was reading the letter from the very beginning Raskolnikovs face was wet with tears but when he had finished it his face was pale and contorted and a bitter spiteful evil smile played on his lips He put his head on his old pillow and thought a long long time His heart was beating fast and his thoughts were in a whirl At last he felt stifled and cramped in that yellow cubby-hole of his which was more like a cupboard or a box than a room His eyes and his thoughts craved for more space He grabbed his hat and went out without worrying this time whether he met anyone on the stairs or not he forgot all about this he walked without noticing where he was going muttering and even talking aloud to himself to the astonishment of the passers-by many of whom thought he was drunk

As Laing would undoubtedly have pointed out our urban landscapes are full of such divided selves men with disordered minds lonely and confused like Raskolnikov Archie Weir and Jean Calas In such cases agents report similar physical and emotional symptoms the rising well of panic dizziness hot flushes and feverish nausea feelings of claustrophoshybia the need to lie down somewhere and think Often they pace the streets muttering to themselves the begillilings ofa process that will eventually lead to the complete breakdown of communication between mind and body In The Divided Self and other works Laing dc-bunked what he regarded as positivist psychiatrys account of schizophrenia and provided a new description of how schizophrenics report that their minds have separated from their bodies When persons feel that someone else controls them they report that they are automata and eventually tear themselves away from their families and their friends by creating a false self or are wrenched away from loved ones by unresponsive and often callous authorities

CONCLUSION

This philosophical commentary upon the Calas execlltion the Jopp hanging and the events which led to the murder or thl old 1III1IIlv-kndtr


in Crime and Punishment took place across three disciplines-ethics litshyerature and psychiatry-and over a period of more than two hundred years Yet there is a remarkable consistency here both in terms ofmethod ie phenomenology not only subject matter but also in terms of doctrine institutionalized spectatorship Following Hume the role of appercepshytion and language was developed into a theory of recognition by Smith and played out in the cases considered The formal connections between the writers in this tradition was not discussed Rather I have sought to unpack a certain zeitgeist not an apostolic succession However the conshynections are there Adam Smith certainly influenced the poet Robert Burns and James Boswell attended Smiths lectures on rhetoric while Robert Louis Stevenson was fond of both Burns and Boswell Stevenson even claimed that while on his travels he dipped daily into Boswells Life ofJohnson as others did the Bible In addition Smith exerted a profound influence on Hegel and Hegel upon Sartre and Laing54 Humes skeptishycism charted a course in which the mind perceived itself and its ideas through other minds and through human apperception55

There is a paradox at the heart of these Scottish writings concerning family empathy and spectatorship There is a sense in which the conclusions of the writers considered remains rather conservative Empathetic spectashytorship allowed Laing for example to condeftlll positivistic and brutal pracshytices in the asylums of the West and in the Soviet Union but he did so without condeftllling the study ofthe mind as such56 Robert Louis Stevenson demonstrated that the brutality of the hanging judge did not mitigate the need for judging yet one could still recognize Weirs judging for what it was both sadistic and cruel Paraphrasing Karl Miller on Stevenson and applying the same point more generally these Scottish writers supported the underdog but without condemning the power and strength they opposed Similarly Adam Smith never doubted the value of familial and public socialization He speculated in his Theory ofMoral Sentiments that parental tenderness was a much stronger emotion than filial piety probably for reasons of the propagation and continuance of the species However he also suggests that the strong parental bond had to be moderated and that our excessive attachment to our own children often extends beyond that granted to those of other people57 This phenomenon would in all likeshylihood only PI( v~middot hllrt Iul to the child rather than provide appropriate Icvcl ~ oi ( II( i ll tdllllll lah Smith helicvcd in the important pre-social


socializing role of the family it was only when the child left the indulshygent partiality of the family and entered school and society more genershyally that he entered into the school of self-command In other words only once the child had been removed from the private and partisan world of family interest and was exposed to the full glare of the public eye could a healthy socialization of the child really take place in Smiths view

The family any family whether of Oxford dons (one of Smiths favorite targets) clerics or judges was in the generic sense the site of commushynicative breakdowns and injustice par excellence Thus the tragedy of Jean Calas was that it all could have been avoided had it not occurred within the enclosed private spaces of family religion and a corrupt legal system likewise the tragedy of many families Modernity demands that religion and law at least should be moderated by the values of the Enlightenment merit probity and just reward In the case of the fictional Archie Weir we will never know what Stevenson had in store for him although one could hypothesize that it would not have been much different from the fate of Duncan Jopp In the cases discussed here the question of uncommunicatshyed or ineffectively communicated emotions the dysfunctional family and the law came together The breakdowns occurred because the public space between the wider culture of the law and the smaller culture of the family rather like the philosophical and naIve views had been squeezed between two semi-secret domains between the closed doors of the Chief Justice Clerks chambers and the secret places of a mothers heart Finally Laings analysis ofPulcherias letter to her son in Crime and Punishment would have confirmed Smiths worst fears since the more appropriate values are turned on their heads when this familys semi-secret longings are found nestling in the pounding hearts of the female line prostitution becomes saintly self-sacrifice and egoism becomes altruism Eventually a young mans mind is disordered to the point at which he commits a vile murder In such cases language is used by all the family members to mask real intentions and words come to mean their opposite Only the imparshytial examiner of the public domain can interrogate such kinds of lanshyguage use and only then can open communication displace strategic comshymunication according to the Scottish phenomenology 58

Johll Glassford Angelo State University San Al7gelo Texas


NOTES

I See Barry Smith and David Woodruff Smith The Cambridge Companion to Husserl (Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1995) p II Also A J Ayer Logical Positivism (New York Free Press 1959) p 4 There is clearly a cultural sense in which Hume was definitely not British nor English in a way in which we cannot say that Husser himself for example was not German

2 For cross-pollinization between continental and Scottish philosophy see George Davie A Passion for Ideas Essays on the Scolish Enlightenment vol II (Edinburgh Polygon 1994) p 150 and Davie The Scotch Metaphysics A Century ofEnlightenment in Scotland (Routledge 200 I) p 3

3 According to Hume sympathy is the communication of sentiments and passions the transmission of the experiences of others experiences which are received with differshying degrees of force and vivacity see David HUme The Treatise of Human Nature (Oxford Oxford University Press 2000) pp 206 34485573 and 378 It is quite clear from both meaning and context that what Hume is referring to as sympathy we would refer to today as empathy

4 See Sheila Dow Interpretation The Case of David Hume History of Political Economy 342 (2002) also Anthony Quinton Hume (London Phoenix 1998) p 3 and A 1 Ayer flume (Oxford Oxford University Press 1980) p I Finally see Gordon Graham The Nineteenth-century Aftermath in the Scottish Enlightenement in Alexander Brodie (ed) The Cambridge Companion to the Scolish Enlightenment (Cambridge Cambridge University Press 2003) pp 338-50 Graham holds that there is a major difference between Scottish philosophy and philosophy in Scotland the forshymer being the common-sense school which he holds Hume was not really a part of and the latter being the attraction of philosophers in Scotland to German idealism during the nineteenth century One implication of the general thrust of this paper is that Graham fails to acknowledge the extent to which doing Scottish philosophy was also doing German ideshyalism In other words the cross-fertilization of ideas between Scotland and Germany was not adversarial but complementary

5 See Edmund Husserl Ideas General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology (Allen amp Unwin 1958) p 23 also David Hume The Treatise ofHuman Nature (Oxford Oxford University Press 2006) p 46 As long as we confine our speCUlations to the appearances of objects to our senses without entering into disquisitions concerning their real nature we are safe from all difficulties and can never be embarrassd by any question

6 See R D Laing in Bob Mullan Mad to Be Normal Conversations with R D Laing (Free Association Books 1995) p 274 I didnt want to talk about the family pathology but you could never stop them talking about family pathology I was interested in the communicational phenomenology that went on in the families of diagnosed schizophrenshyics [my emphasis]

7 See also James Swearingen Reflexivity in Tristram Shandy An Essay in Phenomenological Criticism (Hartford CT Yale University Press 1977) Sterne was an Anglo-Irishman of course but before Gibbon published his Decline and Fall Hume conshysidcnd Thstram Shandy the only literature of note produced by an Englishman for a genshy~ Iali on

X I~ob lrl Sclj(cl lc Wlk IlIImdllllion to Phenomenology (Cambridge Cambridge ( Jl1iv l l II y lII jl OliO I IK i llci David lIume 71e Treatise of Human Nature (Oxford I ) ~ Ii Ii I IIII VI I i I I IIi)) II ~l til wbllI We s we sit clown conten ted etc


9 Paraphrasing Robert Sokolowski Introduction to Phenomenology (Cambridge Cambridge University Press 2000) p 51

10 Ibid Sokolowski p 55 and see Robert M Gordon Sympathy Simulation and the Impartial Spectator Ethics 105 (1995) 727--42 for a defense of the proposition that Hume influenced Smiths idea of the impartial spectator

II See David Hume The Treatise ofHuman Nature (Oxford Oxford University Press 2000) p 121

12 Ibid Hume p 377 where he says reason requires such an impartial conduct and p 372 Also consider Robert Bumss inter-subjective invocation in his poem To a Louse to see ourselves as others see us and James Boswells literary performance of obsessive spectatorship in his Life ofJohnson Possibly inspired by Smith Boswell said of him he [Smith] was glad to know that Milton wore latchets in his shoes instead of buckles

13 Paraphrasing Dermot Moran Introduction to Phenomenology (Routledge 2000) p 147

14 See David Hume The Treatise ofHuman Nature (Oxford Oxford University Press 2000) p 148

IS Ibid Hume (cited in n 4 above) p 175 16 See Christopher J Berry Society and Socialization The Cambridge Companion

to the Scoltish Enlightenment (Cambridge Cambridge University Press 2003) pp 243-57 17 Or as Hume said when reflecting later in My Own Life concerning the reception of

his Treatise that it did not excite even a Murmur among the Zealots 18 Again paraphrasing Dermot Moran Introduction to Phenomenology (Routledge

2000) p 149 19 See David Hume The Treatise ofHuman Nature (Oxford Oxford University Press

2000) p 147 Also see D W Livingstone Philosophical Melancholy and Delirium Humes Pathology ofPhilosophy (Chicago University of Chicago Press 1998) p 67

20 Dermot Moran Introduction to Phenomenology (Routledge 2000) pp 138--42 21 See J Y T Greig Leiters ofDavid Hume (Oxford Oxford University Press 1932)

pp 312-13 Also see David Hume The Treatise of Human Nature (Oxford Oxford University Press 2000) p 73 and editors annotation p 456 each perception is a real item in the mind Also Hume (cited in n 4 above) p 207 All these relations when unitshyed together convey the impression or consciousness of our own person to the idea of the sentiments or passions of others and makes us conceive them in the strongest and most lively manner And again see Hume p 315 In like manner [to two men rowing a boat] are languages gradually establishd by human conventions without any promise

22 Robert Sokolowski Introduction to Phenomenology (Cambridge Cambridge University Press 2000) p 154

23 Compare with Adam Smith The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Indianapolis IN Liberty Fund 1982) pp 50 and 213

24 See Andreas Kalyvase and Ira Katznelson The Rhetoric of the Market Adam Smith on Recognition Speech and Exchange The Review ofPolitics 633 (200 I) p 553

25 See Edward Gibbon The History ofthe Decline and Fall ofthe Roman Empire vol I (Penguin 1995) p 478


27 Ibid Hume p 535 28 Smiths self-image was one of philosopher and his self-conceptillli i f what he was

doing in the Wealth ofNations is also instructivc Sec his ra rn()l1~ It-Ikl I 1111 I ~ 11011 fur


cxample in which he referred to his book as a violent attack upon the whole commershycial system of Great Britain Adam Smith The Correspondence of Adam Smith (Indianapolis IN Liberty Fund 1987) p 251

29 See Adam Smith The Theory ofMoral Sentiments (Indianapolis IN Liberty Fund 1982) p 337

30 Ibid Smith p 120 31 See Ben Ray Redman The Portable Voltaire (Penguin 1977) pp 24-25 and 77

and on the subject of Galileos persecution Voltaire wrote under the entry Authority in his philosophical dictionary that seven cardinals assisted by minor brethren had the finest thinker in Italy thrown into prison at the age of seventy made him fast on bread and water because he instructed the human race and because they were ignorant Also see Voltaires letter to M Damilaville of March I 1765 pp 501-08 Secrecy which is implicitly a problem of authority in Voltaires philosophy is made an explicit concern by Smith


33 Ibid p 186 and compare with Robert Sokolowski Introduction to Phenomenology (Cambridge Cambridge University Press 2000) pp 153-55

34 Ibid pp 139 and 140 35 See Karl Miller Introduction Weir ofHenniston (Penguin 1996) p x by Robert

Louis Stevenson You have rendered my whole life a failure said Stevensons father to his son

36 Braxfield succeeded Auchinleck James Boswells father Boswell himselfwas one ofAdam Smiths students for a short time and Robert Louis Stevenson was an avid readshyer of Boswell (Miller 1996) p xiv

37 Robert Louis Stevenson Weir ofHemliston (Penguin 1996) p 14 38 Ibid p 12 39 Ibid pp 26-27 40 Ibid p 26 41 Ibid p 28 42 Ibid p 28 43 Ibid p 29 44 Ibid p 49 Hermiston is a bleak grey outpost among the Pentland Hills southwest

of Edinburgh 45 Ibid p 3 I 46 The choice of Gregory was no accident because Stevenson would have been well

aware of that familys Enlightenment heritage of mathematicians scientists and philososhyphers including Thomas Reid and the philosophy of the common-sense school

47 Robert Louis Stevenson Weir ofHennis ton (penguin 1996) p 33 48 See R D Laing The Divided Self (penguin 1959) Self and Others (Penguin

1985) and Wisdom Madness and Folly (Cannongate Press 1985) 49 R D Laing quoted in Bob Mullan Mad to Be Nonnal Conversations with R D

Iaing (London Free Association Books 1995) pp 309-10 50 See R D Laing Selfand Others (penguin 1981) p 170 5 I Ibid r I 71 52 Such hrea kdow ns -t il part of the Scottish literary imagination One immediately

lliillk ~ 0( li lt ( I(Ii t~ II 1 I h HIlCrl LOllis Stevcnsons The Strange Case of D Jekyll lid Mr thI 1111111 1t1I d llIi fi fY hololieil collapse (1( the shipnlllt ( s in Th e hb-tide

232 JOHN GLASSFORD

or the moral degradation of Robert Wringhim in James Hoggs The Private Memoirs and Confessions ofa Justified Sinner

53 R D Laing Selfand Others (Penguin 1981) p 172 and Dostoyevsky Crime and Punishment (Penguin 1981) pp 48-57

54 Laing even believed that he was related to Stevenson although he later changed his autobiography when he learned conclusively that this could only be a myth See Bob Mullan Mad to Be Nonnal COllversations with R D Laing (London Free Association Books 1995) p 269

55 For example see Alexander Brodies suggestion Why Scottish Philosophy Matters (Saltire Society 2000) that Hume was essentially a French philosopher or that Hume was less important as a Scot because he failed to attract disciples or found a school p 92 appears to be wide of the mark for the reasons given in this paper

56 R D Laing The Divided Self (Penguin 1959) p 181 57 Adam Smith The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Indianapolis IN Liberty Press

1982)pp142-43 58 The author would like to thank Michele Sharon and Susana Badiola who read and

commented on an earlier draft of this paper

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY AND ITS LIMITS

IN THE SCOTTISH ENLIGHTENMENT

Where does Newtonian natural philosophy end and metaphysics begin Despite the fact that figures in the Scottish Enlightenment are unishyvocal in their commitment to Newtonianism these thinkers offer quite different answers to this question The goal of this short paper is to explore the way in which the Scottish Common Sense School answers this question by way of an analysis of Thomas Reids work After briefly statshying the key tenets of Reids Newtonianism I will examine his remarks about the limits of Newtonian natural philosophy as they appear in his major and minor works and his unpublished writings I conclude that Reid unsuccessfully demarcates his Newtonianism from his metaphysics This finding has implications for our assessment of Scottish Enlightenment thought about the scientific method materialism natural theology and common sense This result runs counter to recent judgments that Reid is not a mysterian in the sense in which that term is used in contemporary philosophy of mind (Copenhaver 2006 12) though since I am here intershyested in determining what Reid means and believes by studying what he writes I will not visit that issue I conclude the paper by highlighting the implications of this tension in Reid for the legacy of the Common Sense School and for philosophy in Scotland in the nineteenth-century and with a Humean analysis of Reids skeptical inclinations

1 Context

Newtonianism meant many things to many people in the eighteenth century (Schofield 1978) Browse the work of members of the Scottish Conunon Sense School including the writings of George Turnbull (2005 r 5-647-66439 but see also McCosh 187599) Alexander Gerard (Gerard 1758-59 cited in Robinson 1989 155) Colin Maclaurin (Maclaurin

middotNI1I I1 1gtllloIl I h y 1 1 ill IIIIIIIS IUl he Scotlish Euli lhlcnmcnt hy Ryan Nichols II AI 111 II I 11 fl rPllirhl iCl 20(17 1111 MONIST Pcrll Illinois 61354

THE MON lS) An International Quarterly Journal of eCIItIi 111(1 t IlIi( 1

FOUNDED 1888 BY EDWARD c IIIC I U R

Editor BARRY SMITH Managing Editor SHERWOOD J B SUCDIN

Production CRAIG W ODELL

Editorial Board HENRY E ALLISON Boston University DAVID M ARMSTRONG Univrrsity of Sydney ROBERTO CASATI CNRS ParisBuffalo DAGFINN F0LLESDAL Stanford University amp University of Oslo SUSAN HAACK University of Miami JOHN HALDANE University of SI Andrews Scotland RUDOLF HALLER University of Graz RUTH BARCAN MARCUS Yale University JOSEPH MARGOLIS Temple University WALLACE 1 MATSON Univrrsily of Calshyifornia at Berkeley KEVIN MULLIGAN University of Geneva J C NY(R1 Hungarian Academy of Sciences Budapest J OWENS Pcmtijical Institute of Mediaeval Siudies Toronto ANITA SILVERS San Francisco State University PETER M SIMONS Universily of Leeds JUliN

E SMITH Yale University SIR PETER STRAWSON Oxford University JAN WOLENSKI IUJii Ionian University Cracow ACHILLE C VARZI Columbia University

Historical Note Paul Carus Paul Carus the first editor of The Monist was born in Isenberg am Harz on July 111

1852 and died in La Salle nIinois on February 111919 After receiving his PhD degrle in philosophy and classical philology from Tiibingen University in 1876 he taught briefly at the State Military Academy at Dresden In search of freedom for expression of his independent views he migrated first to England and then to the United Sta[(s In 1887 he accepted the invitation of Edward C HegeJer (who later became his fathtrshyin-law) to edit The Open Court magazine a monthly journal devoted primarily to comshyparative religion In 1888 The Monist was established as a quarterly journal of Ihc phishylosophy of science and Paul Carus served as editor of both journals and as editor of Ihe Open Court Publishing Company until his death in 1919

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APRIL 2007 VOL 90 NO2

THE MONIST An International Quarterly Journal of General Philosophical Inquiry

FOUNDED 1888 BY EDWARD C HEGELER

EDITOR Barry Smith

ADVISORY EDITOR John Haldane

MANAGING EDITOR Sherwood 1 B Sugden

GENERAL TOPIC Scottish Philosophy

ARTICLES

JOHN HALDANE 147Scottish Philosophy

GORDON GRAHAM The Ambition of Scottish Philosophy 154

DANIEL N ROBINSON The Scottish Enlightenment and the American Founding 170

PAUL RUSSELL Humes Lucretian Mission Is it Self-refuting 182

MARGARET SCHABAS Groups versus Individuals in Humes Political Economy 200

JOHN GLASSFORD Sympathy and Sp~ctatorship in Scottish Writing After Hume 213

RYAN NICHOLS Natural Philosophy and its Limits in the Scottish Enlightenment 233

JAMES VAN CLEVE Reids Answer to Molyneuxs Question 251

DABNEY TOWNSEND Dugald Stewart on Beauty and Taste 271

JAMES RESER The Rise and Fall of James Beatties Common-sense Theory of Truth 287

JENNY KEEFE 297James Fenicr and the Theory of Ignorance

MARKWEBLIN 310Andersol 011 R~ id alld S(ollish Philosophy

326BOOKS RE( I ~IVhll bullbullbullbullbullbull bullbull

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