The Motivational Basis of Effective Performance and

Well-being

Edward L. Deci

Motivation Concerns the Energy for Action

It’s what Moves People to Behave

Central Theoretical Aspect of SDT•SDT is a motivational theory, that differentiates autonomous and controlled types of motivation

Autonomous Motivation•When a person fully endorse a behavior and experiences volition and choice.

Controlled Motivation•When a person feels coerced or seduced into behaving, with the experience of pressure and obligation.

Outcomes Associated With High Autonomous Motivation

Greater persistenceMore flexibility and creativityBetter heuristic performanceMore interest/enjoymentBetter mental health and well-beingBetter physical healthHigher quality of close personal relationships

Clearly, support for autonomy has important functional effects Across the Life Span Across Genders Across SES Across Cultures

Outcomes Associated With High Controlled Motivation

Compliance if the reward is desiredDefiance when the control is too greatShort-term rote learningAlienation and disaffiliationDiminished well-beingPoorer quality personal relationships

Additional Key Aspect of SDT:The Basic Psychological Needs

Relatedness Feeling cared for, connected to, sense of belonging with others

Competence Sense of effectance and confidencein one’s context

Autonomy Behave in accord with abiding values and interests; actions would bereflectively self-endorsed

Basic Psychological Needs•Evolved necessities for healthy development

•Satisfaction of these needs promotes autonomous motivation and psychological well-being

•Thwarting of the needs leads to controlled motivation or amotivation, and to ill-being

•Needs are not necessarily consciously valued or pursued, but failing to satisfy them still has negative consequences

•They are universal, not culturally specific

Autonomous Motivation•Includes intrinsically motivated behaviors

•Includes extrinsically motivated behaviors that have been fully internalized

Intrinsic Motivation•Doing an activity because it is interesting and enjoyable

•Satisfies people’s basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness

•It’s the prototype of autonomy

Extrinsic Rewards

Doing an activity specifically because it leads to a separate consequence such as a reward, avoidance of a punishment, or social approval.

The First Reward Studies•Monetary rewards to college students decreased intrinsic motivation for a puzzle-solving activity (Deci, 1971)

Results of 92 Experiments on the Effects of Incentives on Intrinsic

Motivation

Extrinsic Rewards Undermined Intrinsic Motivation, especially if they were:

•Contingent upon doing the task, •Expected when doing the task, and •Salient.

Other Negative Effects of Rewards

Tangible Rewards:

•Create more rigid thinking and poorer problem solving.

•Lead people to take the shortest route to the rewards.

Why Do Tangible Rewards Undermine Intrinsic Motivation?

Because people have a fundamental human need to be autonomous rather than controlled. Chasing the carrot is being controlled, and thwarts autonomy.

Other Extrinsic Motivators That Have Negative Effects

Threats of Punishment (Deci & Cascio)

Deadlines (Amabile et al.)

Evaluations (Smith)

Competition (Deci et al.)

Why? Because they tend to control people externally and thus undermine autonomy.

Some External Events with Positive Effects

Providing Choice (Zuckerman et al.)

Acknowledging feelings (Koestner et al.)

Why?

Because they enhance people’s experience of autonomy

Negative FeedbackDecreases intrinsic motivation

Positive FeedbackIncreases intrinsic motivation

Why?

Because we also have a fundamental psychological need to be competent

When Using Incentives•Don’t use them to motivate.•Keep them relatively non-salient.•Use them to acknowledge a job well done. •Don’t use them to promote maintenance. •Be sure the interpersonal environment is supportive.•Don’t use controlling language.

Some activities in our lives are not intrinsically interesting, and that’s where

extrinsic motivation comes in.

People tend to internalize aspects of the environment (e.g., extrinsic motivation) that are endorsed by important others.

Why?

Because they have a need for relatedness

Types of Extrinsic Motivation

External Regulation: No Internalization

* Pressured by external contingencies

Introjected Regulation: Partial Internalization

* Pressured by internal contingencies

* Not true self-regulation

Identified/Integrated Regulation: Full Internalization

* Feel a sense of full sense of autonomy and choice

Autonomous MotivationIntrinsic motivation + Identified/Integrated regulation

Controlled MotivationExternal regulation + Introjected regulation

Basic Need Satisfaction and Internalization

•The social contextual factors that maintain intrinsic motivation are essentially the same as those that promote internalization of extrinsic motivation

•They are the conditions that facilitate satisfaction of the basics psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness

Social Contexts•Comprised in part of specific events such as the offer of a reward, the opportunity for choice, or provision of feedback, as already discussed

•But social contexts can also be characterized as a kind of composite that conveys the general ambience or climate of a situation (e.g., home, classroom, work group)

•Contexts can be need supportive or controlling.

Need-Need-supportive supportive ContextsContexts

Need Supportive Contexts

•Relate from the others’ perspective

•Encourage self-initiation & exploration

•Offer relevant choices

•Provide meaningful rationale

•Provide positive and constructive feedback

Need support satisfies basic psychological needs and promotes autonomous motivation

Pressure people (through coercion or seduction) to perform as you demand, with

•Threats•Rewards•Demanding language•Evaluations and criticism

They undermine autonomous motivation and promote controlled motivation

Controlling Contexts

Manager’s Need Support

Work-Related Autonomy

Competence Relatedness

Work Performance Evaluation

Well-Being and Mental Health

Path Analysis of Basic Need Satisfaction, Work Performance, and Adjustment in Banks

.57.24

.57

Baard, Deci, and Ryan (2004)

N=495

The Intervention in a Fortune 500 Company

Intervention at the Branch Level (200 employees) Included 13 Days of an External Change Agent Working with the Managerial Team (Branch Manager and 8 Field Managers) Over a Ten-Week Period

1 Day with the Branch Manager

5 Days working with the Management Team, off-site

7 Days Working with Individual Field Managers and Their Teams of about 18 Technicians

Training Meetings for Management Team (Five Days Total)

•Learn to acknowledge subordinates’ perspective (their needs, feelings, and beliefs)

•Facilitate subordinates taking more initiative by providing choice and encouraging experimentation

•Learn to provide informational feedback (honest feedback not intended to criticize or control)

Managers Need Support Before and After the Intervention

Radiation of Treatment: Overall Positive Effects on Employees

Including Improvements in:

Trust in Corporation

Satisfaction with Job Characteristics

SummaryAutonomous and controlled motivations

are very different.

Support for the three needs promotes autonomous motivation.

Need support and autonomous motivation yield enhanced learning, performance, persistence, and well-being.

http://selfdeterminationtheory.org