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The Psychosemantic The Psychosemantic Approach to PersonalityApproach to Personality
Shulamith KreitlerDepartment of Psychology
Tel-Aviv University
Tel-Aviv, IsraelE-mail: [email protected]
Budapest symposium on “The Many Faces of Personality”, May 13-15, 2002
The psychosemantic approach denotes a theory and methodology
based onanalyzing meaning assignment
tendencies of individualsand clarifying their role in regard to the
major components of personality: Traits
EmotionsCognitionBehavior
Structure of the talk:
A. Presentation of the meaning system
B. Meaning and personality traits
C. Meaning and emotions
D. Meaning and cognition
E. Meaning and behavior
F. General conclusions
A. Presentation of the meaning system
Developed by Kreitler and Kreitler, since 1968 onward
The System of Meaning(Kreitler & Kreitler)
Meaning is a cognitive concept.
It forms part of cognition.
It is the dynamic core of cognition.
Cognition is a system that works with meaning, namely, it responds to meanings, and produces, elaborates, stores, transforms and uses meanings.
Assumptions Underlying the Meaning System
Meaning is communicableMeaning is complex (multi-
component system)Meaning includes a personal-
subjective part and an interpersonally-shared part
Meaning is a pattern of cognitive contents focused on a referent.
A referent can be an external or internal stimulus, an object, a situation, an event, an individual, limited or extended, real, virtual or fantasized, etc.
The cognitive contents are designed to express or communicate information that would enable identifying the referent, handling it, responding to it, or dealing with it within the psychological domain.
The cognitive content and the referent form together the meaning unit.
Referent – Meaning Value
Examples: Budapest – is a wonderful cityAn airport – serves for transportationSymposium – brings people together
The cognitive content is called meaning value because it fulfills the role of expressing or communicating meaning.
The meaning unit is characterized in terms of the following 5 sets of variables:
Referent – Meaning Value
Shifts in Referent
Types of Relation
Forms of Relation
Forms of Expressio
n
Meaning Dimension
s
The psychosemantic method consists in coding the responses in terms of the following categories:
Meaning dimensions: Content categories, such as Feelings and Emotions, Actions, Sensory Qualities (color, shape, etc.), Size, Weight
Types of Relation: Relational categories, such as Attributive, Comparative, Illustrative-Exemplifying, Metaphoric-Symbolic.
Forms of Relation : Formative categories, such as Positive or Negative, Simple or Complex (e.g., Conjunctive, Disjunctive), Absolute or Modified (e.g., always, sometimes)
Shifts of Referent : Categories of shifts to other constructs, such as from Ocean to Lake, from House to Windows
Forms of Expression : Categories of means of expression, such as words, drawings, movements, denoted objects
Meaning Variables =Meaning Variables =
Meaning dimensionsand
Types of relationand
Forms of relationand
Shifts of referentand
Forms of expression
Examples of Meaning Variables
Meaning Dimensions Range of inclusion Material Function, Purpose & Role Feelings & Emotions Actions Possessions &
Belongingness Sensory qualities Locational Qualities Temporal Qualities
Types of Relation Attributive Comparative Exemplifying-illustrative Metaphoric-symbolic
Forms of Relation Positive, Negative Conjunctive, Disjunctive Normative
Referent Shifts Identical to input Part of input Association Opposite of input
Forms of Expression Verbal Gestural Graphic Tones & Sounds
Meaning TestInstructions: Communicate to another
person the meaning (interpersonally-shared and personal) of a presented set of stimuli, using any means of communication considered adequate, for example, words, drawings, movements, etc.
Stimuli: Street, Bicycle, Sea (ocean), to take, to kill, Telephone, etc.
Examples of Coded Responses
Stimulus: Budapest
Meaning Dimensions
Types of Relation
Forms of Relation
Shifts of Referent
Forms of Expression
A beautiful city
Contextual Allocation / Judgments & Evaluation
Attributive
Positive
NoneVerbal
More southern than Helsinki
Locational Qualities
Comparative
Positive
NoneVerbal
I love it’s center
Feelings & Emotions
Attributive
Positive
Part of (center)
Verbal
Meaning Profile
Frequencies (proportions) of individual’s use of each meaning variable in responding to the stimuli of the meaning test.
Meaning Variables
Development of Meaning
Characteristics of the meaning system
ComplexDevelopingSelectiveDynamicReferent-focusedSelf-embedded
Uses of Meaning Variables1. For characterizing an individual’s meaning
processing system i.e., the individual’s meaning profile
2. For characterizing specific contents e.g., “I am in Budapest” refers to the Meaning
Dimension Locational Qualities
3. For characterizing processes e.g., solving a problem about causality involves the
Meaning Dimension Causes and Antecedents
4. For characterizing structures or complexes e.g., identifying the meaning variables
corresponding to a personality trait, a cognitive act, an emotion, or an act of behavior
B. Meaning and Personality Traits
What is the relation of meaning variables to personality traits?
Research procedure applied for answering this question:
Administering to participants personality questionnaire and the Meaning Test
Correlating the scores on personality tests with the meaning profiles
The significant correlations constitute the meaning profile of the trait.
Example A: Pattern of meaning variables corresponding to extraversion
Meaning Dimensions Contextual allocation Range of inclusion Actions Results & Consequences (-) Size & dimensions Quantity & numbers Temporal qualities (-) Possessions Sensory qualities (-)
(experienced by referent) Sensory qualities (of object) Judgments & evaluations (-)
Types of Relation Attributive Metaphoric (-)
Forms of Relation Positive
Referent Shifts Associations (-)
[Source: Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1990). The Cognitive Foundations of Personality Traits. New York: Plenum]
Example B: Meaning pattern of anality
Meaning Dimensions Size & dimensions Quantity & numbers Temporal qualities Possessions Functions
Types of Relation Comparative Metaphoric (-)
Forms of Relation Absolute Negative
Referent Shifts To parts of stimulus To opposites
Applying the procedure to 280 personality traits showed thatEach personality trait Each personality trait corresponds to a unique corresponds to a unique pattern of meaning pattern of meaning variables.variables.
Patterns of meaning variables corresponding to different personality characteristics and tendencies were identified,for example, Leadership (Fiedler’s LPC) Alexithymia Tendency for different defense
mechanisms, e.g., denial, repression, projection
Narcissism The “good” manager
Meaning Profile of the “Good” Manager (based on the meaning variables common to the meaning profiles of 12 managers in different high-tech firms, evaluated by their peers and supervisors)
Meaning Dimensions Contextual allocation Function Manner of operation Consequences Causes (-) Domain of application State
Types of Relation Attributive Comparative: Difference Exemplifying (-) Metaphoric (-)
Forms of Relation Positive Partial (not universal) Conjunctive Disjunctive Normative Desired (-)
Referent Shifts Close shifts Medium shifts Distant shifts (-)
Meaning
Profile
Extraversion
Authoritorianism
Social desirability
Sociability
Depression
Paranoia
Uses of meaning patterns of traitsUses of meaning patterns of traits1.1. Assessment of personality traitsAssessment of personality traits
Each trait corresponds to a unique pattern of meaning variables
Step 1
Determine he patterns of meaning variables corresponding to the trait
Step 2
Determine the individual’s meaning profile by means of the Meaning Test
Step 3
Compare the traits pattern with the individual’s meaning profile. Comparison – by correlation or by counting shared components.
Shared componentsTrait’s score
0 – 20%Very weak
21 – 40%Weak
41 – 60%Moderate
61 – 80%Strong
81 – 100%Very strong
Validation studies:The scores of traits based on personality inventories and meaning-based traits were significantly intercorrelated:16 PF r = .76 – r = .83CPI r = .50 – r = .86
Myers-Brigs r = .69 – r = .84
The meaning profile of an individual provides information about the score of the individual on 300+300+ personality traits without administering any personality inventory.
Advantages: Increased reliability Reduced costs (time, resources) Increased information (about
personality trends, anti-traits)
2.2. Insight into the dynamics of a traitInsight into the dynamics of a trait Patterns of meaning variables corresponding to a
trait provide insight into the unique underlying dynamics of the trait.
For example,
Extraversion – Low arousal
Social desirability – Evaluation, not emotions.
3.3. Validating personality traitsValidating personality traits Validating-by-meaning is a new procedure of
validating traits.
It consists in examining the manifestations of traits in domains defined by the meaning variables in the pattern corresponding to the trait.
For example, extraversion and anality.
Advantages of this validation:
1. Broad-ranging
2. Theoretically-anchored
3. Comprehensive
4. Systematic
4.4. Comparing personality traitsComparing personality traits Patterns of meaning variables enable comparison
between traits based on analyzing shared meaning variables.
For example, “Cleanliness” and “punctuality”
r = .56 Shared: e.g., State, Quantity, Size
“Cleanliness” and “authoritarianism” r = .58 Shared: e.g., Evaluation, Cognitive qualities,
Structure, Metaphorization.
5.5. Identifying personality traitsIdentifying personality traits Formal properties of patterns of meaning variables
corresponding to traits:a) No. of meaning variables in the pattern: 13.8 ± 6.5b) No. of different kinds of meaning variables in the
pattern: 3 - 4c) Proportion of different kinds of meaning variables
in the pattern: Meaning dimensions 54.75% Types of relation 25.75% Forms of relation 5.90% Referent shifts 12.57%
d) Relative proportion of negative components in the pattern: .38
e) Proportion of meaning dimensions and types of relation in the pattern representing general variables: .44
Number of Significant Deviations
Conclusion
0 – 1Trait-identical
2 – 3Trait-similar
4 – 5Trait-dissimilar
Examples
Trait-identical Neuroticism, Narcissism
Trait-similar Alexithymia, Trait-anxiety
Trait-dissimilar MMPI scales
C. Meaning and Emotion
The tendency for each type of emotional reaction
corresponds to a pattern of meaning variables
ExamplePattern of meaning variables corresponding to anxiety (as assessed by 7 scales)Meaning DimensionsAction (-)Sensory qualitiesFeelings & emotions (experienced)Judgments & evaluationsCognitive qualitiesTypes of RelationAttributive (-)Metaphoric
D. Meaning and Cognition
Meaning Variables and Cognition
Cognitive contents, information
Meaning values
Cognitive processes
Meaning variables
Cognitive acts, structural schemas
Meaning profiles
Meaning
1. Meaning Values and Cognitive Contents
Meaning values correspond to cognitive contents and information.
Examples:
When the individual’s meaning profile shows a high frequency of the meaning dimension Locational Qualities, that individual may be expected to have a lot of labels, words, information in the domain of location, places, routes.
2. Meaning Values and Cognitive Processes
Cognitive processes correspond to specific meaning variables or combinations of meaning variables.
Examples:Shifting from one theme to another – High frequency of referent shifts of medium degree (e.g., shifting to previous response, or to superordinate referent)Associations – High number of meaning values (absolute and especially relative), high number of different shifts of referentAbstracting –High frequency of meaning dimension Contextual Allocation
3. Meaning Profiles and Cognitive Acts
Cognitive acts correspond to specific combinations of meaning variables that constitute complete profiles.
Meaning Profile of Planning Meaning Dimensions
Contextual allocation Range of inclusion Actions Manner of operation Antecedents & causes Consequences & results Range of application Structure Quantity & numbers Locational qualities Temporal qualities Sensory qualities (-) Judgments & evaluations
Types of Relation Attributive Metaphoric-symbolic (-)
Forms of Relation Propositional, positive &
negative Partial Conjunctive Disjunctive
Shifts of Referent Close shifts: Parts, Former
responses, Grammatical variations
Medium shifts: Input modified by addition, Combination of several former responses
Distant shifts (-) : Associations, Labels
Forms of Expression Verbal, Verbal description
of drawings
Further cognitive acts whose meaning profiles were identified:
Memory for verbal material / names / faces
Analogical thinking Inventive thinking Creativity Exploration and curiosity Various cognitive styles (e.g.,
impulsiveness vs. reflectivity, monitoring vs. blunting)
E. Meaning and Behavior
Contents and processes of meaning affect behavior only indirectlyindirectly and in multiple waysmultiple ways
The Cognitive Orientation Model of Behavior EvocationThe Cognitive Orientation Model of Behavior Evocation(Kreitler and Kreitler)(Kreitler and Kreitler)
IWhat is it?Input identification (Meaning Action)
Conditioned/Unconditioned response; Defensive reaction
IF UNIDENTIFIED OR IDENTIFIED AS SIGNAL FOR MOLAR ACTION
IIWhat is it to me / for me? How am I involved?
Meaning generation (beliefs)Action required or not
IF ACTION REQUIRED
IIIWhich action?
Beliefs of 4 types representing deeper meaning
CO Cluster
Behavioral Intent
IF BEHAVIORAL INTENT
IVHow to perform action?Behavioral Program
INPUTINPUT
BEHAVIORBEHAVIOR
Effects of meaning
Input perception
Input identification Personal involvement /
Requirement for action Behavioral intent Behavioral program
Action
TRAITS EMOTIONS
Meanings
Meanings
Meanings
Meanings
Meanings
Meanings
TRAITS EMOTIONS
TRAITS EMOTIONS
TRAITS EMOTIONS
F. General Conclusions
The psychosemantic approach to personalityThe psychosemantic approach to personality Provides new insights into the nature,
functioning and manifestations of personality traits of emotions of cognitive acts
Provides new possibilities for the assessment of personality traits of emotions of cognitive acts
Provides new perspectives for the functioning and effects of MEANING in regard to personality traits to emotions to cognitive acts