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nursing, and which had entirely escaped the infection ofsmall-pox. I visited this case, and found that the childrenhad been vaccinated together a month previously at a publicinstitution, by five scarifications in each arm. This child had perfect immunity from the disease; they were both ofthe same age.speaking of the result of vaccination in a family after

the small-pox had been introduced into the home, onSept. 24th, 1875, I was called to a private patient, an elderlygentleman, who had taken the small-pox when travellingin the country. After ordering complete isolation to anupper room in the house on the 26th, 1 vaccinated the wife,one of the daughters, and the servant; the other two

daughters and a son had been vaccinated in the previousFebruary. The wife, unassisted, nursed her husband (bydesire). The vaccination in each case succeeded, and nomember of the family took the disease.The former case was fully developed, though not severe.

The latter was a severe form of the disease. The wife wasthe husband’s junior by, I should say, at least, twenty-fiveyears. I am, Sirs, yours truly, - - -

Oamden-road, N.W., Oct. 15th, 1887. EDWARD BATT, M.D.

THE SIXTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OFHYGIENE.

(From our Special Correspondent.)(Continued from page 735.)

Vienna, Oct. llth.As the resolutions adopted by the International Congress

have not yet been published, it is impossible to form aclear and complete idea of what has been voted. There

is, however, in a scattered form, ample evidence of thegreat amount of work and research that has been under-taken. For a thorough investigation of the opinions expressedand the votes accepted it will be advisable to wait until thepublication by the committee of the full report of the Con-gress.In respect to the work of the Sections, one ot the most

original papers read was that of M. Emile Trélat, on theMeans of bringing the Heat of the Sun and Proper Light toDwellings. This is a subject of such vast importance thatit must be reserved for a special study. Meanwhile, it maybe mentioned that M. Trélat insisted that every wall whichdid not receive the direct rays of the sun would rot andharbour the germs of disease. To secure this purifyingaction of the sun during winter, it was necessary thatstreets running from north to south should be twice aswide as the houses were high. For giving light within therooms he conclusively proved that windows required to beheightened rather than widened. This led to a lengthy dis-cussion, during the course of which Dr. Knauff of Berlinspoke of the caloric power a centimetre of space receives,and concluded by urging that Venetian blinds should bemade to open in vertical instead of horizontal lines. Pro-fessor Baumeister urged that the direction of streets wasof no importance, for what the house lost on one sideit gained on the other. He further attacked the lawsof Berlin for making no difference between the rulesregulating the building of houses in the centre and inthe suburbs of the town. Evidently it was possible toenforce in the suburbs much more severe regulations.Professor Cohn of Berlin thought a debt of gratitude wasdue to France for having first introduced measures for theconstruction of windows in school rooms on scientific prin-ciples calculated to save the eyesight of the pupils. It wasthen proposed to thank M. Trélat for his report, and to pro-ceed to the next subject. Baron de Suzor protested. Hedemanded that the Congress should establish principles, andshould proclaim what was necessary in the first instance.It would be time enough to discuss whether these principleswere practical or not when they had been firmly established.In St. Petersburg, which he had the honour of representing,all the new streets were fifteen metres wide, and it wasnot allowed to build a house higher than fifteen metres.The openings at the back of the houses were alsofairly large, and there were rules to ensure sufficientlight to the inhabited rooms. M. Trélat replied that rulesfor the construction of streets likewise existed in France,but they did not suffice to meet the case. The Russian

regulations represented but a trivial progress, for the houseswere one and a half times as high as the back yards were wide.With respect to the compliments Professor Cohn had made tothe French nation, they were really due to Professor Cöhnhimself, for it was his work on Shortsightedness, written somefifteen years ago, which had induced the French Govern-ment to protect the eyesight of the children in schoolsBaron de Suzor again rose to explain that he only gavedetails about the rules enforced at St. Petersburg in thehope that the Congress would pronounce a definite opinionthat something better was required. In spite of this, the.Section came to no decision. Some proposed to adoptM. Trélat’s conclusions, others to merely thank him for hispaper. In the confusion that resulted it was impossible tosay whether either of these two proposals was adopted. Noclear and decisive vote seems to have been taken. This wasall the more unfortunate as M. de Suzor had evidently &

definite object in view. Armed with a resolution from theCongress, he might have brought pressure to bear upon theauthorities of St. Petersburg. It is to be regretted that theability and special knowledge displayed in this discussionshould not have brought about a definite conclusion.The question of Teaching Hygiene in all Educational

Establishments was very generally discussed, and the"principle adopted. Many members of the Congress, how-ever, did not seem to realise that the great difficulty, espe-cially on the Continent, is to find competent teachers. Manyspeakers seemed to think that when they proposed to con-fine this task of teaching to medical men the whole diffi-culty was solved. But a great number, if not the majority,of medical men, on the Continent at least, have no know-ledge of practical hygiene. As an English delegate inquiredduring the course of the debate, Was the Congress quite surethat even the doctors present knew how to test a soil pipefor leakage, how to direct the construction of drains, anddetect the escape of sewer gas?The debate in the Second Section on Factory Legislation

was long and laboured. It was regrettable that Mr. F. H,Whymper, superintending inspector of factories, whosesketch of the working of the law in England formed, witha paper by Dr. Fridolin Schuler, of the Canton Glarus, Switzer-land, the basis of discussion, was not present to take part inthe votes on the resolutions. It was generally accepted thatthe local circumstances relating to factories differed so widelythat no one general rule could be laid down relating to theamount of air, heat, and light required. In these cases

special technical knowledge is necessary, and the method offactory inspection should be such as to admit in consulta-tion those who possess the necessary practical experience.When serious dangers can only be prevented by the totalsuppression of certain industries-such as, for instance, theuse of arsenic or phosphorus,-then such suppression shouldbe the result of an international treaty, and should affectseveral nations simultaneously. A very excited discussionarose as to the Half-time System. It was generally feltthat if the children were allowed to go to work beforethey had completed their education, this practice wouldbecome a means of making them work too early in life.On the other hand, it was objected that the half-timesystem had given the best results, and that many childrenwould complete their education before the law allowed-them to work; this would enable them to waste a yearor two in lounging about the streets, to the greatdetriment of their health and morals. The conflict ofopinion rendered it impossible to establish any definiterule on this question. The principle of State legislationfor the limiting of the hours of labour, not only for womenand children, but for men also, was approved on all sides,and a resolution in favour of an International Eight HoursBill was almost carried. A ten hours’ day was carried by alarge majority, coupled with the desire that this should beregulated by an international treaty. The Saturday half-holiday was also approved. Then there was a resolutionadopted to the effect that where, as in the piercing oftunnels &c., the employers had to provide food for the.workmen, such food should be occasionally examined byindependent inspectors. During the course of the dis-cussion it was pointed out that three classes of inspectorswere required: doctors for all matters relating to medicineand prophylaxis; specialists, whether doctors, architects,engineers, or others, for difficulties relating to drainage andventilation of workshops and factories; finally, with respectto the various methods by which unscrupulous employerselude the law, to the detriment of the health of their

838

workmen, inspectors should be selected from among the The Third Section, in which the questions relating tovictims themselves. A resolution to this effect was put Cholera had been discussed, was so overwhelmed with worklate in the day, and when the room was nearly empty. It that it had to form a sub-section, and here M. Chamberlain,was defeated by 21 against 13; but in the majority there as the representative of M. Pasteur, spoke on the resultswere no less than five manufacturers and several Austrian obtained by Preventive Inoculations against Anthrax. Hepro-inspectors of factories. In Austria these inspectors are duced numerous statistical tables. Two German physicians,selected from among the commercial classes. The chairman Drs. Gaffky and Loeffier, formerly Dr. Koch’s assistants, chat-himself was a factory inspector, and had been formerly lenged these statements; but Dr. Lydtin of Karlsruhe saidemployed by a chamber of commerce. Under these cir- that good results had been obtained in South Germany bycumstances, while the working-class interests were not inoculations for the prevention of anthrax. With respect todirectly represented, members of the commercial and manu- swine plague, the upshot of the experiments made was notfacturing classes, who are keenly interested in checking so satisfactory, and scarcely justified the confident recom-factory legislation, were present in large numbers, and took mendation of the process of inoculation. A very animateda very active part in the debates. This is scarcely fair. The discussion ensued, and most of the speakers expressedobject of the Congress should be to obtain the disinterested their conviction that the scientific value of the Pasteurianopinion of men of science engaged on sanitary reform, methods could not be doubted, but that for practical applica-instead of having to listen for hours to manufacturers who tion further experiments were necessary.are doing their utmost to prevent such legislative inter- On the Saturday the Sections were to have terminatedference as will, while improving the health of the popula- their work in the toreneon, but the Third Section met again,tion, tend possibly to limit the present almost inexhaustible in the afternoon, and a large crowd of members were present,supply of cheap labour. In such matters it is difficult to hear M. Chamberlain on the Prevention of Rabies. He.to prevent a collision between economical and sanitary apologised for M. Pasteur’s unavoidable absence, due to hisproblems; but, in any case, the points at issue should be indifferent health, and then delivered a most interesting- debated purely on sanitary grounds, and the vote should lecture, which, unfortunately, the limits of space render itnot be influenced by persons who have their own financial impossible to reproduce. He remarked that when 11. Pasteurinterests at stake. In spite of this alien influence present commenced his studies nothing was known of rabies. Thevirusin the Section, some verYlstrong resolutions were carried by was generally supposed to be in the saliva, but it was ulti-the doctors who assisted. One resolution, for instance, was mately found that certain results could only be obtained byproposed in favour of assimilating railway servants and going to the nervous centres. Even then, when the nervousprivate servants to ordinary workmen, with regard to such substance was merely injected under the skin, several weeks- legislation as affected factories, the hours of labour, &c. passed before rabies entered. Then M. Pasteur had the ideaThis, at the first vote, resulted in a tie of 15 against 15; of introducing into the brain, by trepanning, the marrow ofand at a second trial was carried by 15 to 9. The small an animal killed by hydrophobia. By this means the resultsffiumber of voters in this Section shows how many members obtained were absolutely reliable. Illness commenced inabandoned their work in consequence of the great difficulty fifteen days, and death took place on the twentieth day.of understanding what was going forward, as was mentioned Several hundred experiments have proved this. There isin a previous letter. never a variation of more than one or two days. In the

In the same Section, Professor Erismann, of St. Petersburg, presence of this double result, the possession of a true virusrelated how he had examined 100,000 workmen, and found and a trust worthy effect, it seemed as if a basis of action hadthat, on an average, those engaged in textile industries were been found. M. Pasteur had all along conceived the hopenot as tall as the other classes of workers. Their chest of making a vaccine. Unfortunately, for rabies the samemeasurement and bodily weight were also inferior. These process could not be employed. M. Chamberlain then’symptoms of degeneration of the textile workers were more explained the various phases of research which led to theparticularly distinct among the spinners. In every respect discovery of a method which could be relied on for attenua-also they took a longer time to grow. Finally, the lifting ting this virus; how a young Alsatian volunteered to sub-power of the hand was not so great as that of workers in mit himself to inoculation, and how, with the success ofother trades. this experiment, hundreds had come to be treated in aA Fourth Section was created for the hearing of papers similar manner. It was impossible to say how many

without discussion, and here Professor Reis lectured on lives had been saved. There were no data on which toColour-blindness among Railway Servants. He dwelt at establish such a calculation. Some authors had main-length on the mode of examining the sight, and said that in tained that the proportion of deaths from bites of mad dogsall countries committees of physicians should meet to deter- amounted to 36 per cent. The very least to be found inmine what methods were best, and to see, from time to time, books on the subject was 16 per cent., and no one had everwhether these could not be revised. Professor Tessier of pretended that the mortality was less than 5 per cent.; yetLyons followed with a paper on Diphtheria, in which he after vaccination the death-rate among M. Pasteur’s patientsexpressed a belief that the virus was contained in dust, and had only amounted to 1’3 per cent. It could not be saidthat there was an intimate connexion between diphtheria in how great the reduction in mortality had been, but it waspoultry and among human beings. In the same Section an impossible to deny that it was very considerable.essay by Dr. G. Treille, professor at French naval schools, In the discussion that followed, one or two speakers re-on the Acclimatising of Europeans in Tropical Countries, lated how they had failed in various experiments to bringwas so warmly approved that the Section decided to reprint about the expected and desired results. Others, on the con-and distribute the paper at the cost of the Congress. trary, expressed their entire satisfaction, and gave figuresThe discussion on the Trade in Rags, commenced at the showing the number of persons who had been successfully

Hague Congress, was resumed in the Third Section. treated. Dr. Metschnikoff of Odessa, notably, recognisedProfessor Corfield had prepared a report on this subject. the great work achieved by M. Pasteur, and proposed theHe stated that the questions he had addressed to various compulsory vaccination of all dogs. M. Chamberlain hadinterested parties resulted in very unsatisfactory replies. no difficulty in replying. He congratulated himself on find-The trade would be thoroughly opposed to the projected ing that all parties approved of the principle of inoculation.packing of rags in a covering soaked in a corrosive sublimate The proposition to vaccinate all dogs was a proof that thesolution. Dr. E. Vallin of Paris and Dr. Finkelnburg of Bonn principle was accepted. Some had spoken of negativespoke next. The latter drew a line between dirty linen results. The vaccine might easily be spoilt and other microbesand rags. He gave details of different cases of epidemics gain admission. Material errors would, of course, producetraced to importation of rags, and thought that they more negative results, and a certain amount of practical experiencefrequently caused outbreaks of small-pox. The proposal was necessary. In Paris there had been no failure what-to disinfect all rags by heat would cause too great an ex- soever, and abroad many successes. M. Chamberlain ex-pense. Dr. Henri Martin of Paris then read a masterly descrip- plained where and how many errors in experiments hadtion of the scientific experiments made in the disinfection been made which falsified the result; and then concluded,of rags. The difficulty had always been to reach the centre amid the loud applause of a crowded room.of a bale. He remarked that by dividing the bales it was This brought the business of the Congress to a close; butpossible to satisfactorily disinfect them at a cost of about on the following Sunday morning a formal meeting was.S3 for a hundred bales or twenty tons. A long discussion held in the great hall of the University, when two papersensued, in which it was suggested that no particular form of were read: one by Dr. Conradi of Pavia, on the Connexiondisinfection should be approved, as new inventions modified between Longevity. Anthropology, and Hygiene; the other bythese methods from day to day. Dr. C. T. d’Inama-Sternagg, Royal and Imperial Councillor,

839

President of the Austrian Statistical Commission, on themost Remarkable Modifications which the European Popula-tions have undergone during the last thousand years. Whenthe papers had been read, the Congress decided to meetagain in London in 1891, and elected a committee, as alreadymentioned, to organise the next Congress. A few short

speeches then ensued. Dr. Mosso recalled the Congresses onthe plains of Olympia, when Greece had reached the zenithof its civilisation. It was no longer the little States of Greece that met, but all Europe. The Congress would con- stitute a page in the history, not of tyrants and men of Iselfish ambition, but of humanity. In the name of Italy heoffered his best thanks to the organisers of the Congress.M. Emile Trélat, in the name of France, spoke in the samestrain. Hygiene progressed rapidly; the number of mem-bers of this Congress, amounting to 2500, proved the growingpopularity of the new science. This result was due to

good organisation and to the facilities which the vastbuilding of the University afforded; but the amiability ofthe Viennese people had, more than all, facilitated the greatwork. "This soft amenity, which is true strength, hadmade the success of the Congress."The name of the General Secretary, Professor von Griiber,

was often associated with these speeches of congratulation,and certainly it is impossible to speak too highly of thedevotion, the unfailing zeal, and the energy of the GeneralSecretary. Thus the Congress came to an end. It wasnearly two in the afternoon when the final cheers were given,and the members hurried away to prepare for the excursionto Buda-Pesth, and the farewell banquet given on the sameevening.In this comparatively brief account of the debates there

are many important omissions. Numerous speeches andpapers were read and delivered quite as interesting as thoseto which some allusion has been made. To their authorssincere apology is due, but the laws of measurement and ofspace are inexorable, and some sacrifices had to be made. Itwould not, however, be right to leave undescribed the mar-vellous reception, which lasted three whole days, accorded tothe six hundred members of the Congress who went to Buda-Pesth. This most impressive and last phase of the SixthInternational Congress will be the subject of a subsequentletter. In the meanwhile, it only remains to add that, underthe gallery of the vast courtyard of the University, there wasduring the Congress a small sanitary exhibition. Here mightbe seen specimens of school furniture, of warming apparatus,a great collection of statistical charts, and the familiar ex-hibits of the English Ladies’ Sanitary Association and theEnglish Society for the Prevention of Blindness, with Dr. Rothin person to explain to all continental hygienists how theknowledge of sanitary questions was popularised in England.There were also ambulances, cooking stoves, portable hOR-pitals, and many other kindred subjects. In every sense,therefore, the Sixth International Congress must havegreatly contributed to spread the knowledge of sanitaryquestions in Austria and throughout Europe.

NORTHERN COUNTIES NOTES.

(From our own Correspondent.)

NEWCASTLE.

AT the Exhibition Theatre here on Saturday evening last,Dr. Mears gave a lecture on

" First Aid in Cases of Accident."The lecture was ably delivered and well illustrated. Mr.

Waynman Dixon of Sunderland, who presided, pointed outthat, although a clause in the new Mines Act renders itcompulsory for coal mines to keep on the premises theappliances necessary for giving first help to the injured, yetit is obvious that unless there be at the collieries personswho understand the use of such surgical accessories the pro-vision made by the Act is absolutely valueless. Our inge-nious confrere, Dr. Wm. Murray, has also been lecturinghere on "The Evil Effects of Regular Habits," contendingwith much point and force that persons suffer in healthfrom the monotony of over-regularity, and that a changeis often indicated in the lives of these very regularpeople when they fall into bad health. Dr. Murray’slecture has given rise to a very brisk newspaper corre-spondence, but the lecturer’s views seem to hold the field.There has been a considerable increase in fever cases in

Newcastle; the last fortnight 126 cases have been notified.,of which 93 were scarlet fever and 20 enteric. The Tyne,Port Sanitary Authority during the last two months hadinspected 1192 British steamers, 401 sailing vessels, 242,foreign steamers, and 197 sailing vessels, making a total of2032. In all, 35 cases of sickness were found on board, and’were inquired into and provided for; but two infectiouscases were found, which were removed in the launch to thehospital. Only one vessel arrived which had been infectedwith cholera, and she was fumigated before entering the-Tyne. The medical students who were under censure sincethe opening of the College have tendered an apology to theauthorities, which has been accepted, so that they are allowedto pursue their studies this session. I am glad to hear thatDr. Luke Armstrong, whose late illness has been muchexaggerated, is likely to very soon resume his professionalwork.

JARROW.

An unfortunate termination has taken place to a weddingfeast at Jarrow, several people-about sixteen in all-havingsuffered from poisoning after partaking of a cake. So farthere has been no death, but dangerous illness has resultedin many cases. The maker of the cake states that the onlyingredients she used to "ice" the cake were half a pound offine white sugar and the white of two eggs. She states thatwhen she made the ice a fortnight ago she ate what wasscraped off the edge of the dish, and also a little that droppedoff the cake, when she was seized with similar illness to theJarrow patients. The cake has been sent to the countyanalyst.

CARLISLE.

The inhabitants of the village of Burnriggs, about sixmiles east of Carlisle, are suffering terribly from typhoidfever. Thirty-seven cases of the disease have occurred, andfour of them have already proved fatal. The sanitary authorities have traced the origin of the disease to a pollutedwell, which has now been closed. The village consists ofabout forty cottages, inhabited by between 120 and 130persons, who for the most part gain a livelihood by workingat the paper and woollen works in the neighbourhood. Thelocal papers say that about one-third of the population hasbeen stricken with fever.Newcastle-on-Tyne, October 18th.

EDINBURGH.

(From our own Correspondent.) ’

OPENING OF THE WINTER SESSION.

ON Tuesday, the 18th inst., the winter session at theUniversity was inaugurated by an address to the studentsby Principal Sir William Muir, RoC.S.1. On behalf of theSenatus Academièus, which was largely represented on theplatform, the Principal extended a welcome to the newcomers on their entry into university life; while to the-seniors he addressed an earnest appeal to make full use of’the passing period of their student life that they might bewell equipped for the work that lay before them in theactive world in which they must play their part. Sir Williamthen proceeded to review the developments which haveoccurred in the Scottish University system, and particularlyin the University of Edinburgh, during the last fifty years.The growth which has occurred has not been a mere in-crease of size and numerical strength, but has been

fraught with a gradual unfolding of the system of educa-tion, which has expanded widely as a whole, and ha&attained a much higher complexity in each of its parts. In

surveying and depicting the main features of the studentlife of Scottish Universities, the speaker took occasion tocompare it with other great centres of learning, and par-ticularly with some of the newly-founded colonial univer-sities. The main distinctive feature was the greater amountof personal independence that obtains here. This withinduly guarded limits was a great advantage on the whole; ;.but it had its drawbacks, among which was the fact that itdid not imbue undergraduates with that feeling of corporateexistence which tended to foster public spirit among them.Several attempts, and so far successful attempts, are nowbeing made in Edinburgh to obviate this want ; and theseefforts had the Principal’s warm sympathy and personalencouragement; in them probably lay the germ of a larger