The Translator’s Strategies

The Translator’s The Translator’s StrategiesStrategies

Strategies - Chesterman (1997): Strategies - Chesterman (1997): "tools of the trade"; Newmark (1981, "tools of the trade"; Newmark (1981, 1988): "the translator's tool-box";1988): "the translator's tool-box";

Other scholars who have discussed Other scholars who have discussed translation strategies: translation strategies: Vinay&Darbelnet (1958), Catford Vinay&Darbelnet (1958), Catford (1965), Nida (1964), Malone (1988), (1965), Nida (1964), Malone (1988), etc.etc.

J.P. Vinay and J. Darbelnet - J.P. Vinay and J. Darbelnet - Stylistique comparée du français et Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglaisde l’anglais (1958), (1958), Comparative Comparative Stylistics of English and FrenchStylistics of English and French (1996);(1996);

Comparative stylistics deals with Comparative stylistics deals with stylistic aspects drawn from the stylistic aspects drawn from the comparison of the original text to its comparison of the original text to its translation.translation.

Two directions the translator may Two directions the translator may choose between in his enterprise: choose between in his enterprise: • the direct/literal decoding (the direct/literal decoding (direct direct

translation procedurestranslation procedures): no semantic ): no semantic or grammatical restructuring:or grammatical restructuring: loan loan transfer (a transfer of the SL term transfer (a transfer of the SL term into the TL, as the latter has no into the TL, as the latter has no equivalent for it: equivalent for it: whisky, pizza, whisky, pizza, sombrerosombrero, etc.),, etc.), , , loan translationloan translation ((thoroughthorough translationtranslation) and ) and literal literal translationtranslation..

• the indirect/oblique decoding (the indirect/oblique decoding (indirect indirect translation procedurestranslation procedures). More ). More complex: from changes in the complex: from changes in the grammatical classes to the adoption of a grammatical classes to the adoption of a different perspective on the surrounding different perspective on the surrounding reality:reality: transposition, modulation, transposition, modulation, equivalence, adaptationequivalence, adaptation..

Vinay&DarbelnetVinay&Darbelnet

Equivalence: Equivalence: implies maintenance in the implies maintenance in the TL of the SL situation by using utterly TL of the SL situation by using utterly different structural and stylistic means. It different structural and stylistic means. It involves the message as a whole and not involves the message as a whole and not only parts of it: proverbs, set phrases, only parts of it: proverbs, set phrases, clichclichéés, idiomatic phrases, reflex formulae, s, idiomatic phrases, reflex formulae, etc.:It is no use crying over spilt milk-etc.:It is no use crying over spilt milk-Mortul de la groapa nu se mai intoarce; Mortul de la groapa nu se mai intoarce; (an income)not to be sneezed at- (an income)not to be sneezed at-

Terminological issues: distinctions Terminological issues: distinctions between strategies and between strategies and procedures/techniques. procedures/techniques.

Chesterman's approach to strategies: Chesterman's approach to strategies: types of text-linguistic behaviour, types of text-linguistic behaviour, which involve textual manipulations which involve textual manipulations and comparisons between source and comparisons between source and target texts.and target texts.

Characteristics of strategies:Characteristics of strategies:

problem-centred - start from a problem-centred - start from a translation problem to which they translation problem to which they offer a solution;offer a solution;

goal-oriented;goal-oriented; conscious - may be reported, involve conscious - may be reported, involve

deliberate choices;deliberate choices; intersubjective - may be taught;intersubjective - may be taught; are not language-pair specificare not language-pair specific

Strategies should be distinguished from Strategies should be distinguished from

more general actions such asmore general actions such as::

looking something up;looking something up; accessing a database;accessing a database; checking a reference;checking a reference; talking to an expert in the field, talking to an expert in the field,

etc.etc.

Classification IClassification I

Classification of translation Classification of translation strategies:strategies:

of comprehensionof comprehension: ST analysis, : ST analysis, translation commissiontranslation commission

of productionof production: for the purpose of : for the purpose of changing something - besides the changing something - besides the obvious change of languageobvious change of language

Chesterman's classification (1997), Chesterman's classification (1997), (slightly modified)(slightly modified)

a) Grammatical/Syntactic strategies a) Grammatical/Syntactic strategies (G) - at the formal level(G) - at the formal level

b) Semantic strategies (S) - relate to b) Semantic strategies (S) - relate to lexical and syntactic meanings lexical and syntactic meanings (e. g. (e. g. synonyms, antonyms, emphasis, synonyms, antonyms, emphasis, etc.)etc.)

Chesterman's classification (1997), Chesterman's classification (1997), (slightly modified)(slightly modified)

c) Pragmatic strategies (P) - involve bigger c) Pragmatic strategies (P) - involve bigger changes at textual level, include a) and b). changes at textual level, include a) and b). Elicit the translators' knowledge of the Elicit the translators' knowledge of the whole context of translation reception whole context of translation reception (target readers, target culture, etc.)(target readers, target culture, etc.)

These different types of strategies may These different types of strategies may overlap, even when a translation unit overlap, even when a translation unit smaller than a text is translated.smaller than a text is translated.

Grammatical/Syntactic Strategies:Grammatical/Syntactic Strategies:

G1: Calque (Vinay & Darbelnet’s loan G1: Calque (Vinay & Darbelnet’s loan translation) - 1. lexical level (many times translation) - 1. lexical level (many times leads to lexical errors, "false friends", but leads to lexical errors, "false friends", but also to the creation of new words or new also to the creation of new words or new areas of meaning for the same word): areas of meaning for the same word): permission - permission - permissione - permission - permission - permissione - permisiune; lecture -/ lecture (Fr) -/ lettura permisiune; lecture -/ lecture (Fr) -/ lettura (It) -/lectura (Rom); to realize - réaliser - (It) -/lectura (Rom); to realize - réaliser - realizzare - a realiza.realizzare - a realiza.

--


2. Phrase level: European Union-Union 2. Phrase level: European Union-Union Européenne - Unione Europea - Européenne - Unione Europea - Uniunea europeană; iron curtain-Uniunea europeană; iron curtain-rideau de fer - cortina de fier; rideau de fer - cortina de fier; Season's Greetings - Compliments de Season's Greetings - Compliments de la saison (?) - Complimenti della la saison (?) - Complimenti della stagione* - Urări de sezon*stagione* - Urări de sezon*


G2: Literal translation/"direct G2: Literal translation/"direct translation“(+ Vinay & Darbelnet) - the translation“(+ Vinay & Darbelnet) - the Target Text (TT) is formally as close as Target Text (TT) is formally as close as possible to the Source Text (ST). Sentence possible to the Source Text (ST). Sentence level.level.- Automatic translation - based on this kind - Automatic translation - based on this kind of translation (e. g. SYSTRAN)of translation (e. g. SYSTRAN)

I don't know what you to say….Je ne sais I don't know what you to say….Je ne sais que direque dire

You could ask Granny what she wants…….You could ask Granny what she wants…….


G3: Transposition (+ Vinay & Darbelnet) - G3: Transposition (+ Vinay & Darbelnet) - change of the grammatical class without change of the grammatical class without affecting meaning. May be compulsory or affecting meaning. May be compulsory or optional, e. g.:optional, e. g.:

adjectives replaced by nouns: in adjectives replaced by nouns: in latelate autumn - à la autumn - à la finfin de l'automne - alla de l'automne - alla finefine dell'autunno - la dell'autunno - la sfârsitulsfârsitul toamnei; toamnei;

nouns replaced by verbs: nouns replaced by verbs: I threatened him with I threatened him with dismissaldismissal - Je - Je

menaçai de le menaçai de le renvoyerrenvoyer..He's angry because I refused him He's angry because I refused him the loanthe loan

of my car…of my car…


verbs replaced by nouns:verbs replaced by nouns:There was no one at home when he There was no one at home when he arrivedarrived

- A son - A son arrivéearrivée il n'y avait personne à la il n'y avait personne à la maison.maison.

- He explained to us what he believed in and - He explained to us what he believed in and hoped for…..hoped for…..

nouns replaced by adverbs:nouns replaced by adverbs:- The vast majority- The vast majority responded to her call - responded to her call -

Ils ont Ils ont massivementmassivement répondu à son répondu à son appel.appel.


adverbs replaced by verbs:adverbs replaced by verbs:

But IBut I simply simply went out to get my cardigan! - went out to get my cardigan! - Mais je n'ai Mais je n'ai fait quefait que prendre mon gilet! prendre mon gilet!

He He merelymerely nodded….. nodded….. prepositions replaced by verbs:prepositions replaced by verbs:

She cameShe came for for some glasses - Elle est venue some glasses - Elle est venue chercherchercher des glasses. des glasses.

The bus stopped for a group of Indian The bus stopped for a group of Indian women with baskets…women with baskets…


adjectives replaced by relative adjectives replaced by relative clauses:clauses:

- We're having very - We're having very unseasonableunseasonable weather - Nous avons un temps weather - Nous avons un temps qui qui n'est pas normal pour la saison.n'est pas normal pour la saison.

- The - The resultantresultant financial benefits will financial benefits will be very high… be very high…


G4: Word, phrase, clause, sentence G4: Word, phrase, clause, sentence structure change - refers to all changes structure change - refers to all changes that occur at the respective levels, e. g. that occur at the respective levels, e. g. one sentence is split into two, a word one sentence is split into two, a word becomes a phrase, one type of clause becomes a phrase, one type of clause becomes a different type of clause, etc.becomes a different type of clause, etc.

G5: Cohesion change - refers to intra-G5: Cohesion change - refers to intra-textual reference, ellipsis, substitution, textual reference, ellipsis, substitution, pronominalisation and repetition or the pronominalisation and repetition or the use of connectors of various types. use of connectors of various types. Examples G4, G5:Examples G4, G5:


Hans Christian Andersen loved to travel Hans Christian Andersen loved to travel and although his and although his urge to travelurge to travel took took him on long journeys to many European him on long journeys to many European countries, his beloved Denmark was not countries, his beloved Denmark was not neglected. neglected.

H. C. Andersen adorait voyager.// Son H. C. Andersen adorait voyager.// Son besoin d'évasionbesoin d'évasion l'a emmené dans de l'a emmené dans de nombreux pays d'Europe, mais le nombreux pays d'Europe, mais le Danemark n'en fut pas oublié pour Danemark n'en fut pas oublié pour autant.(M. autant.(M. Paillard, 1993)Paillard, 1993)


Tom went to the door Tom went to the door and and began to softly began to softly lift the latch; then he pressed gently, lift the latch; then he pressed gently, andand the door yielded a crack; he continued the door yielded a crack; he continued pushing cautiously, pushing cautiously, andand quaking every quaking every time it creaked. (M. Twain)time it creaked. (M. Twain)

Tom s'approcha de la porte;// avec Tom s'approcha de la porte;// avec précaution il souleva le loquet, poussa précaution il souleva le loquet, poussa légèrement;// la porte grinça; il continua à légèrement;// la porte grinça; il continua à pousser prudemment, tremblant pousser prudemment, tremblant d'angoissed'angoisse chaque fois que la porte chaque fois que la porte grinçait. grinçait. (F. de Gail)(F. de Gail)

Semantic strategiesSemantic strategies

S1: Modulation (+Vinay&Darbelnet) - (slight) S1: Modulation (+Vinay&Darbelnet) - (slight) changes in points of view with regard to the same changes in points of view with regard to the same situation, e. g.:situation, e. g.:

- abstract - concrete: He will be given a - abstract - concrete: He will be given a maintenancemaintenance grant - On lui versera une pension grant - On lui versera une pension alimentairealimentaire..

- one part for another: What - one part for another: What time time is it? is it? Quelle Quelle heure heure est-il? Che est-il? Che oreore sono? sono? Cât e Cât e ceasul/oraceasul/ora??

- (partial synonymy): - (partial synonymy): Merry Merry Christmas Christmas - Joyeux - Joyeux NoëlNoël - Craciun - Craciun FericitFericit

- affirmative - negative: She is rather plain - Elle - affirmative - negative: She is rather plain - Elle n'est pas trop belle n'est pas trop belle


S2: Distribution change – the same S2: Distribution change – the same semantic components are distributed semantic components are distributed over more items (expansion) or over more items (expansion) or fewer items (compression), e. g.:fewer items (compression), e. g.:

- to cycle - faire de la bicyclette - - to cycle - faire de la bicyclette - andare in bicicleta- a merge pe andare in bicicleta- a merge pe bicicleta; to peep - regarder bicicleta; to peep - regarder furtivement; to get/grow old - vieillir - furtivement; to get/grow old - vieillir - invecchiare - a imbatrâniinvecchiare - a imbatrâni


S3: Emphasis change – this strategy adds to, S3: Emphasis change – this strategy adds to, reduces or alters the emphasis or thematic focus reduces or alters the emphasis or thematic focus for one reason or another. for one reason or another.

Example S3 (+G4, S1, G2):Born in 1867, Wright was Example S3 (+G4, S1, G2):Born in 1867, Wright was surrounded as a boy by music and art, but his surrounded as a boy by music and art, but his imagination was nurtured by the rural Wisconsin imagination was nurtured by the rural Wisconsin landscape, inspiring a lifelong love of nature. landscape, inspiring a lifelong love of nature. (Frank Lloyd Wright)(Frank Lloyd Wright)

L'enfance de Wright, né en 1867, fut bercée (S1) L'enfance de Wright, né en 1867, fut bercée (S1) par la musique et les arts.// Toutefois, par la musique et les arts.// Toutefois, c'est la c'est la campagne du Wisconsin campagne du Wisconsin qui captiva (S1) son qui captiva (S1) son imagination, lui inspirant un amour éternel de la imagination, lui inspirant un amour éternel de la nature.nature.


S4: Paraphrase – this strategy results in a S4: Paraphrase – this strategy results in a TT version that can be described as loose, TT version that can be described as loose, free, in some contexts even free, in some contexts even undertranslated. This strategy may be undertranslated. This strategy may be used for the translation of cultural terms used for the translation of cultural terms or idioms, for which no corresponding or idioms, for which no corresponding term/idiomatic expression can be found in term/idiomatic expression can be found in the TL:the TL:

- opinca - peasant sandal, sarmale - minced - opinca - peasant sandal, sarmale - minced meat rolled in cabbage or vine leaves, meat rolled in cabbage or vine leaves,

S5: Equivalence – (cf. Vinay & Darbelnet, S5: Equivalence – (cf. Vinay & Darbelnet, slide 6):slide 6):maintenance in the TL of the SL maintenance in the TL of the SL situation by using utterly different situation by using utterly different structural and stylistic means. It involves structural and stylistic means. It involves the message as a whole and not only parts the message as a whole and not only parts of it: proverbs, set phrases, clichof it: proverbs, set phrases, clichéés, s, idiomatic phrases, reflex formulae, etc.:idiomatic phrases, reflex formulae, etc.:

E. g.: It is no use crying over spilt milk-E. g.: It is no use crying over spilt milk-Mortul de la groapa nu se mai intoarce; Mortul de la groapa nu se mai intoarce; (an income)not to be sneezed at- (an income)not to be sneezed at-

Pragmatic strategies:Pragmatic strategies:

Pr1: Cultural filtering (+Vinay&Darbelnet) Pr1: Cultural filtering (+Vinay&Darbelnet) – this strategy has also been referred to as – this strategy has also been referred to as naturalization, domestication or naturalization, domestication or adaptation. SL items, particularly culture-adaptation. SL items, particularly culture-specific items, are translated as TL cultural specific items, are translated as TL cultural or functional equivalents. The opposite or functional equivalents. The opposite procedure whereby such items are not procedure whereby such items are not adapted in this way but are borrowed or adapted in this way but are borrowed or transferred directly is known as transferred directly is known as exoticization, foreignization or exoticization, foreignization or estrangement.estrangement.

Pragmatic strategies:Pragmatic strategies:

Pr2: Explicitness change – this Pr2: Explicitness change – this change is either towards more change is either towards more explicitness (explicitation) or more explicitness (explicitation) or more implicitness (implicitation). implicitness (implicitation).

Explicitation is known to be one of the Explicitation is known to be one of the most common translation strategies. most common translation strategies. Examples:Examples:

Pragmatic strategies (examples):Pragmatic strategies (examples):

a) Pr1: Cultural filtering (domestication), Pr2 a) Pr1: Cultural filtering (domestication), Pr2 (explicitation), S4(explicitation), S4

ST: Apoi la hramul bisericei se tinea praznicul cite o ST: Apoi la hramul bisericei se tinea praznicul cite o saptamana incheiata, si numai sa fi avut pintece saptamana incheiata, si numai sa fi avut pintece unde sa pui coliva si bucatele, atit de multe erau.unde sa pui coliva si bucatele, atit de multe erau.

TT: Then upon the TT: Then upon the festival of the patron saint of festival of the patron saint of the churchthe church, the feasting would last a whole week. , the feasting would last a whole week. All you wanted was a belly in which to stow away All you wanted was a belly in which to stow away the the corn-meal cakecorn-meal cake * and the various types of * and the various types of food, so numerous were they. food, so numerous were they.

*A dish of boiled grain, honey and walnuts carried at *A dish of boiled grain, honey and walnuts carried at the head of funeral processions and later divided the head of funeral processions and later divided among the mourners. among the mourners.

(Ion Creanga, (Ion Creanga, Memories of My BoyhoodMemories of My Boyhood, translated by , translated by A. Cartianu and R. C. Johnston)A. Cartianu and R. C. Johnston)

Pragmatic strategies (examples):Pragmatic strategies (examples):

b) Pr1: Cultural filtering (domestication), b) Pr1: Cultural filtering (domestication), Pr2,Pr2,

ST: Si in ajunul Sfintului Vasile, toata ziua ST: Si in ajunul Sfintului Vasile, toata ziua am stat de capul tatei, sa-mi faca si mie am stat de capul tatei, sa-mi faca si mie un buhaiu ori, de nu, batar un harapnic.un buhaiu ori, de nu, batar un harapnic.

TT: TT: The eve ofThe eve of St. BasilSt. Basil I worried my father I worried my father all day to make me a all day to make me a drumdrum, or at any rate , or at any rate to let me have a to let me have a whip to crackwhip to crack, and join , and join the the carol-singerscarol-singers..

(Ion Creanga, (Ion Creanga, Memories of My BoyhoodMemories of My Boyhood, , translated by Lucy Byng)translated by Lucy Byng)

Pragmatic strategiesPragmatic strategies

Pr3: Interpersonal change - is related to Pr3: Interpersonal change - is related to anything that involves a change in the anything that involves a change in the relationship between author text and relationship between author text and reader. It may alter the formality level, the reader. It may alter the formality level, the degree of emotiveness, the level of degree of emotiveness, the level of technical lexis, etc.technical lexis, etc.

Example: Please do not talk to me while I'm Example: Please do not talk to me while I'm driving (note in a New York bus) - Défense driving (note in a New York bus) - Défense de parler au conducteurde parler au conducteur

Pragmatic strategiesPragmatic strategies

Pr4: Partial translation – summary Pr4: Partial translation – summary translation, transcription, etc.translation, transcription, etc.

Pr5: Transediting - designates the Pr5: Transediting - designates the sometimes radical re-editing sometimes radical re-editing translators have to do with badly translators have to do with badly written texts.written texts.

Reasons for teaching/being aware of Reasons for teaching/being aware of translators' strategies:translators' strategies:

Compensate for the trainees’ lack of Compensate for the trainees’ lack of experience, shortening the experience, shortening the accumulation period, which would be accumulation period, which would be much longer if one expected much longer if one expected students to gain experience through students to gain experience through practice only (Robinson 1997);practice only (Robinson 1997);

Provide the necessary tools for giving Provide the necessary tools for giving competent answers to clients;competent answers to clients;

Reasons for teaching/being aware of Reasons for teaching/being aware of translators' strategies (II):translators' strategies (II):

Current translations on the market would Current translations on the market would be considerably superior in quality if be considerably superior in quality if (inexperienced) translators had the (inexperienced) translators had the slightest idea of what a translation is or slightest idea of what a translation is or should be (Viaggio 1994). should be (Viaggio 1994).

Trainees and professional translators Trainees and professional translators should be able to describe and evaluate should be able to describe and evaluate their and other people's translations.their and other people's translations.

ReferencesReferences

Catford, J.C. (1965) Catford, J.C. (1965) A Linguistic Theory of A Linguistic Theory of TranslationTranslation, London/Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, London/Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press

Chesterman, Andrew (1997) Chesterman, Andrew (1997) Memes of TranslationMemes of Translation, , Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John BenjaminsAmsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins

Malone, Joseph L. (1988) Malone, Joseph L. (1988) The Science of Linguistics The Science of Linguistics in the Art of Translation: Some Tools from in the Art of Translation: Some Tools from Linguistics for the Analysis and Practice of Linguistics for the Analysis and Practice of TranslationTranslation, Albany:State University of New York , Albany:State University of New York PressPress

Newmark, Peter (1988) Newmark, Peter (1988) A Textbook of TranslationA Textbook of Translation, , London: Prentice HallLondon: Prentice Hall

Nida, Eugene A. (1964) Nida, Eugene A. (1964) Toward a Science of Toward a Science of Translating,Translating, Leiden: E. J. Brill Leiden: E. J. Brill

ReferencesReferences

Robinson, Douglas (1997) Robinson, Douglas (1997) Becoming a Becoming a TranslatorTranslator, London: Routledge, London: Routledge

Viaggio, Sergio (1994) “Theory and Viaggio, Sergio (1994) “Theory and Professional Development” in Dollerup, Professional Development” in Dollerup, Cay & Annette Lindegaard (eds.) Cay & Annette Lindegaard (eds.) Teaching Teaching Translation and Interpreting2Translation and Interpreting2, , Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 97-10597-105

Vinay, Jean Paul and Jean Darbelnet (1958) Vinay, Jean Paul and Jean Darbelnet (1958) Stylistique comparée du français et de Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglaisl’anglais, Paris: Didier, Paris: Didier

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The Translator’s Strategies

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