The Turkish & Mongol Empires

Introduction

Turkish & Mongol invasions perhaps the most important to

world history in the period 1000-1500

Extended up to the very periphery of Eurasia

Redefined the relationship of nomadic to "civilized" people

made definitions more difficult for historians

previously the civilizations had unified lands of the nomads

now, however, the nomadic groups - both Turk and Mongol - unified "civilized" lands under their control

These invasions from steppe of central Asia were part of a long pattern dating back to Attila

Nomads

• Nomadic Herders• Mostly Turkish, some Mongol• Organised into autonomous clans &

tribes• Lived primarily off animal products

– Meat, hide, milk, alcohol– Some light manufacturing & farming

• Few permanent settlements– Herds animals along established

routes• Prominent along trade routes• 2 major classes

– Nobles & commoners– Very dynamic system

Mongol ger (yurt)

*Seljuk Turks

Came into ME from Aral Sea (970) Defeated Abbasid Empire --

Tughril Beg "sultan" of Islamic empire (1055) Abbasid Caliph retained

pushed into West Asia Constantinople Defeated Byzantium in 1071 at Manzikert

Created sultanate of Rum w/Nicaea as capital continued to fight with the Crusaders for Jerusalem

Assimilated local culture & traditions Similar to the Mongols

Defeated by Mongols in 13th century

*Ghazni Turks

Came to India in search of

wealth

Spread from Aral Sea into India

Introduced militantly strong Islam

throughout India

used force as well as education

–

Hinduism seen as sinful

polytheistic and had

pictures of the gods

conflict also between caste

based Hindu society and

egalitarian Muslim society

Established basis for problems of

modern India and Pakistan

Hindu and Muslims tension

Mahmud the Ghazni

Indian Turks (cont.)

Mahmud "the image breaker“

(997-1030) most famous of Turks in India

Sought to change India into a Muslim state

Expand the Dar al Salaam

Destroyed Hindu statues, paintings

India helpless to Turkish onslaught only one warrior class

rest converted to Islam

or relied on karma, dharma, and

reincarnation

Conquest extended south to Delhi India Turkish sultanate

Tomb of Mahmud -- note absence of images

Largest contiguous empire in history extended from Caspian Sea to Pacific Ocean; North into Russia, Siberia, & KoreaSouth into Persia & Burma

The Mongol World Empire: China & The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)

•Mongol -- Pastoral nomads• Mongolia, N. China

•Political/Social system• Kinship groups = clans • Clans formed tribes

•Tribal chiefs elected from clan nobles•Tribal chiefs elect Khan

•Tribes politically divided• trade & war w/ other tribes &

neighbors (esp. China)

•Genghis Khan:-founder of the Mongol Empire-able to unite all the tribes-elected as Great Khan

“If you want to retain your possessions and conquer your enemies, you must make your subjects submit willingly and unite your diverse energies to a single end.” Genghis Khan

Rise of the Mongol Empire 1206-1271

• Small, mobile force (150,000 Mongol

warrioirs)• Expert horsemen & Bowmen

• Spent weeks in the saddle• Could travel +100miles/day

• Well disciplined & organised• Used ‘Shock warfare”

• Fast, mobile & brutal attacks• Offered chance for surrender

• Used terror as a weapon• Rumour of brutality allowed to spread

ahead of Mongol army• Often meant cities would surrender the

moment they saw the Mongols coming• Allowed conquered people to join military

• Helped defeat larger armiesMongol Archer

Military

• Genghis divided empire among four sons• Each region eventually became independent • Mongol rulers in Chagatai & Ikhanate adopt customs, traditions

of their region •Golden Horde & Great Khanate did not

• Secured Silk Road -- trade during Mongol era

Ikhanate(Persia & E. TurkeyFounded by Hülegü)

Golden Horde(Russia – Cossacks)

Chagatai(Kazakhstan, etc)

Great Khanate(China, Mongolia, Korea)

*Division of the Mongol Empire

Kublai Khan

•Mongols conquer Beijing (1227)

•Kublai, Great Khan in 1260 •grandson of Genghis

•Reunifies Mongol Empire•moves capital to Beijing•Expands Grand Canal

•1271 adopts “Yuan” dynastic name•conquers the southern Sung in 1279

Mongol Rule in China

adopts custom of hereditary succession

rebuilds Beijing as walled city Adopts Chinese forms of govt.

and taxation Chinese citizens segregated

from c.400,000 Mongols in China

military service reserved for Mongols only

military officers most important positions

civil administration highly centralized

Relied on non-Chinese to run bureaucracy

Walls surrounding Beijing

Government & Society under Kublai Khan

Categories:•level one = Mongols

-top military & civil posts

•level two = Persians,Turks, some Europeans

-filled high civil posts

•level three = northern Chinese

•level four = southern Chinese

Chinese officials directly controlled Chinese Citizenry & the Mongols controlled Chinese officials.

Eventually, Discrimination of Chinese leads southern Song regroup & challenge Mongol rule

Kublai Khan w/Mongol Warriors

*Societal Divisions

Mongols made extensive use of foreignors• Guillame Bougher (William of Paris)

• silversmith

• Matteo Ricci -- explorer & priest

• Uighur Turks - gov’t administrators• adopt Uighur writing as basis for Mongol writing

Rabban Sauma-Nestorian monk sent by Ilkhan (Persia) as envoy to Italy & France to invite Europeans to fight against Turkish Muslims

Marco Polo -- Venetian Merchant• served Kublai Khan (1275-1292)• influenced future traders & explorers• brought knowledge of China to Europe

• diffusion of Asian cultures, technology & ideas

Pope sends envoy to ask Khan’s help against Muslims in Holy landsKhan suggests Rome become Mongol tribute state

*Foreign Influence

Marco Polo

• Mongols very tolerant of other religions & beliefs• Traditional religion relied heavily on Shaman &

diviners• Christianity spread from Persia to central Asia & China

• Kublai Khan’s favorite wife- Nestorian Christian• papal missions sent from Rome-rebuffed by Khan

• threatens to make Rome tributary state

• Tibetan & Chinese Buddhism expand• Promoted Buddhism, but tolerant of other faiths• Later Yuan emperors adopt Tibetan Budddhism (Lama)

• Islam flourished most• established in central & western Asia• Built mosques t/o Mongol Asia

Mosque Cathedral Buddhist Temple

*Religion

Dynasty collapses in 1368 Rebellion, esp. in S. China Plague in S. China -- pop. & labour

Forced relocation of peasants to areas hit hardest by plague

resentment Spread to C. Asia, ME & Europe via trade routes

“The Black Death” kills ¼ of pop. in W. Europe & China

Mongols fighting Japanese Samurai

*Decline of Yuan Dynasty

Mongol Khanates separated by religion, culture, & distance

govt. officials corrupt

economy

Warlords control respective regions

Mongol influence in China quickly disappeared

Mongol siege of Baghdad

Decline of Yuan Dynasty (cont.)

*Legacy of Mongol Rule Collapse of Mongol in Persia rise

of Timur (Tamerlane) & Timurid rule in Persia, Bactria & India

Mongols in Chagatai & Ikhanate assimilate local culture

Golden Horde continues into 16th

century Defeated by unified princes of

Kiev

trade Diffusion across two

continents

Unified resistance against Mongols

Renewed European interest science, literature, medicine,

math

The Black DeathTimur & the siege of Bhatnair