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Theories of Practice:Theories of Practice:The Political FrameThe Political Frame
MPA 8002
The Structure and Theory of Human Organization
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
Managers and leaders have to recognize political reality and know how to deal with it. Inside and outside any organization, there are always a variety of different interest groups, each with its own agenda. There are not enough resources to give everyone what he or she wants, and there is always going to be conflict.
A POLITICAL SCENARIO
The job of managers and leaders is to recognize the major constituencies, to develop ties to their leadership, and to manage conflict as productively as possible. Above all, they need to build power bases and use power carefully. They cannot give every group everything it wants, although they can try to create arenas for negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable compromises. Managers and leaders also have to work hard at articulating what everyone in their organizations possesses in common. Managers and leaders must tell the people that it is a waste of time to fight each other when there are plenty of enemies outside that they can all fight together. Groups that fail to work well together internally tend to get trounced by outsiders who have their own agendas.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 361)
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A POLITICAL SCENARIO
the political frame
PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:
CentralConcepts:
ManagerialAnd
LeadershipImage:
FundamentalChallenge:
Jungle Self-Interest Power Conflicts Competition Politics Intrigue
Advocate Referee Mediator
Developagenda
Formcoalitions andbuild powerbase
Acquire goodintelligence
Dispenseinformationwisely
The snakepit of workplace The snakepit of workplace politics...politics...
Organizations are comprised of human beings...
…who come to organizations possessing diverse beliefs, values, and interests.
Interdependence, power relations, and the scarcity of necessary resources...… impinge upon people and influence
their decision-making processes.
For managers and leaders, the question is not whetherwhether organizations will have politics......butbut the kind of politics they will have.
Not about how managers and leaders avoidavoid politics...…but about how they dealdeal with
politics.
Not whetherwhether managers and leaders will use their current position as a steppingstone towards “greener pastures”…
…but howhow they will manage and lead workplace politics towards positive and productive ends.
Politics...Politics...
the matters of the people (in Greek, s)
cultural milieutheoretical knowledgecraft knowledge
each of whom possesses:
antecedentsself knowledgecritical knowledge
these antecedents influence and shape each individual’s fundamental...
...beliefs
...assumptions
...values
All of these matters are antecedent to an individual’s theories of practice.
diverse beliefs
diverse values
diverse interests
CON F L I C T
resulting in
……and in human organizations...and in human organizations...
many people bring...
Managing and leading human Managing and leading human organizations involves dealing with organizations involves dealing with conflict...conflict...
that is…
…without becoming embattled
…how to engage in battle...
Conflict...Conflict...
vertical
horizontal
permeates human organizations
types of organizational conflict
cultural
since conflict is natural and inevitable in human organizations...
…conflict is not a problem or an issue per se...
…but requires managers and leaders who understand and are capable of dealing directly and effectively with conflict
Understanding conflict...Understanding conflict...
conflict challenges the status quoconflict can stimulate personal and
social change, interest, creativity, and innovation
Effective managers and leaders focus not on eliminating conflict but on strategies and tactics that channel conflict toward positive and productive ends.
Managing and leading conflict...Managing and leading conflict...
the goal is to mobilize people to achieve shared goals and to overcome obstacles by relating with allies andand opponents alike...
Effective managers and leaders view adversaries not as difficultdifficult people to deal with but as interestinginteresting people they compete with.
Tactics for dealing with Tactics for dealing with conflict...conflict...
bounded conflictsarenasarenas
characterized by fair competition
unbounded conflictsstreetfightsstreetfights ending in obliteration of the
opponent
vs.
1) to establish boundaries in conflict situations
conflict is an ongoing interplay of competing interests and agendas among different individuals and groups
arenas streetfightsvs.
people are independent agents who possess and will use
whatever tools necessary to achieve their self-interest,
irrespective of others
everything is defined: the game, field, rules,
interests, and preferences to be pursued
arenas streetfightsvs.
nothing is defined: individuals and groups legislate their own rules
and behavior ad hoc
multiple opportunities for formal and informal communication,
including meetings, committees, and task forces
arenas streetfightsvs.
communication transpires somewhere “beneath the surface””
the objective is to avoid mutually assured destruction
arenas streetfightsvs.
the objective is to “take no prisoners”
agenda setting requires…
interpersonal sensitivity
discrete arm twisting
planting seeds
moving elephants
Tactics...Tactics...
3) to map the political terrain to identify where the players’ self-interests collide and how the players view one another (Pichault, 1993) determine the channels of informal communication identify the principal agents wielding political
influence analyze the possibilities for both internal and external
mobilization
anticipate the strategies that other individuals and groups are likely to employ
high
low
pro-change anti-change
p
o
w
e
r
interests
support staff
middlemanagement
topmanagement
Mapping the political terrain. Mapping the political terrain. A scenario…but, who’s view?A scenario…but, who’s view?
high
low
pro-change anti-change
p
o
w
e
r
interests
support staff
middlemanagement
topmanagement
Who’s view?Who’s view?
Tactics...Tactics...
4) to build coalitions among and network players through influence building
a coalitioncoalition is:
a group of individuals possessing diverse objectives and resources
attempting to negotiate and bargain with other players both overtly and covertly
to influence goals, tactics, and projects
the collision of self-interests (what people wantwant) and the scarcity of resources (what people needneed) requires intense bargaining and negotiating...
…thus, the critical question for managers and leaders is:
How do the groups articulate their preferences and mobilize power to get both what they want and need?
...a four-step process of mapping political influence (Kotter, 1985) identify relevant relationships, that is, who needs to be managed
or led
assess who is likely to resist, why, and how strongly, that is, figure out ahead of time where the likely challenges are
develop, wherever possible, relationships with potential opponents to facilitate communication, education, and negotiation
...in the event these steps fail, then carefully select and implement more subtle or more forceful methods... identify whose help you need develop relations with them through “pre-selling” and
“cheerleading” engage in “horse-trading,” that is, promise rewards in
exchange for resources and support which will secure the blessing of scarce resources
finding betterbetter solutions(vs. the bestbest solution)for contending players
creating value claiming value
players endeavor to maximizemaximize their individual
gain at minimalminimal cost
Tactics...Tactics...
5) to engage the players in bargaining and negotiating
win-win win-lose
Change generates conflict and creates winners and losers. Effective managers and leaders avoid smoothing over those issues which drive conflict underground.
Managing and leading change effectively requires creating arenas where organizational problems issues can be bargained and negotiated.
creating valuecreating value... the conscious insertion of principles into the
decision-making process the art of using bargaining and negotiating as a
forum for building consensus about shared values
the “moral” aspect of management/leadership (Barnard, 1938/1968)
1. separate the players from the problem by focusing on the merits of the argument
3. focus on interests not positions
4. invent options for mutual gain
2. insist on objective criteria in substance and procedures by avoiding anecdotal data and feelings
Tactics...Tactics...
claiming valueclaiming value...
…wherein both players want an agreement but have different interests and preferences which influence the process
acting upon the pragmatic recognition that bargaining and negotiating is a mixed-motive game...
1. focus players on the interdependence of decisions as well as the series of decisions to be made
Tactics...Tactics...
…what each player does affects the other
…each player wants, as much as possible, to be able to predict what the other will do while limiting the other’s ability to do likewise
…the implicit goal is for player A to control player B’s level of uncertainty so as to exercise greater power in bargaining and negotiating
2. use judicious threats rather than sanctions…threats are potent only to the degree that the opponent
believes the threat will be carried out
… noncredible threats weaken one’s position and confuses the process
… the players may then threaten to use force, go on strike, or break off negotiations
…but, in most cases, they cannot bear the costs of carrying out the threat
3. calculate the appropriate level of threat…“underthreatening” only weakens one’s position
…“overthreatening” is perceived as bluffing and may lead another party to disbelieve, to break off bargaining and negotiating, or to force an escalation in threats
all of this claiming value increases the probability that managers and leaders will be perceived as functioning as manipulators...
…who breed self-interest, mistrust, and hostility in their followers
effective managers and leaders...
…create value andand claim value
…as they engage in conditional openness
…and follow the “Golden Rule”
to rule...
…to make a judgment
…in Greek, s, that is, “crisis”
To “rule” means to render a judgment in a crisis, a judgment evidencing the virtuous character (or lack of virtue) of the individual making the judgment.
influencing behaviorchanging the course of eventsovercoming resistancegetting people to do the things they
would not otherwise domaking one’s will prevail and attaining
one’s goal
Examples of power...Examples of power...
…unfortunately, negative Machiavellian connotations distort thoughtful discourse about power and its exercise...
the difference between the positivepositive use of power and the negativenegative use of power...
…is found in the person using power...…and the principles upon which that
individual justifies the use of power
Sources of power Sources of power (Frensch & Raven, 1959)...(Frensch & Raven, 1959)...
position
information/expertise
control of rewards
coercive poweralliances/networks
access to and control of agendas and minutes
control of meaning and symbols
personal power
attending to zones of indifference
Power in the organizational Power in the organizational system...system...
overbounded
highly concentrated
tightly regulates everything
drives politics underground
underbounded
diffuse throughout
system loosely controlled
lots of politics and power games
bounded power
the lowerarchy and the hierarchy cooperate so that
there are no surprises
an arena
unbounded power
a streetfight
vs.
parochial animus endures and keeps returning
Assumptions of the political Assumptions of the political theories of practice...theories of practice...
organizations are coalitionscoalitions of individuals and interest groups
there are enduring differencesenduring differences among coalition members in values beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of reality
the most important decisions involve the allocation of scarce resourcesscarce resources, that is, who gets what
scarce resources and enduring differences give conflictconflict a central role in organizational dynamics and make power the most valuable resource
goals and decisions emerge from bargainingbargaining, negotiatingnegotiating, and jockeyingjockeying for position among different stakeholders
Political tasks for managers and Political tasks for managers and leaders...leaders...
1. to achieve a “delicate balance” in allocating scarce resources across different divisions or functions
2. to get support from bosses
3. to get support from staff and other constituents
Some practical advice for Some practical advice for managers and leaders...managers and leaders...
1. steadfastly refuse to be drawn into brawls
2. avoid confrontations but do confront conflict and do engage in arguments
3. be patient, persistent, and use conflict to practice advancing one’s agenda
4. “let go” of difficult adversaries
… set the standard by upholding the organizational purposea) state the organizational vision
b) state your best understanding of their position
c) identify your contribution to the problem
d) tell them what you will do without making demands of them
To “let go” of difficult To “let go” of difficult adversaries...adversaries...
Managing and leading organizational politics, confronting conflict, applying ethics when decision making, and using power effectively are critical elements for thinking about management and leadership as a challenging, creative, and necessary endeavor.
successful managers and leaders deal with organizational politics, confront conflict, apply ethics when decision making, and use power...
…as they ask themselves: How willwill I?
…they experience mentalmental anguish
unsuccessful managers and leaders deal with organizational politics, confront conflict, apply ethics when decision making, and use power...
…as they ask themselves: How cancan I?
…they experience personalpersonal anguish
effective managers and leaders are…advocates
Using political theory...Using political theory...
whose primary concerns are…coalition-building
…negotiating gray areas
…savvy
ineffective managers and leaders are…con-artists
Abusing political theory...Abusing political theory...
whose primary concerns are…fraud…deception
…hustlers
…realistic
Strengths of the political theory Strengths of the political theory of practice...of practice...
…practical
…addresses the reality of conflict and power struggles
…highlights the need for principled reflection
…impersonal
Limitations of the political theory Limitations of the political theory of practice...of practice...
…cynical
…assumes conflict and power struggles
Integrating reflective practice, conceptual Integrating reflective practice, conceptual pluralism, and organizational analysis...pluralism, and organizational analysis...
Reflecting upon organizational behavior through four frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism managers and leaders need to diagnose the issues underlying the
problems manifesting themselves in human organizations.
the structural frame
the human resources frame
the political frame
the symbolic frame
This module has focused on...This module has focused on...
the political sciencepolitical science theoriestheories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes...
the political frame
...as these theories of practice provide managers a frame of reference to inform decision making...
...offers managers and leaders guidance about the strengths and limits of political science theory
Managers and leaders have to recognize political reality and know how to deal with it. Inside and outside any organization, there are always a variety of different interest groups, each with its own agenda. There are not enough resources to give everyone what he or she wants, and there is always going to be conflict.
A POLITICAL SCENARIO
The job of managers and leaders is to recognize the major constituencies, to develop ties to their leadership, and to manage conflict as productively as possible. Above all, they need to build power bases and use power carefully. They cannot give every group everything it wants, although they can try to create arenas for negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable compromises. Managers and leaders also have to work hard at articulating what everyone in their organizations possesses in common. Managers and leaders must tell the people that it is a waste of time to fight each other when there are plenty of enemies outside that they can all fight together. Groups that fail to work well together internally tend to get trounced by outsiders who have their own agendas.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 361)
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A POLITICAL SCENARIO
the political frame
PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:
CentralConcepts:
ManagerialAnd
LeadershipImage:
FundamentalChallenge:
Jungle Self-Interest Power Conflicts Competition Politics Intrigue
Advocate Referee Mediator
Developagenda
Formcoalitions andbuild powerbase
Acquire goodintelligence
Dispenseinformationwisely
The next module will focus on...The next module will focus on...
...and the cultural theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes.
the symbolic frame
Symbolic managers and leaders are also sensitive to an organization’s history and culture. They seek to use the best in their organization’s traditions and values as a base for building a culture that provides cohesiveness and meaning. They articulate a vision that communicates the organization’s unique capabilities and mission.
(Bolman & Deal, 1991, p. 364)
A SYMBOLIC SCENARIO
Symbolic managers and leaders believe that the most important part of their job is inspiration—giving people something that they can believe in. People will give their loyalty to an organization that has a unique identity and makes them feel that what they do is really important. Effective symbolic managers and leaders are passionate about making their organizations the best of their kind and communicate that passion to others. They use dramatic, visible symbols that give people a sense of the organizational mission. They are visible and energetic. They create slogans, tell stories, hold rallies, give awards, appear where they are least expected, and manage by wandering around.
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A SYMBOLIC SCENARIO
PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:
CentralConcepts:
ManagerialAnd
LeadershipImage:
FundamentalChallenge:
Carnival Cathedral or
Temple Opera and
Theatre
Culture Meaning Metaphor Ritual Ceremony Stories Heroes and
heroines Common
good
High priestsand priestesses
Tribal Chieftans Clan Chieftans
Inspire Create faith Define beauty Identify
meaning
the symbolic frame
ReferencesReferences
Barnard, C. I. (1938/1968). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Frensch, J. R. P., & Raven, B. H. (1959). “The bases of social power.” In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in social power. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
Kotter, J. P. (1982). The general managers. New York: Free Press.
Kotter, J. P. (1985). Power and influence: Beyond formal authority. New York: Free Press.
Kotter, J. P. (1988). The leadership factor. New York: Free Press.
Pichault, F. (1993). Resources humaines et changement stratégique: Vers un management politique (Human resources and strategic change: Toward a political model of management). Brussels, Belgium, DeBoeck.
Porter, E. (1989, December). “Notes for the Looking at Leadership Conference.” Paper presented at the Looking for Leadership Conference, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University.
Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in educational administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 27(2), p. 186.