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Centre for Computational GeostatisticsSchool of Mining and Petroleum Engineering
Department of Civil & Environmental EngineeringUniversity of Alberta
Tonnage Uncertainty Assessment of Vein Type Deposits Using Distance Functions and Location-Dependent
VariogramsDavid F. Machuca-Mory, Michael J. Munroe and Clayton
V. Deutsch
APCOM 2009
1
Outline• Introduction• Distance Function Methodology• Locally Stationary Geostatistics • Example• Conclusions
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Introduction (1/2)• 3D modelling is required for delimiting
geologically and statistically homogeneous zones.
• Traditionally this is achieved by wireframe interpolation of interpreted geological sections:
– Highly dependent of a particular geological interpretation
– Can be highly demanding in professional effort
– Alternative scenarios may be difficult to produce
– No assessment of uncertainty provided
• Simulation techniques can be used for assessing the uncertainty of categorical variables
– They require heavy computational effort
– Results are not always geologically realistic
2(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Introduction (1/2)
• Rapid geological modelling based on Radial Basis Functions (RBF)
– Fast for generating multiple alternative interpretation
– Locally varying orientations are possible
– No uncertainty assessment provided
• Proposed Approach:
– Distance functions are used for coding the sample distance to the contact.
– Locally stationary variogram models adapts to changes in the orientation, range and style of the spatial continuity of the vein/waste indicator.,
– The interpolation of the distance coding is done by locally stationary simple kriging with locally stationary variograms/correlograms
3(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
4
Outline• Introduction• Distance Function Methodology• Locally Stationary Geostatistics• Example• Conclusions
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Distance Function (1/2)
• Beginning from the indicator coding of intervals:
• The anisotropic distance between samples and contacts:
• Is modified by
5
-1
-1
-2
-2-3-4-3
+2+3+4+5+6
+8+9
+7
+1
+1+2+3+4+5
+7+8+9
+10
+6
+10
+10.0
+10.0
+10.0
+10.0+10.0+10.0+10.0
+10.2+10.4+10.8+11.2+11.7
+12.8+13.5+14.1
+12.2
+10.1
+10.1+10.2+10.4+10.8+11.2
+12.2+12.8+13.5+14.1
+11.7
Distance Function (DF):Shortest Distance
Between Points withDifferent Vein Indicator
(VI)
+10.0
+10.0
1, if is located within the vein( )
0, otherwise u
u
VI αα
=
mod( ( ) ) / if ( ) 0
( )( ( ) ) if ( ) 1DF C VI
DFDF C VI
α αα
α α
ββ
+ == − + ⋅ =
u uu
u u
22 2( )u dx dy dzDF
hx hy hzα′ ′ ′ = + + ′ ′ ′
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Distance Function (2/2)
• C is proportional to the width of the uncertainty bandwidth .
• β controls the position of the iso-zero surface
• β >1 dilates the iso-zero.• β <1 erodes the iso-zero.
6
mod( ( ) ) / if ( ) 0
( )( ( ) ) if ( ) 1DF C VI
DFDF C VI
α αα
α α
ββ
+ == − + ⋅ =
u uu
u u
C∆ − C∆ +Vein
ISO zero (Middle)Outer Limit (Maximum)Inner Limit (Minimum)
UncertaintyBandwidth
NonVein
Vein
Dilated (Increasing β )ISO Zero (β =1)Eroded (Decreasing β )
ββ
Position of ISO zero and Uncertainty bandwidth
NonVein
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Selection of Distance Function Parameters
• Empirical selection, based on:
– Predetermined values
– Expert knowledge
• Partial Calibration
– C is chosen based on expert judgement.
– β is modified until p50 volume coincides with data ore/waste proportions or a deterministic model.
• Full Calibration, several C and β values are tried until:
Bias is minimum: Uncertainty is fair :
T*: DF model tonnage P*: DF model P intervalT : reference model tonnage P : Actual fraction 7
{ }{ }
*
1 0E T T
OE T
−=
T*
T Tru
e
O1 > 0
O1 < 0
O1 = 0
*
1
1
( )2 0
p
p
n
i ii
n
ii
P PO
P
=
=
−=
∑
∑
O2 = 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.00.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Probability Interval -p
Act
ual F
ract
ion
O2 > 0
O2 < 0
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Uncertainty Thresholds
• Simple Kriging is used for interpolating the DF values.
• The the inner and outer limits of the uncertainty bandwidth, DFmin and DFmax, respectively, are within the range:
with DS = drillhole spacing
• The p value of each cell is calculated by:
with DF* = interpolated distance value
8
[ ]min max1 1, ,2 2
C DSDF DF C DS ββ
⋅= − ⋅ ⋅
Vein minDF maxDF
NonVein
maxDF
minDF
Outside>1
Inside<1
NonVein
Vein
min
max min
*DF DFpDF DF
−=
−
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
9
Outline• Introduction• Distance Function Methodology• Locally Stationary Geostatistics • Example• Conclusions
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
The Assumption of Local-Stationarity
• Standard geostatistical techniques are constrained by the assumption of strict stationarity.
• The assumption of local stationarity is proposed:
• Under this assumption the distributions and their statistics are specific of each location.
• These are obtained by weighting the sample values inversely proportional to their distance to the prediction point o.
• The same set of weights modify all the required statistics.
• In estimation and simulation, these are updated at every prediction location.
10
{ } { }1 1Prob ( ) ,..., ( ) ; Prob ( ) ,..., ( ) ;
, and only if
u u o u h u h o
u u h =n K i n K jZ z Z z Z z Z z
D i jα α
α β
< < = + < + <
∀ + ∈ ,
( )nz u
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Distance Weighting Function
• A Gaussian Kernel function is used for weighting samples at locations uα inversely proportional to their distance to anchor points o:
s is the bandwidth and ε controls the contribution of background samples.
• 2-point weights can be formed by the geometric average of 1-point weights:
11
( )
( )
2
2
2
21
( ; )exp
2( ; )
( ; )exp
2
u o
u ou o
GKn
ds
dn
s
α
αα
α
ε
ω
ε=
+ − =
+ −
∑
( , ; ) ( ; ) ( ; )α α α αω ω ω+ = ⋅ +u u h o u o u h o
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Locally weighted Measures of Spatial Continuity(1/2)
• Location-dependent Indicator variogram
• Location-dependent Indicator covariances
• With:
12
( )
, ,1
( ; ) ( , ; ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )N
VI VI VIC VI VI F Fα α α αα
ω −=
′= + ⋅ ⋅ + − ⋅∑h
h +hh o u u h o u u h o o
( )
,1
( )
,1
( ; ) ( , ; ) ( ; ) ,
( ; ) ( , ; ) ( ; )
N
VI k k
N
VI k k
F s VI s
F s VI s
α α αα
α α αα
ω
ω
=
=
′= + ⋅
′= + ⋅ +
∑
∑
h
-h
h
+h
o u u h o u
o u u h o u h
( )
1
( , ; )( , ; )( , ; )
Nα α
α α
α αα
ωω
ω=
+′ + =+∑
hu u h ou u h o
u u h o
[ ]( )
2
1
1( ; ) ( , ; ) ( ) ( )2
N
VI VI VIα α α αα
γ ω=
′= + − +∑h
h o u u h o u u h
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Locally weighted Measures of Spatial Continuity (2/2)
• Location-dependent indicator correlogram:
• With:
• Location-dependent correlograms are preferred because their robustness.
• Experimental local measures of spatial continuity are fitted semiautomatically.
• Geological knowledge or interpretation of the deposit’s geometry can be incorporated for conditioning the anisotropy orientation of the fitted models.
13
2 2, ,
( ; )( ; ) [ 1, 1]( ) ( )VI
VIVI VI
Cρ
σ σ−
= ∈ − +⋅h +h
h oh oo o
[ ][ ]
2
2
( ; ) ( ; ) 1 ( ; )
( ; ) ( ; ) 1 ( ; )h h h
h +h +h
o o o
o o ok k k
k k k
s F s F s
s F s F s
σ
σ− − −
+
= −
= −
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Locally Stationary Simple Kriging
• Locally Stationary Simple Kriging (LSSK) is the same as traditional SK but the variogram model parameters are updated at each estimation location:
• The LSSK estimation variance is given by:
• And the LSSK estimates are obtained from:
14
( )( )
1( ) ( ; ) ( ; ) 1,..., ( )
nLSSK nβ α αβ
βλ ρ ρ α
=− = − =∑
oo u u o o u o o
( )2 ( )
1( ) (0; ) 1 ( ) ( ; )
nLSSK
LSSK C α αα
σ λ ρ=
= − −
∑
oo o o o u o
( ) ( )* ( ) ( )
1 1( ) ( )[ ( )] 1 ( ) ( )
n nLSSK LSSK
LSSKZ Z mα α αα α
λ λ= =
= + −
∑ ∑
o oo o u o o
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
15
Outline• Introduction• Distance Function Methodology• Locally Stationary Geostatistics • Example• Conclusions
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Drillhole Data(Houlding, 2002)
• Drillhole fans separated by 40m• 2653 2m sample intervals coded by mineralization type.• Modelling restricted to the Massive Black Ore (MBO, red intervals in the figure).
16(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Local variogram parameters (1/2)
• Anchor points in a 40m x 40m x 40m grid• Experimental local correlograms calculated using a GK
with 40m bandwidth.• Interpretation of the MBO structure bearing and dip was
used for guiding the fitting of .• Nugget effect was fixed to 0
17
1 ( ; )VIρ− h o
Local Azimuth Local Dip Local Plunge
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Local variogram parameters (2/2)
Local range parallel to vein strike
18
Local range parallel to vein dip
Local range perpendicular to vein dip
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Vein uncertainty model (2/2)
• Build by simple Kriging with location-dependent variogram models• Drillhole sample information is respected• Local correlograms allows the reproduction of local changes in the vein
geometry
19(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Vein uncertainty model (1/2)
• Envelopes for vein probability >0.5
View towards North East View towards South West20(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Uncertainty assessment
• A full uncertainty assessment in terms of accuracy and precision requires of reference models.
• In practice this may be demanding in time and resources.
• Partial calibration of the DF parameters leads to an unbiased distribution of uncertainty.
• The wide of this distribution is evaluated under expert judgement.
21(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
22
Outline• Introduction• Distance Function Methodology• Location-Dependent Correlograms• Example• Conclusions
(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Conclusions
• The distance function methodology allows producing uncertainty volumes for geological structures.
• Kriging the distance function values using locally changing variogram models allows adapting to local changes in the vein geometry.
• Partial calibration of the distance function parameters allows minimizing the bias of uncertainty volume
• Assessing the uncertainty width rigorously requires complete calibration.
23(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009
Acknowledgements
• To the industry sponsors of the Centre for Computational Geostatistics for funding this research.
• To Angel E. Mondragon-Davila (MIC S.A.C., Peru) and Simon Mortimer (Atticus Associates, Peru) for their support in geological database management and 3D geological wireframe modelling.
24(c) David F. Machuca-Mory, 2009