Transfer of High Technology to Developing Countries

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supp

l y i ng count r y ,

nor , mor e pa

r t i c ul ar l y , of

t h e count r i es i n

whi ch

t he

t echnol ogy

evol ved.

Thus even t

he n on - f

i nanc i al

c o n s t r a i n t s

l i s t ed above may

be ver y d i f f i

c ul t t o ov

er c ome.

A

CI S c ons i s t s of har dwa

r e , s o f t w

a r e, a nd

manpower . Such

a

s y s t e m

wi l l have

par t i c ul ar

t ec hni c a

l s pec i f i c at i

ons .

The

s ys t em

wi l l

be

i mpl ement ed

i n

pha s es o ve r

a

p e r i od,

or

i n

one

g o.

The

s y s t

em

wi l l b

e i mpl em

ent ed by t he

s uppl i er f o

r

t h e

r ec ei v er

,

or

t h r ough

t h e

mec hani sm o

f consul t ant

s

( ac t i ng

f or

ei t her

t he

s uppl i er

or

t he

r ec ei ver ) ,

or

bot h, wi t h t h e r e c e

i ver bei ng

an

ex i s t i ng m

appi ng

o

r gani s at i on,

gover nme

nt

o

r gani s at i on,

o r a new

s pe

c i a l l y c r e a t e d

on

e

wi t h

a r em t

i

n

t h e

f

i el d of

CI S. The

t e c hn i

c al s pec i f i c at i

ons f or t he

s ys t em i t s

i mp l ement at i on

per i od,

a

nd

t h e mechani

s m f o r i

t s i mpl emen

t at i on

a r e

a

l l

f u n c t i

ons

o f :

t he

r ec ei v er s

ob j ec t i v

es ;

t he

s uppl i er s

obj ec t i ve

s ;

and,

t h e

c ons t r

ai nt s wi t hi n

t he

r e c e i

v i ng

c o

unt r y .

Thi s i s shown

di a

g r a mat i c al l y

i n F i gur e 1 . I t

i s t h e

pur pose of

t hi

s

p

a pe r

t o

addr es s

t h e

pr obl em o f hi g

h t ec hn

ol ogy t r a n s f er

t o

dev el opi ng

c ount r i es , and

F i gu r e

wi l l

be

used

as

a

f r amewor k.

We wi l l c

ons i d e r

each

o f

t he

number ed ( 1 - 5 )

di v i s i ons

i n

t ur n,

hi ghl i ght t h o s e

i t

ems f ound i n each whi c h

ar e, i n o u r

opi ni on,

l i kel y t o

gener at e pr obl em

s

i n

devel opi ng

coun

t r i es , and pr es ent

s ome

s ol ut i ons

.

F i gur e 1 . TH

F

CTORS FFE

CTI NG THE N T

URE

OF TH

E

I MPLEMENTED S

YSTEM

1

. RECEI VERS

OBJ ECT I VES

*

4 TEC

HNI C L

/ SPEC

I F I CAT I ONS.

I MPLEMENTE

D

2 .

SUPPLI ERS.

OBJ ECT I VES

GEOG

RAPHI C

I NFOR

M TI ON

/SYSTEM

i IMPLEMENTAT

ION/

STR TEGY

3 CONSTRAIN

TS

2. 0

RECEI VERS

OBJ ECTI VES

.

Lack of

up- t o- dat e

human

and

phys i c al

env i r onme

nt dat a

i s

a

pr o

bl em i n

d

evel o pi n g

c ount r i es .

Pr e s ent c apa

b i l i t i e s wi t h

r

e s pe c t t o dat a

c ol l ec t i o

n and t hei r

us e a r e i nadequat e

. Ther e

i s

a l ac

k

of r e s o u

r c e s

and t r ai ned

m

anpower whi ch

r e sul t s

i n

a

f ai l ur e t o

meet r equ i r

ement s

and

t he

advocacy of c omp

u t e r

a s s i s t

ed met hods , whi ch

a r e

t h

oug ht ( and t her e f o r e

r equi r ed) t o

r edu

c e manpo wer

needs.

Ex pl os i v e popul at i on

gr owt h

and

a

c or r e s p o n d i ng

i n c r e as e

i n

f ood

demand f o r c

e g over n

me n t s

t o

i nv es t

i n v i t

al d

evel opment

pr o

j ec t s ,

and

t he t oo

l s ( i n c l udi ng

pl anni n

g and mappi ng t ool

s )

used

mus t t h er ef or e

be r e l i abl e

and t i me l

y .





co mmodi t y a

f a l l

i n

i t s pr i ce may

l en ght en t h e per i od

o v e r whi ch

t he

f i nan ci a l i n ves t men t ( whe t he r l a r ge or

s mal l )

c an t ake

pl ac e, or r e s ul t i n t h e compl e t e c es s a t i on of f u r t h e r

i n ves t men t .

Whe n pl an n i n g the i n s t a l l a t i on of a

CI S s ys t em

an

a t t empt mus t be made

t o

pr edi c t t he t ype of

mon ey

f l ow,

and

the

t ec hn i c al

s pec i f i c a t i on s

and i mpl e me nt a t i o n s t r a t e g y

deve l oped

a cc or di n gl y .

4. 2

MANPOWER

CONST RAI NTS .

S k i l l s can

be

des c r i bed as

pr of es s i ona l , t ec hnol ogi c al ,

or

oper at i ona l . I n t h e pas t s k i l l s

wer e

a cqui r ed t hr ough on - t he- j ob

t r a i n i ng a f t e r a

gen er a l

s e c o n d a r y

or

t e r t i a r y educ at i on , and

t hi s ap pr oac h may c on t i nue

t o wor k , even

i n hi gh- t e chn ol ogy

i ndus t r i es ,

as

comput er awar enes s becomes

p a r t

of t h e gen er a l

educ at i on al pac kage .

Howev er

t h i s model does

n o t

exi s t i n

de ve l opi n g

c oun t r i es .

Comput er awar enes s

i s

n o t

gen er a l .

Ther e

may be a r e l a t i ve l y

l a r ge

pool

o f

ac adem c al l y

t r a i n ed per s on ne l

wi t h pr of es s i ona l

pot e n t i a l ,

b u t

who

have had

l i t t l e

oppor t un i t y

t o de v el o p comput er

s k i l l s . Apa r t

f r om t ho s e wi t h

an

a ca dem c

t r a i n i ng t h e r e

may

be an e x t r e me l y s ma l l pool of educ a t ed

per s on nel . Ther e wi l l c er t a i n l y

n o t

be a hi gh- t e c hn ol ogy i ndus t r y

wher e on - t he- j ob t r a i n i n g

can

be

a cqui r ed.

Any

or ga ni s a t i on

h op i n g t o i mpl ement

a

comput er a s s i s t e d ma ppi n g s ys t em

i n

a

de ve l o pi n g c oun t r y wi l l hav e

t o gi v e

f a r mor e c on s i der a t i on

t o

ma n po we r t r a i n i n g t h a n

i s

expec t ed i n dev e l oped c oun t r i es ,

and

of

c o u r s e

mor e f i n an c e.

On - t he- j ob t r a i n i n g

has t o

be r epl a c ed

by

t r a i n i ng

c our s es .

I f

t he

ac qui s i t i on

of a

s ys t em

has

a l r ea dy been pl a n n ed

su ch

cou r se s have t o be e f f i c i e n t ,

and

mus t be di r ec t ed t o t he

manpower needs of t he s ys t em Pr of es s i on a l t r a i n i ng

has

a l wa y s

b ee n a s s o c i a t e d

wi t h un i v er s i t y - l ev e l i n s t i t ut i on s , an d may be

u n de r gr a du at e

( 3 - 6

y e a r s ) or po s t gr a du at e ( 1 - 4 year s ) . But f or

t hi s

t r a i n i ng

t o be ef f i c i en t

i t

wi l l

have

t o

p r e p a r e

i t s

s t u d e n t s t o

s t e p

i mme di a t e l y i n t o de ci s i o n ma k i n g pos i t i on s ,

whi ch can

on l y

happen i f s t u d e n t s have had expos u r e

t o

a v e r y

wi de

r ange

o f

s ys t ems or

t he

s pec i f i c s y s t em

the y wi l l

be us i n g,

and expos ur e t o

a

v e r y

wi de

r an ge of mapp i ng p r ob l ems or t h e

s pec i f i c p r ob l ems t hey wi l l be f ac i ng. The

' ver y wi de

r an ge'

s ol ut i on s h oul d be s ea r c hed f o r ,

b u t

may n o t be f oun d.

The

' s pec i f i c '

s ol ut i on

i s

f o un d

i n

wel l

de s i gn ed

s t u d e n t

pr oj ec t s

c ar r i ed o u t

at

i n s t i t u t i on s

wi t h

t h e r i ght

e qu i pme n t ;

such

pr oj ec t s

may

be

p a r t of a pos t - gr a dua t e c our s e.

Pos t - gr a dua t e

cour s es may be t he b e s t way t o t r a i n pr of es s i on al s f r om

de ve l o pi n g

c oun t r i es ,

b u t

v e r y c ar ef ul a t t en t i on mus t

be

pa i d

t o

s e l ec t i ng t he

c our s e .

Sui t a bl e c an di da t e s

f o r

t h e s e c o u r s e s

can

be

s e l ec t ed f r o m t he poo l

of

young

a ca dem c s i n

t h e

de ve l o pi n g

c oun t r y ; s u c h peopl e need t ec hn ol ogi c al and

de ci s i o n ma ki n g

c apab i l i t i es an d t hei r un i v er s i t y t r an s c r i pt s or r ef er en ces

s houl d i n di c at e

t h i s . The i r di pl o ma s

may n o t .

I n dev e l oped

c oun t r i es t ec hn ol ogi s t

l evel e duc a t i o n

i s

a s s o ci a t ed

wi t h

c ol l eges

of

t ec hn ol ogy .

De v el o pi n g

c oun t r i es

may be poor l y

s u ppl i ed

wi t h such

c ol l eges .

I n dev e l oped

c oun t r i es t he s e c ol l eges

a r e

un l i k el y

t o

pr o vi de a t ec hn ol ogi s t



f r o m

a

de ve l opi n g c o u n t r y wi t h r e l ev an t pr oj ec t exper i en ce.

Howeve r

t he educ a t i on

of

t he s e

peopl e i s

e x t r e me l y

i mpo r t a nt as

t hey wi l l pr ov i de, f o r exampl e , t he s ys t em manager s . They

wi l l

have t o be f am l i a r wi t h man y t ec hn i c al a s p e c t s

of

t hei r

s y s t e m

Ma n uf a c t ur e r s

a l s o

pr o vi de

t r a i n i ng c our s e s .

To

be

us ef ul t o

f ut ur e t ec hn ol ogi s t s

f r o m

de ve l opi n g

c o un t r i e s s u c h c o ur s e s ma y

have t o

cope

wi t h a

l ow

educ at i on

l evel

on ent r y . Ev al ua t i on and

f e ed- b ac k a r e e xt r e me l y i mpor t an t .

Such

c our s e s ar e e xpen s i v e.

I den t i f y i ng s ui t ab l e s t af f f or t ec hn ol ogi s t p o s t s may be

di f f i c ul t , an d may

r equi r e s pec i a l

t es t i ng

pr o c edu r e s

or v e r y

r i gour ous

i n t er v i ewi ng. At

the

momen t t h e r e

i s

l i t t l e c on t a c t

bet ween t he c on ven t i on al educ at i on e s t a bl i s hmen t s and

ma n uf a c t u r e r s

o v e r

t he t r a i n i ng o f CI S

per s on nel .

Con s i der a t i on

c oul d be gi v en

t o mor e

c o ope r a t i o n b et we en t he

e duc a t i on

es t a bl i s h me nt s and t he ma n uf a c t ur e r s i n t he

des i gn

and

s uper v i s i on of pr oj ec t s

f o r

per s on nel f r om de ve l opi n g c oun t r i es .

I n

deve l oped

c ount r i es o p e r a t o r

l evel

t r a i n i n g

i s

on t he

equi pment

s t a f f

wi l l us e, and

i s

c ar r i ed ou t by t hei r ev en t ua l

s uper v i s or s ,

or

t r a i n i ng s t a f f

wo r k i n g i n

c l os e

c ol l abor a t i on

wi t h t he s uper v i s or s . Whe n

a s y s t e m

has s t i l l t o be i n s t a l l ed

such t r a i n i n g

has

t o be r e pl a c ed by

c our s e s .

A cour s e must be

at an or gan i s a t i on

us i n g s i m l a r

equi pment

f o r

s i m l a r

pr oj ec t s ,

and

wi t h

t r a i n i n g ex per i en ce. Such

an or gan i s a t i on

may

be a

mappi ng

or gan i s a t i on i n a deve l oped

c o u n t r y

or a

s ui t abl y

e qui ppe d educ a t i o na l

i n s t i t u t e .

Such

c o u r s e s a r e un l i k e l y

t o

ex i s t as s t an dar d of f er i n gs

i n

any or gan i s a t i on , an d wi l l be

ex pen s i v e. Because of the number s , the t r a i n i ng

of

o p e r a t o r s

wi l l

be t he

mos t ex pen s i v e t r a i n i n g

e l ement

f o r

any

or gan i s a t i on

i n a de ve l opi n g

c o u n t r y

i f i t i s de c i de d

t h a t

a

pool

of

t r a i ned

o pe r a t o r s h av e t o be r eady as

soon

as a s y s t e m

i s

i n s t a l l ed.

4. 3 ENVI RONMENTAL CONSTRAI NTS .

Gen er a l l y ma n uf a c t ur e r s

i ndi c at e

s ome l i m t s r e l a t ed t o

t emp er a t u r e and

hum di t y

beyond

whi ch

t hei r equi pment

i s

n o t

gu ar a n t e ed

t o f un ct i on . The n at ur a l en vi r on men t

i n

many

de vel opi n g c oun t r i es does

not f a l l

wi t hi n

t he s e l i m t s , t hus

i f

u s e r s a r e

go i n g

t o

adher e

t o t hei r g u a r a n t e e

c ondi t i on s ,

a i r

c on di t i on i n g

wi l l ha ve

t o

be use d. Thi s

i s

an expense

addi t i ona l

t o t he

ac t ual

s ys t em

I t

may

be

i n

t he

ma nuf a ct ur e r ' s

i n t er e s t t o

as c er t a i n

whet her t he en vi r on me nt a l

l i m t s ar e t o o s t r i c t .

W l dl i f e

i n

t he f o r m

of a n t s a n d

r a t s

may pr e s e n t p r o bl e ms

whi ch have

i mpl i c a t i on s n o t f o un d i n

dev e l oped c oun t r i es .

Many

de ve l o pi n g

c oun t r i es do n o t s u f f e r f r om t he ext r emes o f

c ol d

f o un d

i n

deve l oped

c oun t r i es , and t hei r bui l di n g

c on s t r uc t i on

i s

l i ght e r .

W t hout addi t i on al i n ves t men t

i n

c ons t r uc t i on , wor ks paces

may

be

p r one

t o

r oof

l e ak a ge

and

v i br a t i on .

Dus t

i s a

c har ac t e r i s t i c

o f de ve l opi n g

c oun t r i es , a nd

un con t r ol l ed

can a f f e c t

t he

s ur f ac es o f s t o r a g e medi a.

F i na l l y , var i ab l e e l ec t r i c a l power s upp l y can

be damagi ng

t o

comput er

s y s t e ms ,

and t hi s

i s a

c ommon pr ob l em

i n de ve l opi n g

c oun t r i es . Ex t r a i n v es t me nt

may

be r equi r ed.



4. 4 LOCATI ONAL CONSTRAI NTS .

De ve l o pi n g

c oun t r i es a r e

of t en l oc at ed f a r

f r o m

e qu i p me n t

ma nuf a ct ur e r s .

Lon g di s t a nc es pr es e n t a r i s k t o ma nuf a c t ur er s ,

and

on l y t ho s e wi t h good

c api t a l

r e s e r v e s

c a n

a f f o r d t o

be

i n t e r es t ed i n s u c h ma r k e t s .

Thi s

l ea ds t o a l a c k of

c ompet i t i on , an d pr i c es

hi gher

t h a n t h o s e

f o un d

i n

d ev e l o p ed

c oun t r i es . The pr i c es f o r comput e r a s s i s t e d ma ppi n g e qui p me n t

a r e

a l s o ex t r emel y

hi gh r e l a t i v e

t o

l oc a l pr i c es f o r

o t h e r

go ods . These

hi gh

e qu i p me n t pr i c es c ompar ed t o l oc al l y l ow

l abour

c o s t s c r e a t e an

un f a v our a b l e c os t - ben ef i t s i t ua t i on

f o r

hi gh

t e c hn ol ogy

an d mak e s uc h p u r c h a s e s un at t r ac t i v e . So

t h e

number

of s a l es

r e ma i n s

l ow, f u r t h e r

di s c o ur a gi n g

c ompet i t i on i n

t he ma r k et - p l a c e and t h u s c on t i n ui n g

t h e

c yc l e. I n c o n s e q u e n c e

i n i t i a l

i n v es t me nt

c o s t s a r e

hi gh, s t ay hi gh,

a n d c a n n o t ea s i l y

be met . El i m n a t i on of t h i s p r o b l e m i s d i f f i c u l t .

F u n d s

a r e

of t en s h o r t

and

l oan s

( o r at

l eas t t he i r

r epayment ) may f u r t h e r

wi d en t h e

e c o n om c g ap b et we en

i n dus t r i a l i s ed

and

de ve l o pi n g

c oun t r i es , an d

t h i s

gap

c r e a t e d

p r o b l e ms

i n

t h e

f i r s t

pl ac e.

G r a n t s a r e

on l y a t e mp or a r y r emedy b e c a u s e t he y o c c ur

i n f r equen t l y , may n ot i n c l ude

f o l l ow

up, and i n t i me s of

e co nom c depr es s i on

i n d o n o r

c oun t r i e s , ma y

c e a s e

a l t oget her .

Even when equ i pment ha s been s uc ces s f u l l y i n s t a l l ed

t h e

l oc at i on

of de ve l o pi n g c oun t r i es c a u s e s di f f i c u l t i es

i n

e qu i p me n t

ma i n t e na n ce .

B e ca u se

of

di s t a n c e r epa i r men ' s v i s i t s a r e

e xpe ns i v e. Ca s es a r e

kn own wher e

u s e r s h a v e

had

t o

wa i t

a who l e

y e a r

f o r

a

r e pa i r ,

l ea v i n g t h e equi pment i dl e

t h e

wh o l e

t i me.

Ma n uf a c t u r e r s a r e e n c o u r a g ed

t o

es t a b l i s h l oc a l r epr es e nt a t i v es

on l y i f t he y ca n

e x pe c t a

f i n a n c i a l

ben ef i t . Mos t

h a r d wa r e

r equi r ed

f o r

CI S

i s

n o t y e t

c ommon pl ac e

i n

de ve l o pi n g c oun t r i es

( i n a n y a ppl i c a t i on ) , s o

an

a t t r a c t i v e n umb er of

s a l es i s

n o t

pos s i b l e ,

and

l oc a l r epr es e n t a t i v es a r e

n o t

es t a bl i s hed.

Howeve r

t h e r e l i a b i l i t y

of

comput e r

e qu i p me n t ha s been

i mpr o vi n g

and t h i s d e ve l o p me n t i s e x pe c t e d t o c on t i n ue. Cen t r a l

pr oc es s i n g

un i t s ,

d i gi t i z er s , p l o t t e r s , pr i n t e r s , W n ches t e r

di s k s

and

dr i v es , f l oppy di s k s and dr i v es a r e a l l e x pe c t e d

t o

gi v e l on g

s e r v i c e wi t h

m n i ma l r e pa i r . Ha r d

di s k s a nd dr i v es ,

a l p ha n ume r i c and gr a phi c s c r een s , ma gn e t i c

t ape un i t s ,

and

i n t e r f a c es

f a i l

mor e

of t en , but t h e

r epa i r ma y

c on s i s t ma i n l y

of

di a gn os i s

and

t he

r e pl a c e me n t

of

t h e

f a u l t y

par t .

Of t e n

di f f i c u l t i es o c c u r

when

v a r i o us e qu i p me n t

i t e ms a r e no t

u n de r

t he r e s pon s i b i l i t y

of

one ma nuf a c t ur er , or when i n t e r f a c i n g

be t we e n

i t e ms f r om di f f e r en t

ma n uf a c t ur e r s

i s

new

and

i n s uf f i c i en t l y t es t ed. But t her e i s s ome hope f o r i mp r ov e me n t .

F i r s t of

a l l

i n s uf f i c i en t l y

t e s t e d

i n t e r f ac es s h oul d

n o t b e

i n c or por a t e d i n t o

t h e

a c qu i r ed e qu i p me n t . Ma n uf a c t ur e r s s h oul d

be e n c o u r a g ed t o s t a nda r d i z e and

i mp r ov e

di a gn os t i c p r oc edur es

s o

t h a t u s e r s ma y ea s i l y c o mp l e t e

t hem

wi t h

l i t t l e ( e . g .

on l y

t e l epho ne ) or

n o

he l p f r om

t h e

ma n uf a c t u r e r , a n d r e pl a c e a ny

f aul t y p a r t t he ms e l v es . An un f a vour a bl e

a s p e c t of

t h

s

p r o c edu r e

i s

t h a t

t h e

u s e r i s ob l i ged t o keep a r a t h e r

l a r ge

s t o c k

of

s pa r e pa r t s ,

mak i ng i n v es t me nt

c o s t s

hi gher .

A

pos s i b l e s ol ut i on i s

t h e

use of e x p r e s s de l i v e r y s e r v i c es f r o m

t h e

ma nuf a ct ur er s '

s t oc ks , but t hi s

i n cr eas e s c o s t s

t o o .



Spec i a l

p r obl e ms a r e c r e a t e d by

s o f t wa r e b ugs , whi c h,

a l t ho ugh

l es s

s er i ous t h a n har dwar e

pr ob l e ms ,

a r e muc h mor e d i f f i c u l t t o

r epai r , because

the

u s e r i s de n i e d a c c e s s t o

the

s o u r c e

pr ogr ams .

The pr ob l em

o f

s o f t wa r e bugs i s

wor l d- wi de, b u t

t he

i s ol a t ed l oc at i on of de ve l opi n g c o un t r i e s ma k es

i t

mor e s e r i ous

f o r t hem

I t i s

d i f f i c u l t t o

i magi n e

t h a t ma n uf a c t u r e r s wi l l

change

t hei r

pr ot ec t i ve

at t i t ude

t owa r ds s o f t wa r e,

a l t ho ugh

new

t e c hn i qu es ha v e

been

dev e l oped wh i c h en abl e a l t er a t i on s di r ec t l y

t o

t he

ex ec ut a bl e v er s i on s of

pr ogr ams . The

way t o

a voi d

the

pr ob l em of bugs

i s

t o use

on l y

s o f t wa r e whi ch

has been

ext en s i v el y t e s t e d

i n

pr ac t i c e, but

t h i s

wi l l exc l ude t h e use of

the

newest

pr ogr ams .

Ob vi o us l y the

bes t s o l ut i on

f o r

mai n t enanc e

i s

t o make

the

s t a f f

at t he l oc at i on i n a de ve l o pi n g

c o u n t r y mor e s el f - s uf f i c i en t ,

s o

t h a t

t hey can e xecu t e

r epa i r s on

t hei r

own.

Thi s

a ga i n s t r e s s e s

the c en t r a l r o l e of educ a t i on , a n d

of t r a i n i ng

i n comput er

r el a t ed s k i l l s .

For mor e ef f i c i en t mai n t enanc e

i n

dev el o pi n g c oun t r i es

i t

c oul d

be r ec ommen ded

t h a t

a l l comput er

us i n g

or gan i z at i on s s i t uat ed

c l os e

t o

each

o t h e r

combi ne t hei r e f f or t s .

But i t i s

que s t i o na bl e whe t he r

t h i s wi l l be pos s i b l e

i n

pr a ct i c e, b ec a us e

of t he v ar i et y of

equi pment and

or gan i z at i on al pr obl ems .

4. 5

MOTI V TI ON L

CONST RAI NTS .

An ot he r o bs t a c l e whi ch mak es

the

t r a n s f e r

of t e chn ol o gy

d i f f i c u l t

and

whi ch j eopa r d i z es

i t s

appl i c at i on once

i t

has been

t r a ns f er r ed,

i s

the l ow

mot i v at i on

of

empl oyees

i n

de ve l o pi n g

c oun t r i es .

Low

s al a r i es a r e

the mos t

s er i ous r e a s o n

f o r

l ac k

of

mot i va t i on . The e mp l oyee s a r e f or c ed t o s e a r c h f o r v ar i ous

s o u r c e s of i nc ome

and

a cqui r e s ev er a l j obs .

They c a n n o t

d evo t e

s uf f i c i en t at t en t i on t o an y s i n gl e

one of

t hem and

t h i s

has

conse qu e nce s when

t he

appl i c at i on of new t ec hno l ogy

i s

i nvol ved.

Ver y of t en

even

the s i mp l e s t me ans of mot i v at i n g s t a f f a r e

m s s i n g,

such

as

p r o mo t i o n

and

ach i evement

r ec ogn i t i on . F i na l l y

the f a i l ur e t o mee t ob j ec t i v es i n any par t i c ul a r pr oj ec t c aus e s

cyn i c i s m a f eel i ng

of pur pos e l es s n es s , and

i s t h u s

demot i v at i n g.

I t

s eems r a t h e r

e asy

t o

r ec ommen d

meas ur es

t h a t

wi l l i mpr ov e

mot i v a t i on among e mp l oyee s , but t hei r s uc ces s f ul ex ec ut i on

r e qui r e s ma j o r c ha n ge s i n

t he

ec on om c c on di t i on s and t h e

s oc i a l

s t r u c t u r e

of

de ve l o pi n g c oun t r i es .

I n c r eas i ng s a l ar i es on l y

f o r

the

s t a f f dea l i n g

wi t h

hi gh

t e c hn ol o gy wi l l

c r e a t e

a

new

t ec hn ol ogi c al e l i t e . Mo t i v a t e d c on s ul t an t s

a r e

a t empor ar y

s ol ut i on .

4. 6 I NSTI TUTI ONAL CONSTRAI NTS.

I n s t i t u t i ona l

pr ac t i c es i n

de ve l o pi n g c oun t r i es ge ne r a t e man y

c on s t r a i n t s

f o r t e chn ol o gy t r a n s f e r . Co r r upt o n

i s

t he mos t

s er i ous

o f

t hes e.

Al t ho ug h

a

wo r l d wi d e

pr obl em t h e

e x t e n t

of

c or r upt i on

i n

de ve l o pi n g c oun t r i es mus t make

i t a ma t t e r

f o r

c on c er n . Thr ough c o r r u p t pr ac t i c es u nqua l i f i ed a n d i n c o mpe t e n t ,

b u t of t e n i n f l uen t i a l i n di v i dua l s may

be dr awn

i n t o

t he

r a n k s of

7





b u t

t hei r

r o o t s

l i e

de ep.

The

e l i m n a t i on

of t h e s e

s oc i a l

c on s t r a i n t s i s a f o r m da b l e t a s k an d we wi l l have t o a c c ept

t h e

d ev e l o pme n t c o n s e qu en c e s f o r

s ome

t i me .

5. 0 TECHNI CAL

SPECI FI CATI ONS.

T he s uc c e s s

of

an

i mp l ement ed mappi ng s ys t em depends

v e r y

muc h

on

good

t ec hn i c al s pec i f i c at i on s .

As shown i n

F i gur e

s pec i f i c at i on s a r e a f un ct i on of s uppl i er s ' a n d r ec ei v er s '

ob j ec t i v es ,

and

c on s t r a i n t s .

Car ef u l and pr e ci s e s pec i f i c at i on s

f o r

a l l f o u r component s of t h e s ys t em s p ac e, ha r dwa r e ,

s o f t wa r e an d man power a r e equa l l y i mpor t a nt .

As i n di c at ed i n

s ec t i on 2 . 0 , r e l i a b i l i t y

i s an e x t r e me l y

i mpo r t a nt

t ec hn i c al

s pec i f i c at i on

i n

de ve l o pi n g c oun t r i es . ' Thi s

may t a k e t h e

f o r m of

gu ar a n t e ed m ni mum downt i me and

an

agr eement t o

c o r r e c t a l l s o f t wa r e

bugs f oun d.

To

be an

ef f ec t i ve gu ar a n t e e

f o r

h a r d wa r e t h i s wi l l r e qui r e f a i r l y l oc a l

s e r v i c e per s on ne l .

Good

s o f t wa r e

ca n

be

s e r v i c ed

at

a

di s t an c e.

Bad s o f t wa r e ca n on l y be us e d by s t a f f wi t h c on s i der a b l e

e xpe r i e nc e

of

t h a t

s o f t wa r e and

i t s bugs . So

c al l ed

por t ab l e

s o f t wa r e ma y n o t be

as por t a bl e

as e nv i s a g e d wh en n on - s t a n da r d

per i phe r a l s a r e

us e d, s o por t a b i l i t y gua r a n t e es a r e

a n o t h e r

a s p e c t of r e l i a b i l i t y .

CI S i s a f a s t

de ve l opi n g t ec hn ol ogy .

New an d mor e ef f i c i en t

s o l ut i on s a ppea r

a l mo s t s o o n e r t h a n

one

i s p r e pa r e d t o a c c e p t t hem Because i t i s un l i k e l y

t h a t an

or ga n i s a t i on i n a de ve l o pi n g c o u n t r y wi l l buy a s ys t em i n i t s

en t i r e t y

at one

t i me,

or be ca u se t h e v i t a l

n a t u r e

of t h e

p r o bl e ms

of a de ve l o pi n g c oun t r y wi l l

a l wa y s

r e s ul t i n a

de ma n d

f o r t he

bes t s o l ut i on s , s y s t e ms s i mp l y ha v e

t o

be

f l ex i b l e

t o

per m t t h e i n c or por a t i on

of

f u t u r e un pr e di c t e d t e c hn o l o gy .

Even

a s u c c es s f u l l y i mpl emen t ed

mappi ng

s y s t e ms ma y c a us e

demot i v at i o n i f i t d oe s n o t de l i ver r e s ul t s

as

s t a t e d i n

d e vel o p me n t pol i c i es . I n di v i dua l s y s t ems may f o r m a p a r t

of

a

muc h l a r ger i n t e gr a t ed CI S and t her e f or e an i n di v i dua l

s y s t e m

s h oul d be ab l e

t o e x p o r t a n d i mp or t

i n f or ma t i on t o and f r om

o t he r s y s t e ms b ot h phys i c al l y a nd c on c ept ua l l y .

Spec i f i c at i on s s houl d a l s o i den t i f y ma npower r equi r emen t s .

Bec aus e s u f f i c i en t

qua l i f i ed

man power i s us ua l l y n o t f o un d

l oc a l l y ,

t h e

mec han i s m

f o r

t r a i n i n g

t h e

a v a i l a b l e ma n po we r

has

t o be s pec i f i ed.

Once s pec i f i c a t i on s have been es t a b l i s hed p r o c e d u r e s f o r f i n di n g

a

s u i t a bl e s y s t em c ommen c e.

Compa r ed

t o s i m l a r

ex er c i s e s

i n

i n dus t r i a l i s ed

c oun t r i es , an

ex t r eme l l y

l i m t ed c hoi c e

of

h a r d wa r e may b e a v a i l a b l e

f o r t e s t i ng.

The

s y s t e ms wi t h good

s uppor t i n s i de

t h e

c o u n t r y a r e a l ways pr e f e r a bl e t o ot her wi s e

s u pe r i o r s y s t e ms

wi t h

l i t t l e s uppor t . Thi s

mak es

t h e

s e l ec t i on

p r o c edu r e eas i er , but at

t h e

s ame t i me

one

may have t o

a da pt

t h e

t ec hn i c al s pec i f i c at i on s t o

t h e

av a i l a b l e s y s t e ms

an d mak e

a

number

of

c o mpr o m s e s .

6. 0 I MPLEMENTATI ON

STRATEGY.

Sy s t e m i mpl e me nt a t i o n s t r a t egy pr o vi de s gui de l i n es f o r

t he

9





Component s have t o

be

i

mpl ement ed

i n

t h e

f

ol l owi ng or der

( Fi gur e

2 ,

al t hough

l oopi ng may occur wi t h

a

mod

ul ar

i mpl ement at i on

s t ra tegy .

F i gur e

2

SYSTEM I MPL EMENT TI ON

PHYSI C L

COMPONENTS M NPOWER

COMPONENTS

pl anni ng manpower

2

space pr epar at i on

3

s

ys t ems manpower

4 hard

war e acqu i s i t i o n

5

s of t war e manpower

6 sof t war e acqui s i t i on

7

oper at i ons manpower

8

mat er i al s acqui s i t i on

9

di s t r i but i

on

manpower

7. 0

CONCLUSI ONS.

Technol ogy

t r a n s f e r

i s

an i mpor t a n t i s s ue. At t empt s t o

r eal i s e

i t mus t

be

cont i nued

des pi t e di f f i cul t i es , but

one must

proce

ed

s el ec t i vel y and

c aut i ous l y.

The success

f ul

i mpl ement at i o

n of

t echnol ogy depends n o t onl y on good

t ec hni cal

s pec i f i c

at i ons ,

but al s o on

t h e

r i ght

s oci al , pol i t i cal , and i ns t i t ut i onal

envi r onment . The

exi s t i ng

t ype and

capac i t y

of

educat i onal

i ns t i t ut i ons i n deve l opi ng co

unt r i es a r e not a

dequat e.

Educat i on

abr oad

i s

t her ef or e unavoi dabl e,

bu t us ual l y s pec i al courses are

r equi r ed.

At

t h

e s ame t i me l oc a l educat i onal suppo r t has t o

be

st r engt hened

.

Educat i ona l i ns t i t ut i ons

i n deve l opi ng c ount r i es

shoul d

be

pr ovi ded wi

t h c omput er f ac i l i t i es t o enabl e hands- on

pr ac t i cal t r ai ni ng. Spec i al at t ent i on s ho

ul d al s o be

pai d

t o

on- t he- j ob

t r ai ni ng. The t r a i ni ng of t ec hnol ogi s t s

and oper at or s

whi ch f or ms t h e

bas i s f o r t h e

i mpl ement at i on

of a new t echnol ogy

has

t o be

g

i v en a hi gh pr i o

r i t y.

For

t h e l ong- t er m

pl an

ni ng

r equi red

of a

CI S r e l i a

bl e f undi ng must be assur e

d.

4 5

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