Travel Restriction K Neg - Michigan7 2013 ACHM

8/12/2019 Travel Restriction K Neg - Michigan7 2013 ACHM

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***negative***


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***politics da


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politics plan popular(more cards in other filenot-K travel restrictions neg)

The plan is supported by key members of congress like Lugar

The Hill, 9 (Skepticism greets bill to lift 50-year-old !ba travel restrictions" http#$$thehill%com$b!siness-a-lobbying$&'&-skepticism-greets-bill-to-lift-50-year-old-c!ba-travel-ban*i+,,.b0v/k)$$ah

1t may not 2!ite be time to start planning that trip to 3avana% 4ltho!gh resident 6arack 7bama voiced s!pport d!ring his campaignfor easing travel restrictions to !ba8 a n!mber of 3o!se members from his o9n party on :h!rsday e+pressed concern 9ith a bill that

9o!ld allo9 all 4mericans to visit the island for the first time in 50 years% roponents remain hopef!lthat the bill8 sponsored by;eps% 6il


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politics plan unpopular

lans unpopular embargo lobby and congress ideology

C!!, "# (>ay-J and 6eyoncLs trip to !ba isnLt the problem8 the embargo is"8 http#$$999%cnn%com$0MN$05$0$opinion$g!,man-beyonce-Iay-,-c!ba)$$ah(//) -- Chen does a romantic anniversary trip 9ith yo!r h!bby to celebrate five years of marital bliss become an international kerf!ffle8 complete 9ith

calls for yo! to be prosec!ted for treasonG Cell8 9hen itLs !ba8 9here4mericans are banned from traveling to for to!rism8thanks toone of the most end!ring embargoes in the history of mankind% .esterday8 6eyonc stopped by 46Ls OEood =orning 4mericaO and confessed the o!tcry

over her and >ay JLs trip to 3avana 9as O2!ite shocking%O Celcome to the land of cray cray8 6ey% Dmotions r!n deep8 high8 and verybi,arre 9hen it comes to the s!bIect of !ba% Chen photos of the celebrity co!ple strolling 3avana 9ere released8 a politicalt!m!lt of epic proportions er!pted in ?lorida% Sen% =arco ;!bio and a small band of conservative !ban-4mericanpoliticos released a statement vocifero!sly demanding an investigation of the trip by the president and the :reas!ryohn ?% Kennedy8 the policy is st!ck in a time 9arp that has nothing to do 9ithmodern-day reality% :he most end!ring embargo in modern day history is a remnant of a old Car past 9hen the Soviet Bnion 9as the enemy and the9orld 9as on the brink of n!clear 9ar% :he thinking 9as that financial sanctions8 9hich incl!ded a ban on travel by 4merican citi,ens8 9o!ld collapse the

island economy and force people to revolt against ?idel astro% 7ver the years8 these sanctions have been eased or to!gheneddepending on political 9inds% 1n M8 disgraced /e9 >ersey ;ep% ;obert :orricelli 9as behind one the cr!elest acts 9hich banned8 amongmany things8 food and medicine sales to !ba and prevented !ban-4merican families from sending cash to their relatives% :hese 9ere to!gh times andseeing many friends and families s!ffer beca!se they co!ldnLt visit their elderly mothers more than once every three years8 or being prevented fromsending them needed s!pplies8 9as very painf!l% ;estrictions have eased !nder resident 6arack 7bama b!t there is still a maIor ban% Dnter >ay J and

6eyonc% 1tLs 0MN and 9e need to debate !ban policy earnestly% =embers of ongress m!st stop the co9ardice aro!nd the iss!eand stop h!moring the del!sions of passionate folks st!ck in the M&0s for political votes and favor% :he pro-embargo folks are ignoring the policyLs epic fail!re and fail to recogni,e that B%S% policy has played into the hands of the astro brothers8 9ho havesinisterly !sed it to make the case to their people that if !ba is starving and the island economy canLt gro98 itLs beca!se of this B%S% policy% 1n M58 1 9on

an Dmmy for prod!cing a sho9 that e+plored the !ban embargo% Chat 9as special abo!t the program8 ODmbargo ontra !ba8O 9as that it gave anopport!nity for the many different opinions in the !ban debate to be heard% :he voices of everyday !ban families ca!ght in the 2!agmire of policiesthat make their family members the OenemyO 9ere allo9ed to s!rface% :hese are the folks -- c!banos to the core -- 9ho 9ill tell yo!8 if they had a mic anda safe for!m8 that the c!rrent B%S% policy is st!pid% Ce hardly hear from these normal c!banos and for that matter8 other average 4mericans on this

iss!e% :hat void is tragic% !ba policy is steeped in dysf!nction on both sides% Aast 9eek8 the State


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politics at$ link turn

The pro%travel community lacks constituency and support

&'Cubaolitics !e(s, "" ne9s blog that reports on BS !ba ne9s (Bnited States !ba olicy# !ba :ravelG .o! 4re /ot Serio!s"8>B/D 8 0MM http#$$999%!sc!bapolitics%com$0MM$0&$!nited-states-c!ba-policy-c!ba-travel%html)$$ah

7h reallyG 3o9 9ill the pro-travel comm!nityever demonstrate that 9hen it does not organi,e itself and e+press itselfpoliticallythro!gh the only thing that matters in politics and in Cashington


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***ableism k


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ableism "ncThe affirmatives conception of movement presupposes the movement of individuals as critical

to freedom this metaphor incites the norm of +able%bodiesness and e-cludes those (ho do not

fit their ableist paradigm

)ay and .erri, / - R Fivian =%8 4ssociate rofessor of ComenLs and Eender St!dies% ;esearch and :eaching 1nterests at Syrac!se BniversityRR6eth 4% h%


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fi+ing rather than the social and c!lt!ral environments% :he a!thors also critici,e e!genics for !sing disabled bodies to learn more abo!th!man biology8 for pathologi,ing difference8 and for e+cl!ding disabled persons from f!ll membership in the h!mancomm!nity%:he a!thors apply a ?o!ca!ldian analysis to the 9ays in 9hich recent cinema has both contrib!ted to the oppression of thedisabled and challenged the c!lt!ral acceptance of disability as deviant and in need of normali,ation% ;ecentdoc!mentaries by ?red Ciseman8 they 9rite8 have properly foc!sed on the Hlethal and br!tal social conte+t@ in 9hich people 9ith disabilities have had tolive (p% M'0)% ?inally8 Snyder and =itchell charge scholars in disability st!dies 9ith some of the oppressive behaviors they associate 9ith the e!genicists%

1n partic!lar8 they assert that scholars oppress people 9ith disabilities thro!gh Opeople-based research practicesO 9heredisabled individ!alsL time8 liberty8 and energies are e+pended 9itho!t concern or ade2!ate ca!tionL (p% MN)% :heyconcl!de 9ith the Hheretical claim that te+t!ally based analysis is the only absol!te remedy to the e+ha!stion of people-based research practices@ (p% 0M)%

Snyder and =itchell also analy,e selected historical episodes8 or Hc!lt!ral locations@8 of the oppression of people 9ith disabilities%:heyidentify the 9ays in 9hich disability has been represented as deviant and stigmati,ed in ordertomarginali,e8 incarcerate8 and eliminate individ!als 9ith disabilities% :here is no do!bt that some normali,ing tendencies ofmoderni,ing science and medicine have considered disability as abnormal and in need of repair or elimination%

5nd thus the alternative is to re6ect the aff in order to analy0e their epistemological

assumptions

Campbell 733#(?iona 4nne8 8 00N8 :he Ereat


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1nstead8 my methodological engagements aim to shift the ga,e8 to invert it8 to e+amine the 9ays disability iskno9n by contin!ally ret!rning to and th!s foc!sing o!r attention on the practices and formations of ableism%


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ableism link mobility

Connecting mobility and +travel to cultural values of +agency and +freedom reinforces

hegemonic notions of ablebodiness

8mrie, 7k-


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ableism impact eugenics

The ideology behind 5bleism is the similar to the ideology used by the !a0i:s 5bleism (ill cause

the mass e-termination of (hoever is considered ;abnormal;

Levi and 'herry, /(Sandra8 4ssociate rofessor at =id9estern Bniversity8 and mark8 dept of sociology at !niversity of :oledo8 definitions ofableism http#$$999%sagep!b%com$!pm-data$&MY0'50Y4lbrechtYDntries6eginningCith4%pdf)

Eugenics may be defined as development and improvement of the h!man race% D!genic methods incl!de

preventing persons deemed deviant and defective from being born8 preventing persons born deviant ordefective from reprod!cing8 and isolating persons deemed deviant and defective thro!gh instit!tionali,ation orm!rder% :he systematic killing of disabled children by the /a,i regime in Eermany d!ring Corld Car 11ill!strates an e+treme form of ableist behavior% :he identification of the h!man genome (entire genetic make!p ofh!man beings) facilitates selective abortion based on ableism% Selective abortion is a contemporary form of e!genics% Societies thatpermit abortion for fet!ses likely to be born disabled8 b!t do not permit abortion for those likely to be born abled8 invalidate the lives of disabled persons


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ableism impact oppression5bleism operates as foundational tactic of oppression that must be resisted

'iebers, 9 % &niversity of )ichigan, rofessor of Literary and Cultural Criticism(:obin8 :he 4esthetics of 3!man


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ableism impact dehumani0ation

5blist Language is an act of dehumani0ation

5nna, "3 (?eminists Cith


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ableism impact violence

5bleist conceptions legitimi0e violence

=oodley, "" sychology and uns(ick%Cole, sychology >esearch 5ssociate? )anchester )etropolitan&niversity,

V


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ableism alt discourse analysis


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have been asked not to set yo! any e+ercises b!t a fe9 min!tes re9riting the above 2!ote as a special ed!cation rather than a probation disco!rse 9illill!strate the role that lang!age can play in maintaining partic!late sets of po9er relationships bet9een professionals and their [ :he reason for the gapis to emphasise that 9e do not have a lang!age 9hich enables !s to talk abo!t s!ch relationships in 9ays that are not str!ct!red by hierarchies andpo9er# for e+ample8 doctor-patientZ teacher-p!pilZ social 9orker-clientZ lect!rer-st!dentZ and most recently provider-!ser%


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ableism alt rhetoric

re6ect their speech act % 5bleism must be challenged at the level of rhetoric

Cherney, "" 2ayne 'tate &niversity, ames A8 0MM8


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ableism alt solvency

5bleism reAuires a shift in orientation, to reali0e ones everyday ableist (ays

Cherney, 2ayne 'tate &niversity, ames A0MM8


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ableism at$ frame(ork

5s students participating in policy debates (e have an obligation to put disability at the center

of our discussion because (hat (e debate about here says a lot about human conduct on a

larger scale this is not a meta%theoretical Auibble but central to change the (ay that disability

is represented and conceived

Brub, 733# (=ichael8 aterno ?amily rofessor in Aiterat!re at ennsylvania State Bniversity8 iti,enship and


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la9 depends on its contin!al reinterpretation% ?or the meaning of the 9ord8 I!st as Cittgenstein 9anted !s to believe (in order that 9emight be !ndeceived abo!t ho9 o!r 9ords 9ork)8 lies in its !se in the lang!age% Similarly8 the 1ndivid!als 9ith amie to OpossessO rights that no one on earth recogni,edG 4 fat lot of good it 9o!ld do him% =yarg!ment may so!nd either monstro!s or all too obvio!s# if8 in fact8 no one on earth recogni,ed >amieLs h!man

dignity8 then there 9o!ld in fact be no h!man perspective from 9hich he 9o!ld be !nderstood to possessOintrinsicO h!man dignity% 4nd then he 9o!ldnLt have it8 and so m!ch the 9orse for the h!man race% 1n one respect8the promise of the 1


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c!rb c!ts8 kneeling b!ses8 and b!ildings employing 9hat is no9 kno9n as !niversal design% Aeftists andliberals8 partic!larly those associated 9ith !niversity h!manities departments8 are commonly charged 9ith

being moral relativists8 !nable or !n9illing to say (even after September MM) 9hy one society might be ObetterOthan another% So let me be especially clear on this final point% 1 think thereLs a very good reason to e+tend thefranchise8 to 9iden the conversation8 to democrati,e o!r debates8 and to make disability central to o!rtheories of egalitarian social I!stice% :he reason is this# a capacio!s and s!pple sense of 9hat it is to be h!manis better than a narro9 and partial sense of 9hat it is to be h!man8 and the more participants 9e as a societycan incorporate into the deliberation of 9hat it means to be h!man8 the greater the chances that that

deliberation 9ill in fact be transformative in s!ch a 9ay as to enhance o!r collective capacities to recogni,eeach other as h!mans entitled to h!man dignity% 4s >amie reminds me daily8 both deliberately and !n9ittingly8most 4mericans had no idea 9hat people 9ith amie has led me to thinkthis 9ay8 he doesnLt talk the 9ay 1 do% 6!t those of !s 9ho do participate in political debates89hether abo!tschool f!nding in a specific district or abo!t the theory and practice of democracy at its most abstract8 have the

obligation to enhance the abilities of o!r children and o!r fello9 citi,ens 9ith disabilities to participatein the life of the Bnited States as political and moral e2!als 9ith their nondisabled peers-both for their o9ngood8 and for the good of democracy8 9hich is to say8 for the good of all of !s%

Because


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as blind8 mentally retarded or crippled and !nder 9hat po9er relationsG Bsing an oppressive abelist lang!age to denote deficiencyreprod!ces the same hierarchy and po9er relations in the classroom8 and renders these phrases!nproblematic% an!ary &8 000 Dnvironment and lanning 4 0008 vol!me N8


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ableism at$ perm

The permutation is the e-act footnoting of the disabled that (e critici0e %%% Auestions of the

disabled 1ther must precedetheir advocacy or its doomed to fail

Campbell 39 (


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***anthro k


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anthro link freedom

>adical freedom promotion reinforces anthropocentric values

Bell and >ussell 7k (anne and constance8 anadian Io!rnal of ed!cation8 http#$$999%csse-scee%ca$>D$4rticles$?!ll:e+t$>D5-N$>D5-N-bell%pdf)>?S:ake8 for e+ample8 ?reire@s (M0) statements abo!t the differences bet9een =an" and animals% :o set !p his disc!ssion of pra+is and the

importance of naming" the 9orld8 he o!tlines 9hat he ass!mes to be shared8 commonsensical beliefs abo!t h!mans and other animals% 3edefines the bo!ndaries of h!man membership according to a sharp8 hierarchical dichotomythat establishes h!man

s!periority% 3!mans alone8 he reminds !s8 are a9are and self-conscio!s beings9ho can act to f!lfill the obIectives they set forthemselves% 3!mans alone are able to inf!se the 9orld 9ith their creative presence8 to overcome sit!ations that limitthem8 and th!s to demonstrate a decisive attit!de to9ards the 9orld" (p% 0)% ?reire(M08 pp% 'M) represents otheranimals in terms of their lack of s!ch traits% :hey are doomed to passively acceptthe given8 their livestotallydetermined" beca!se their decisions belong not to themselves b!t to their species% :h!s 9hereas h!mans inhabit a 9orld" 9hichthey create and transformand from 9hich they can separate themselves8 for animals there is only habitat8 a merephysical space to 9hich they are organically bo!nd%":o accept ?reire@s ass!mptions is to believe that h!mans are animals onlyin a nominal sense% Ce are different not in degree b!t in kind8 and tho!gh 9e might recogni,e that other animals have distinct 2!alities8 9e as

h!mans are someho9 more !ni2!e%Ce have the edge over other creat!res beca!se 9e are able to rise abovemonotono!s8 species-determinedbiological e+istence% hange in the service of human freedom is seen to be o!rprimary agenda% 3!mans are th!s cast as active agents 9hose very essence is to transform the 9orld as if

someho9 acceptance8 appreciation8 9onder8 and reverence 9ere beyond the pale% :his disc!rsive frame of reference is characteristic of criticalpedagogy% :he h!man$animal opposition!pon 9hich it rests is taken for granted8 its c!lt!ral and historical specificity notackno9ledged%4nd therein lies the problem% Aike other social constr!ctions8 this one derives its pers!asivenessfrom its seeming facticityand from the deep investments individ!als and comm!nities have in setting themselves off from others"(6rit,man et al%8 MM8 p% M)% :his becomes the normal 9ay of seeing the 9orld8 and like other disco!rses of normalcy8 it limitspossibilities of taking !p and confronting ine2!ities (see 6rit,man8 M5)% :he primacy of the h!man enterprise is simply not2!estioned% recisely ho9 an anthropocentric pedagogy might e+acerbate the environmental crisis has not received m!ch consideration in theliterat!re of critical pedagogy8 especially in /orth 4merica%4ltho!gh there may be passing reference to planetarydestr!ction8 there is seldom mention of the relationship bet9een ed!cation and the domination of nat!re8 let alone any s!stainede+ploration of the links bet9een the domination of nat!re and other social inI!stices% oncerns abo!t the nonh!manarerelegated to environmental ed!cation% 4nd since environmental ed!cation8 in t!rn8 remains peripheral to the core c!rric!l!m (4% Eo!gh8 MZ

;!ssell8 6ell8 T ?a9cett8 000)8 anthropocentrism passes !nchallenged%M


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anthro link mobility

'ystems of mobility propagate human chauvinism by reducing surrounding land to human

utility

Khisty and Feitler +" (% >otin Khisty and Blli Jeitler% 7ctober 00M% rofessor of engineering at 1llinois 1nstit!te of:echnology% 1s3ypermobility a hallenge for :ransport ethics and systemicityG" Systemic ractice and 4ction ;esearch% Fol% M% /o% 5% ages 5-&0%)

1n the last t9o or three decades8 ho9ever8 people havebeen confronted9ith the darker side of the e+pansion of transport systems andthe hypermobility(e+cessive and imbalanced mobility for the most part) associated 9ith it% ?or e+ample8 this e+tensive system8 9ith the loftyobIective of providing higher mobility co!pled 9ithincreased accessibility8 has endangeredthe 2!ality of life andtheecological s!stainabilityof modern society% ?!rthermore (and ironically)8 this very e+pansion8 designed for providing high speeds8 hasres!lted in trafUc congestion thathas drastically red!ced mobility and decreased accessibility8 thereby lo9ering b!sinessprod!ctivity8 increasing f!el cons!mption8 increasing poll!tion8 and adversely affecting safety8 raising ta+es for infrastr!ct!re e+pansion andmaintenance8 and deprivingthe p!blic of open space% 1n the Bnited States alone8 trafUc congestion has increased N0_ in the past M0 years8 9iththe n!mber of cars on the road proIected to increase by 50_ in the ne+t decade% Stress-ca!sing congestion on o!r !rban high9ay system robs 4mericansof billion hr a year of 9asted time (e2!ivalent to ' million days or '8000 years) that co!ld be !sed in m!ch more economically val!able8 prod!ctive8and enIoyable 9ays% :his 9asted time is e2!ivalent to at least Q0 billion% 1f this is not eno!gh8 the trafUc gridlock affects the movement of goods8imposing Q0 billion in cost and b!siness% :he conventional style of dealing 9ith this problem 9o!ld have been to constr!ct additional lanes to thee+isting road net9ork8 th!s increasing high9ay capacity by N_8 I!st to stay even 9ith the anticipated gro9th in vehicle-miles traveled8 at a staggeringcost of over QM50 billion% 6!t the government does not have the money to keep !p 9ith these improvements8" and so the congestion crisis contin!es

!nabated8 getting 9orse day by day8 9ith no end in sight V


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attempts have been made to come to grips 9ith the entities comprising transport systems% :hese attempts 9ere matched by policy makers to try to move

people and goods by the right mode8 in the right 2!antity8 to the right place8 and at the right time% 1f anything8 most of the policy-making9as andstill is8 drivenbys!ch interest gro!ps as the constr!ction ind!stry and the a!tomobile man!fact!rers% 1ndeed8 the a!tomobileind!strial comple+8thro!gh advertising8 lobbying8 andother inX!ences on p!blic disco!rse8 helpsto s!stain an a!to c!lt!re8" cleverlymasking its problematic and costly feat!res% Chile the transport of goods and people is achieved thro!gh the !se of at least a do,enmodes8 ranging from the pedestrian !sing his $her o9n motive po9er to the sophisticated high-speed train8 the story of everyday transportation in theCestern 9orld is centered abo!t the a!tomobile% onsidering the 9idespread impact of the a!tomobile on contemporary societies8 it is s!rprising ho9

littlethe o9nersof these vehicles kno9abo!t themaIor contrib!tion to environmental deterioration8 socialdisintegration8 and global polari,ation% olitically8 this is reXected in the 9orld9ide claim for s!stainable mobility8andeconomically8 in the gro9ing literat!re onthe e+ternalitiesof a!tomobile !se%


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anthro link omission

Their silence is loaded ensures replication

Bell and >ussell 7K(4nne % by grad!ate st!dents in the ?ac!lty of Dnvironmental St!dies8 .ork Bniversity and onstance A% a grad!atest!dent at the 7ntario 1nstit!te for St!dies in Dd!cation8 Bniversity of :oronto8 6eyond 3!man8 6eyond Cords# 4nthropocentrism8 ritical edagogy8and the oststr!ct!ralist :!rn8 http#$$999%csse-scee%ca$>D$4rticles$?!ll:e+t$>D5-N$>D5-N-bell%pdf)

?or this reason8 the vario!s movements against oppression need to be a9are of and s!pportive of each other% 1n critical pedagogy8 ho9ever8 thee+ploration of 2!estions of race8 gender8 class8 and se+!ality has proceeded so far 9ith little ackno9ledgementof the systemic links bet9een h!man oppressions and the domination of nat!re% :he more-than-h!man 9orldand h!man relationships to it have been ignored8 as if the s!ffering and e+ploitation of other beings and theglobal ecological crisis 9ere someho9 irrelevant %


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1n the first8 more traditional sense8 1 mean the val!es and interests b!ilt into the very materiality of the technologies 9e dra9 !poninscribed in their

Hflesh@ as it 9ere (Cinner M'0)% 1n dra9ing !pon the possibilities presented by these technologies8 9e become 9ittingly or!n9ittingly enrolled into partic!lar scripts and programmes of action (in the actor net9ork theory sense of the 9ord)% :hesescriptsand programmes make certain things possible and others not8 incl!de certain interests and others not (for e+ample theincreased !se of 4:= may have lead to the clos!re of bank branches 9hich e+actly e+cl!des those that can not !se 4:=@s8 s!ch as physically disabledpeople)% 1n this sense of !se8 the ethics of machines is very important and is in desperate need of o!r attention (an e+ample of this type of 9ork is thepaper by 1ntrona and /issenba!m (000) on search engines and the 9ork of 6rey (000) as proposed in his disclosive ethics)% 3o9ever8 this paper is notprimarily concerned 9ith this sense of technological ethics% 1t is rather concerned 9ith the 2!estion of the moral and ethical significance of technologicalartefacts in their technological being8 i%e% the 2!estion of the 9eight of o!r moral responsibility to9ards technological artefacts as artificial beings% 1norder to develop and str!ct!re the disc!ssion8 1 9ill dra9 on a partic!lar episode of Star :rek (00N) titled# HH:he meas!re of a man@@%M 1n this episode8 theethical significance8 and therefore s!bse2!ent rights8 of the android


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anthro impact e-tinction

5bsent a shift to(ards a more fundamental understanding of the universe e-tinction is

inevitable

Henning 39(6rianZ 4ssociate rofessor of hilosophy at Eon,aga BniversityZ :r!sting in the LDfficacy of6ea!ty# 4 Kalocentric 4pproach to =oral hilosophy"Z Dthics T the Dnvironment- Fol!me M8 /!mberM)$$;SC1n the opening decade of this ne9 millenni!m8

long-simmering conflicts have e+ploded into a rolling boil of fear8 hostility8and violence%Chether 9e are talking abo!t the rise of religio!s f!ndamentalism8 theso-called O9ar on terrorO or them!chto!ted c!lt!re 9ars that define theVDnd age M0MW contemporary4merican political landscape8 there is a move a9ay fromtolerance and appreciation of diversity to9ard the ever more strident form!lation of absol!tist positions%ames noted more than a cent!ry ago8 the problem is that 9e are in a 9orld 9here Oevery one of h!ndreds of ideals has its specialchampion already provided in the shape of some geni!s e+pressly born to feel it8 and to fight to death in its behalfO (>ames M5& VM'MW8 00')% :he

force of this point 9as made br!tally clear by the events of and follo9ing September MM8 00M% Eiven a 9orld fra!ght 9ith s!ch conflictand tension8 9hat is needed is not a moral philosophy that dogmatically advances absol!te moral codes% =orethan ever8(hat is needed is an ethic that is dynamic, fallible, and situated, yet not grossly

relativistic :his proIect takes on added !rgency 9hen 9e consider the environmental and social crises that threaten notonly h!man civili,ation8 b!t all forms of life on this planet% Bnhealthy air and 9ater8 species e+tinction8overpop!lation8 soaring food prices8 fresh 9ater shortages8 stronger storms8 prolonged dro!ghts8 the spread ofdeserts8 deforestation8 melting ice caps and glaciers8 the s!bmersion of lo9-lying landsthere are no shortageof challenges facing !s in this yo!ng cent!ry% omple+ and m!ltifaceted8 these iss!es are at once technological8 scientific8economic8 social8 and political%.et(e (ill have no hope of successfully addressing the root cause ofthese crises until (e also sAuarely confront fundamental issues concerning epistemology,

a-iology, aesthetics, and metaphysics 4ltho!gh debates over carbon ta+es and trading schemes8 overcarbon offsets and compact fl!orescents are important8 o!r efforts 9ill !ltimately fail !nless and !ntil 9e alsoset abo!t the diffic!lt 9ork of reconceiving 9ho 9e are and ho9 9e are related to o!r processive cosmos%Chatis needed81 believe8 are ne9 9ays of thinking and acting gro!nded in ne9 9ays of !nderstanding o!rselves and

o!r relationship to the 9orld8 9ays of !nderstanding that recogni,e o!r f!ndamental interdependence andinterconnection 9ith everyone and everything in the cosmos8 9ays of !nderstanding that recogni,e theintrinsic bea!ty and val!e of every form of e+istence%Chat is needed8 1 s!ggest8 is a moral philosophy gro!nded in 4lfred /orthChiteheadLs philosophy of organism% ;ecogni,ing this VDnd age M0W need8 it is the primary aim of this essay to present the key elements and defendthe val!e of a moral philosophy inspired by8 tho!gh not dogmatically committed to8 ChiteheadLs organic8 bea!ty-centered conception of reality%

5nthropocentrism makes human e-tinction inevitable

Ainda


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anthro impact genocideThe impact is an unending political genocide (hich captures the apparatus of life and death

Kochi and 1rdan G (:arik8 lect!rer in the School of Aa98 !eenLs Bniversity8 6elfast8 /orthern 1reland8 and/oam8 ling!ist and translator8 cond!cts research in :ranslation St!dies at 6ar 1lan Bniversity8 1srael8 L4narg!ment for the global s!icide of h!manityL8Borderlands8


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anthro impact root cause

'pecies is the root cause of all impacts re6ection is a pre%reAuisite to an analysis of race

Steven Best8 hair of hilosophy at B:-D8 733VJCAS 5%W

Chile a 9elcome advance over the anthropocentric conceit that only h!mans shape h!man actions8 theenvironmental determinism approach typically fails to emphasi,e the cr!cial role that animalsplay in h!manhistory8 as 9ell as ho9 the h!man e-ploitation of animals is a key cause of hierarchy, social conflict, and

environmental breakdo(n%5 core thesis of9hat 1 call animal standpoint theory E is that animals havebeen key driving and shaping forces of human thought , psychology, moral and social life, andhistory overall =ore specifically8 animal standpoint theory arg!es that the oppression of human overhuman has deep roots in the oppression of human over animal 1n this conte+t8 harles atterson@srecent book8 The Iternal Treblinka$ 1ur Treatment of 5nimals and the Holocaust8 artic!lates the animalstandpoint in a po9erf!l form 9ith revol!tionary implications% :he main arg!ment of Iternal Treblinkais thatthe human domination of animals8 s!ch as it emerged some ten tho!sand years ago 9ith the rise of agric!lt!ralsociety8(as the first hierarchical domination and laid the ground(ork for patriarchy, slavery,

(arfare, genocide, and other systems of violence and po(er% 4 key implication of atterson@s theory isthat human liberation is implausible if disconnected from animal liberation, and thus humanism %%a speciesist philosophythat constr!cts a hierarchal relationship privileging s!perior h!mans over inferioranimals and red!ces animals to reso!rces for h!man !se -- collapses under the (eight of its logical

contradictions atterson lays o!t his comple+ holistic arg!ment in three parts% 1n art 18 he demonstrates thatanimal e+ploitation and speciesism have direct and profo!nd connections to slavery8 colonialism8 racism8 and anti-Semitism% 1n art 118 he sho9s ho9 these connections e+ist not only in the realm of ideology as concept!alsystems of I!stifying and !nderpinning domination and hierarchy b!t also in systems of technology, such thatthe tools and techniAues humans devised for the rationali0ed mass confinement and slaughter of

animals (ere mobili0ed against human groups for the same ends% ?inally8 in the fascinating intervie9sand narratives of art 1118 atterson describes ho9 personal e+perience 9ith Eerman /a,ism prompted >e9ish totake antithetical paths# 9hereas most retreated to an ins!lar identity and dogmatic emphasis on the sing!larity of/a,i evil and its tragic e+perience8 others recogni,ed the profo!nd similarities bet9een ho9 /a,is treated theirh!man captives and ho9 h!manity as a 9hole treats other animals8 an epiphany that led them to adopt

vegetarianism8 to become advocates for the animals8 and develop a far broader and more incl!sive ethic informedby !niversal compassion for all s!ffering and oppressed beings% :he 7rigins of 3ierarchy O4s long as men

massacre animals8 they 9ill kill each otherO ythagoras 1t is little !nderstood that the first form ofoppression, domination, and hierarchy involves human domination over animalsatterson@s thesisstands in bold contrast to the =ar+ist theory that the domination over natureis f!ndamental to the dominationover other h!mans% 1t differs as 9ell from the social ecology position of =!rray 6ookchin that domination overhumansbrings abo!t alienation from the nat!ral 9orld8 provokes hierarchical mindsets and instit!tions8 and isthe root of the long-standing 9estern goal to dominate" nat!re% 1n the case of =ar+ists8 anarchists8 and so manyothers8 theorists typically don@t even mention h!man domination of animals8 let alone assign it ca!sal primacy orsignificance% 1n atterson@s model8 ho9ever8 the h!man s!bI!gation of animals is the first form of hierarchy and itpaves the 9ay for all other systems of domination s!ch as incl!de patriarchy8 racism8 colonialism8 anti-Semitism8and the 3oloca!st%4s he p!ts it8 the e+ploitation of animals 9as the model and inspiration for the atrocities peoplecommitted against each other8 slavery and the 3oloca!st being b!t t9o of the more dramatic e+amples%" 3ierarchyemerged 9ith the rise of agric!lt!ral society some ten tho!sand years ago% 1n the shift from nomadic h!nting andgathering bands to settled agric!lt!ral practices8 h!mans began to establish their dominance over animals thro!ghdomestication%" 1n animal domestication (often a e!phemism disg!ising coercion and cr!elty)8 h!mans began toe+ploit animals for p!rposes s!ch as obtaining food8 milk8 clothing8 plo9ing8 and transportation%5s they gainedincreasing control over the lives and labor po(er of animals, humans bred them for desired traits

and controlled them in various (ays, such as castrating males to make them more docile To

conAuer, enslave , and claim animals as their o(n property, humans developed numerous

technologies, such as pens, cages, collars, ropes, chains, and branding irons The domination of

animals paved the (ay for the domination of humans The se-ual sub6ugation of (omen , atterson

suggests,(as modeled after the domestication of animals , such that men began to control (omens

reproductive capacity, to enforce repressive se-ual norms, and to rape them as they forced

breeding in their animals% /ot coincidentally8 atterson arg!es8 slavery emerged in the same region of


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the )iddle Iast that spa(ned agriculture, and, in fact, developed as an e-tension of animal

domestication practices% 1n areas like S!mer8 slaves 9ere managed like livestock8 and males 9ere castrated andforced to 9ork along 9ith females% 1n the fifteenth cent!ry8(hen Iuropeansbegan the coloni,ation of 4fricaand Spain introduced the first international slave markets, the metaphors, models , and technologiesused to e-ploit animal slaves (ere applied (ith eAual cruelty and force to human slaves% 'tealing

5fricans from their native environment and homeland, breaking up families (ho scream in

anguish, (rapping chains around slaves bodies, shipping them in cramped Auarters across

continents for (eeks or months (ith no regard for their needs or suffering, branding their skin

(ith a hot iron to mark them as property, auctioning them as servants, breeding them for service

and labor, e-ploiting them for profit, beating them in rages of hatred and anger, and killing them in

vast numbers all these horrors and countless others inflicted on black slaves (ere developed and

perfected centuries earlier through animal e-ploitation 4s the domestication of animals developed inagric!lt!ral society8 h!mans lost the intimate connections they once had 9ith animals% 6y the time of 4ristotle8certainly8 and 9ith the bigoted assistance of medieval theologians s!ch as St% 4!g!stine and :homas 42!inas8

9estern h!manity had developed an e+plicitly hierarchical 9orldvie9 that came to be kno9n as the Ereat hainof 6eing" !sed to position h!mans as the end to 9hich all other beings 9ere mere means% atterson!nderscores the cr!cial point that the domination of h!man over h!man and its e+ercise thro!gh slavery8 9arfare8and genocide typically begins 9ith the denigration of victims% 6!t the means and methods of deh!mani,ation arederivative8 for speciesism provided the conceptual paradigm that encouraged, sustained, and

6ustified (estern brutality to(ard other peoples% :hro!gho!t the history of o!r ascent to dominance as the

master species8" atterson 9rites8 our victimi0ation of animals has served as the model and foundationfor our victimi0ation of each other% The study of human history reveals the pattern$ first, humanse-ploit and slaughter animals? then, they treat other people like animals and do the same to themE

Chether the con2!erors are D!ropean imperialists8 4merican colonialists8 or Eerman /a,is8 9estern aggressorsengaged in(ordplay before s(ordplay8 vilifying their victims 4fricans8 /ative 4mericans8 ?ilipinos8>apanese8 Fietnamese8 1ra2is8 and other !nfort!nates 9ith opprobrio!s terms s!ch as rats8" pigs8" s9ine8"monkeys8" beasts8" and filthy animals%" 7nce perceived as br!te beasts or s!b-h!mans occ!pying a lo9erevol!tionary r!ng than 9hite 9esterners8 s!bI!gated peoples 9ere treated accordinglyZ once characteri,ed asanimals8 they co!ld be h!nted do9n like animals% The first e-iles from the moral community, animalsprovided a convenient discard bin for oppressors to dispose the oppressed:he connections are clear#?or a civili,ation b!ilt on the e+ploitation and sla!ghter of animals8 the \lo9er@ and more degraded the h!man

victims are8 the easier it is to kill them%" :h!s8 colonialism8 as atterson describes8 9as a nat!ral e+tension of

h!man s!premacy over the animal kingdom% ?or I!st as h!mans had s!bd!ed animals 9ith their s!periorintelligence and technologies8 so many D!ropeans believed that the 9hite race had proven its s!periority by

bringing the lo9er races" !nder its command% :here are important parallels bet9een speciesism and se+ism andracism in the elevation of 9hite male rationality to the to!chstone of moral 9orth% :he arg!ments D!ropeancolonialists !sed to legitimate e+ploiting 4fricans that they 9ere less than h!man and inferior to 9hite D!ropeansin ability to reason are the very same I!stifications h!mans !se to trap8 h!nt8 confine8 and kill animals% 7nce

9estern norms of rationality 9ere defined as the essence of h!manity and social normality8 by first !sing non-h!man animals as the meas!re of alterity8 it 9as a short step to begin vie9ing odd8 different8 e+otic8 and eccentricpeoples and types as non- or s!b-h!man% :h!s8 the same criterion created to e+cl!de animals from h!mans 9asalso !sed to ostraci,e blacks8 9omen8 and n!mero!s other gro!ps from h!manity%" The oppression of blacks,

(omen, and animals alike(as grounded in an argument thatbiological inferiority predestined

them for servitude 8n the ma6or strain of (estern thought, alleged rational beings (i%e%8 elite8 9hite89estern males) pronounce that the 1ther (i%e%8 9omen8 people of color8 animals) is deficient in rationalityin (ays crucial to their nature and status, and therefore are deemed and treated as inferior ,

subhuman, or nonhuman%2hereas the racist mindset creates a hierarchy of superiorJinferior onthe basis of skin color8 and the se+ist mentality splits men and 9omen into greater and lo9er classes of beings,the speciesist outlook demeans and ob6ectifies animals by dichotomi0ing the biological continuum

into the antipodes of humans and animals 5s racism stems from a hateful (hite supremacism, and

se-ism is the product of a bigoted male supremacism, so speciesism stems from and informs a

violent human supremacism-- namely8 the arrogant belief that h!mans have a nat!ral or Eod-given right to!se animals for any p!rpose they devise or8 more genero!sly8 9ithin the moral bo!ndaries of 9elfarism andste9ardship8 9hich ho9ever 9as >!daic moral baggage official histianithy left behind%


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anthro impact enviroJpoverty

5 human%centered ontology makes environmental destruction and global poverty

inevitable % the environment has no value until it has achieved its potentiality through

human ends

'eed "" - 4!stralian Dnvironmentalist8 director of the ;ainforest 1nformation entre(>ohn8 0MM8 http#$$999%rainforestinfo%org%a!$deep-eco$Dconomics-as-;eligion-D?-M00%pdf8 chapter 9ithin Cestern SydneyLs ne9 book8 Social Ecology)

Ho( is it that proposals to protect nature are inevitably uneconomicG :he economic cost-benefit analysis invariably decrees that the benefits of laying /at!re to 9aste tr!mp the costs beca!se 8 in ane+traordinary feat of trans!bstantiationviii8 the only things of real val!e(s!ch as air8 9ater8 soil and life itself) aredeemed to be 9orthless 9hile social fictions s!ch as money are prono!nced to be real% :his is a religio!s miracle ofbreathtaking po9er 9hich makes the parting of 9aters8 or t!rning 9ater to 9ine pale into insignificance% 3arvey o+ (op cit) points o!t that themarket religion has maintained the sacrament 9hile reversing it# sacred things (like land8 9ater8 air8 and even the h!manbody) are transformed into profane ones so that they can be commodified and p!t !p for sale ie trans!bstantiation:he 9illed-b!t-not-yet-achieved omnipotence of :he =arket means that there is no conceivable limit to its ine+orable ability to convert creation into

commodities% [% 1n the mass of :he =arket a reverse process occ!rs% :hings that have been held sacred transm!te into interchangeable items for sale%

Aand is transformed from the sacred into mere real estate%RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR Ce la!gh at the cargo c!ltists ignorant islanders8

savages 9ho stand in straight lines at attention and sal!te the sky 9aiting for the airplanes and the cargothey carried in Corld Car :9o to ret!rn%Ce are shocked at the ancient Daster 1slanders 9ho c!t do9n every last tree to b!ild and transport their lifeless Eods of stone% .et in o!r blind devotionto the god of economy 9e repeat their insanity on a tr!ly planetary scale% 7nly a deeply religio!s faith allo9s !s to ignore the abs!rdity of perpet!algro9th on a finite planet% 6ack in M&M8 in Aife 4gainst /B in /e9


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it% .o! have a massive e+pansion% 1t so!nds incredible8 b!t 9orld rice prices increased by N0 percent bet9een >an!ary 00 and >!ne 00'% So in I!stM' months yo! have tripling of 9orld rice prices% Corld 9heat prices go !p by 0 percent8 mai,e prices by M' percent% ra,y increases in these tradeprices of these commodities%+ivrofessor Ehosh points o!t that the price of other 9orld9ide crops 9hich are not traded on the f!t!res markets likemillet and cassava rose very little in 00% 3er research sho9s that spec!lation 9as Othe main ca!seO of the rise% 4s >ohn Aanchester points o!t inOChoops] Chy Dverybody 79es Dveryone and /o 7ne an ayO+v8# O?inance8 like other forms of h!man behavio!r8 !nder9ent a change in the 0thcent!ry8 a shift e2!ivalent to the emergence of modernism in the arts a break 9ith common sense8 a t!rn to9ards self-referentiality and abstractionand notions that co!ldnLt be e+plained in 9orkaday Dnglish%O >ohn 3ari e+plains it th!s# O1n 00&8 financial spec!lators like Eoldmans p!lled o!t of thecollapsing BS real estate market% :hey reckoned food prices 9o!ld stay steady or rise 9hile the rest of the economy tanked8 so they s9itched their f!ndsthere% S!ddenly8 the 9orldLs frightened investors stampeded on to this gro!nd%%%% So 9hile the s!pply and demand of food stayed pretty m!ch the same8the s!pply and demand for derivatives based on food massively rose 9hich meant the all-rolled-into-one price shot !p8 and the starvation began% :heb!bble only b!rst in =arch 00' 9hen the sit!ation got so bad in the BS that the spec!lators had to slash their spending to cover their losses back

home%O O:he 9orldLs 9ealthiest spec!lators set !p a casino 9here the chips 9ere the stomachs of h!ndreds of millions of innocent people% :hey gambledon increasing starvation8 and 9on% :heir Casteland moment created a real 9asteland% Chat does it say abo!t o!r political and economic system that 9ecan so cas!ally inflict so m!ch painGO+vi erhaps this is the kind of thing that Aoy 9as pointing to 9hen he ca!tioned in his !nderstated 9ay that 8/elson [ co!ld be said to have overlooked the market religionHs sacrificial aspects1n 008 in order to prevent recession (the fail!re of deity togro9)8 some governments initiated a stim!l!s8 a sacrifice propitiating the god% 1n 4!stralia this 9as done by giving every ta+ payer Q00 in the hopethat if eno!gh people spent this mollifying the god8 then the god 9o!ld be mercif!l and begin gro9ing again% Chen the god gets 9rathf!l8 3e stopsgro9ing8 9e get depressed8 people lose their Iobs (9hich provides them 9ith the 9here9ithal to shop8 to participate in the religion)% 7ne is reminded of>ohn Steinbecks :he Erapes of Crath - the conversation bet9een the agents for Othe bankO and the poor shit-kicker d!stbo9l tenant farmers 9hoseland they 9ere repossessing on the bankLs behalf% %%% as tho!gh the 6ank %%% 9ere a monster %%% beca!se those creat!res donLt breathe air %%% :hey breatheprofitsZ they eat the interest on money% 1f they donLt get it8 they die the 9ay yo! die 9itho!t air %%% the monster has to have profits all the time% 1t canLt9ait% 1tLll die %%%%Chen the monster stops gro9ing8 it dies% 1t canLt stay one si,e%O OCeHre sorry% 1tHs not !s% 1tHs the monster% :he bank isnHt like a man%O O.esb!t the bank is only made of men%O O/o8 yo!Hre 9rong there2!ite 9rong there% :he bank is something else than men% 1t happens that every man in abank hates 9hat the bank does8 and yet the bank does it% :he bank is something more than men8 1 tell yo!% 1tHs the monster% =en made it8 b!t they canHtcontrol it%O :he tenants cried8 OErampa killed 1ndians8 a killed snakes for the land% =aybe 9e can kill bankstheyLre 9orse than 1ndians and snakes%

=aybe 9e got to fight to keep o!r land8 like a and Eranpa did%O 1ts not I!st the professors of economics 9ho see the religio!s nat!re of thediscipline8 some professors of religion come to the same concl!sion% >ay =c


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the !s!al theory$theology of economics8 9hich is only abo!t efficiency and e+pansion% ?!eled by advertising8 9e dig the Darth !p and chop it do9n tomake the goods9hich 9e can st!ff into that great big hole 9here o!r so!l !sed to be8 each item promising that this time its going to 9ork8 b!y meand yo!Hll finally feel alright% 6!t do 9e kno9 anyone 9ho has ever reached the end of this partic!lar path8 has finally bo!ght the one last thing thatfinally resolved for them the !tter catastrophe of the h!man conditionG ?ar from it% Chat 9e find is that the more that yo! feed this addiction8 the moreaddicted yo! become% Ce need a kind of social therapy8 and a change in the programming% erhaps this is the same as the comm!nity therapy that 4rne/aess called for to heal o!r relations 9ith the 9idest comm!nities8 that of all living beings++iii 1t has long been recogni,ed that that E/ is adistorted meas!re of val!e the more motor accidents 9e have the more E/ goes !p8 the more anti-poll!tion e2!ipment 9e are forced to man!fact!re8the stronger the economy etc% 4s far back as M 4lan

and Q0K per person per year% :hen it stops% 1t levels o!t and stays there no matter ho9 m!ch more income yo! get% (:ho!gh some st!dies s!ggest if yo!get really8 really stinking rich8 it then goes do9n again]) 1f yo! 9ant to !nderstand the n!mbers check o!t the e+cellent report rosperity Citho!tEro9th++v %4n interesting article in the E!ardian in 4pril 0M0++vi 9as titled 6eyond Ereen Ero9th# Chy 9e /eed a Corld Citho!t Dconomic

Ero9thand e+plored the idea that 6eyond concepts of green gro9th or s!stainable gro9th there is also that of Lnogro9thL%:he /e9 Dconomics ?o!ndation has come !p9ith a 3appy lanet1nde+++vii 9hich sho9s the relative efficiency 9ith 9hichnations convert nat!ral reso!rces into long and happy lives for their citi,ens% :he nations at the top of the inde+ are those achieving8 long8 happy lives9itho!t over-stretching the planetHs reso!rces% osta ;ica comes first8 nine of the top M0 nations are in Aatin 4merica% hina is 0th8 1ndia N5th% /ot asingle D!ropean co!ntry made it into the top 508 1Hm pro!d to anno!nce that 4!stralia (M0) beat both the BS4 (MM) and /igeria (MM5) 1ts no !se

sacrificing o!r desire for ever more material I!nk89e have to stop 9anting these things8 stop finding them pleas!rable ratherthan bravely forgoing their pleas!res%Aike 9ith any addiction 9e m!st ask# Chat is the real !nderlying problemG Chat is it 9eHre notfacing !p to and avoiding by o!r cons!mption habitsG4nd for this 9e need a spirit!al movement 9hich replaces the false promises of the ch!rch ofgreed 9ith something 9hich really does feed !s% :hat is8 alongside the demolition of the false religion of economics8 at the same time the tr!e religion of

the sacred cosmos needs evolving

% 4 ret!rn to a mysti2!e of the Darth is a primary re2!irement for establishing a viablerapport bet9een h!mans and the Darth% 7nly in this conte+t 9ill 9e overcome the arrogance that sets !s apartfrom all other components of the planet and establishes a mood of con2!est rather than of admiration%:o ass!methat con2!est and !se is o!r primary relation 9ith the nat!ral 9orld is !ltimate disaster%3ere 9e may find g!idance in the 9ork of :homas 6erry%++viiiMM?ather :homas 6erry (MM 00) 9as a atholic priest 9ho fo!nd in the middle of his life that he had t!rned from being a theologian to being ageologian that is his so!rce of spirit!al inspiration and no!rishment t!rned from a god in the sky to the very Darth itself% 3e both infl!enced and 9asinfl!enced by the deep ecology movement% 4 st!dent of :eilhard de hardin8 he proposed that a deep !nderstanding of the history and f!nctioning of theevolving !niverse is a necessary inspiration and g!ide for o!r o9n effective f!nctioning as individ!als and as a species% 3e gives !s confidence that inspite of the vast moment!m of the anthropocentric proIect and the collosal s!ccess of the economic god8 sanity may yet prevail# 3e 9rites# 1f thedynamics of the !niverse from the beginning shaped the co!rse of the heavens8 lighted the s!n and formed the Darth8 if this same dynamism bro!ghtforth the continents and seas and atmosphere8 if it a9akened life in the primordial cell and then bro!ght into being the !nn!mbered variety of livingbeings8 and finally bro!ght !s into being and g!ided !s safely thro!gh the t!rb!lent cent!ries8 there is reason to believe that this same g!iding process isprecisely 9hat has a9akened in !s o!r present !nderstanding of o!rselves and o!r relation to this st!pendo!s process% Sensiti,ed to s!ch g!idance fromthe very str!ct!re and f!nctioning of the !niverse8 9e can have confidence in the f!t!re that a9aits the h!man vent!re%

>educing nature to a source of utility destroys the environment making e-tinction

inevitable

=ichael FimmermanV6iologist and Fice resident for 4cademic 4ffairs $ rovost at :he Dvergreen State ollegein 7lympia8 Cashington%?ormer


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ontological damnation$ hell on earth, masAuerading as material paradise


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anthro alt binary

1ur alternative is to IL8)8!5TI the humanJnon human binary

=aneeshaDeckhais 4ssociate rofessor at the Bniversity of Fictoria ?ac!lty of Aa9 in Fictoria8 M$MN$108 1t@s timeto abandon the idea of Hh!man@ rights"8 http#$$999%thescavenger%net$animals$its-time-to-abandon-the-idea-of-h!man-rights-N-5N&%htmlZ hhs-ab

Chile the intersection of race and gender is often ackno(ledged in understanding the etiology of

6ustificatory narratives for (ar8 the presence of species distinctions and the importance of thesubhuman are less appreciated .et8 the race (and gender) thinking that animates ;a,ack@s arg!ment innormali0ing violence for detainees(and others) isalso centrally sustained by the subhuman figure 4sharles atterson notes 9ith respect to m!ltiple forms of e+ploitation# Throughout the history of our ascentto dominance as the master species8 our victimi0ation of animals has served as the model andfoundation for our victimi0ation of each other% Thestudyofh!man history reveals the pattern# first,humans e-ploitand sla!ghter animals? then, they treat other people like animals and do the same tothem atterson emphasi,es ho9 the human Janimal hierarchy and o!r ideas abo!t animals and animalityare foundational for intra%human hierarchies and the violence they promote The ro!tineviolenceagainstbeings designated subhuman serves asboth a 6ustification and blueprint for violenceagainst humans ?or e+ample8 in disc!ssing the specific dynamics of the /a,i camps8 atterson f!rther notesho9 techni2!es to make the killing of detainees resemble the sla!ghter of animals 9ere deliberately implemented inorder to make the killing seem more palatable and benign% :hat the detainees 9ere made naked and kept cro9dedin the gas chambers facilitated their animali,ation and8 in t!rn8 their death at the hands of other h!mans 9ho 9erealready c!lt!rally familiar and comfortable 9ith killing animals in this 9ay% ;et!rning to ;a,ack@s e+position ofrace thinking in contemporary camps8 one can see ho( subhuman thinking is foundational to racethinking 7ne of her primary arg!ments is that race thinking8(hich she defines as Dthe denial of acommon bond of humanity bet(een people of Iuropean descent and those (ho are not"8 is adefining feature of the (orld orderE today as in the past 1n other 9ords8 it is the Dspecies thinking Ethat helps to create the racial demarcation 4s ;a,ack notes 9ith respect to the specific logic inf!sing thecamps8 they Dare not simply contemporary e-cesses born of the (ests current Auest for security, butinstead represent a more ominous, permanent arrangement of (ho is and is not a part of the

human community"% 1nce placed outside the DhumanE 0one by race thinking, the detainees may be

handled la(lessly and thus (ith violence that is legitimated at all times% >aciali0ation is not enoughand does not complete their 1thering e-perience% ;ather8 they must be dehumani0edfor the largerp!blic to accept the violence against them and the increasing Dculture of e-ception " 9hich s!stainsthese h!man bodily e+cl!sions% 4ltho!gh nonh!mans are not the foc!s of ;a,ack@s 9ork8 the centrality of thes!bh!man to the logic of the camps and racial and se+!al violence contained therein is also clearly ill!strated in herspecific e+amples% 1n the co!rse of her analysis8 to determine the import of race thinking in enabling violence8;a,ack 2!otes a ne9spaper story that describes the backgro!nd mentality of rivate Aynndie Dngland8 the 9hitefemale soldier made notorio!s by images of her holding onto imprisoned and naked 1ra2i men 9ith a leash aro!ndtheir necks% :he story itself 2!otes a resident from Dngland@s hometo9n 9ho says the follo9ing abo!t thesensibilities of individ!als from their to9n# :o the co!ntry boys here8 if youre a different nationality, adifferent race, youre sub%human% :hat@s the 9ay that girls like Aynndie Dngland are raised% Tormenting8raAis, in her mind, (ould be no different from shooting a turkey Ivery season here youre hunting

something 1ver there theyre hunting 8raAis ;a,ack e+tracts this 2!ote to ill!strate ho9 raceoverdetermined (hat (ent on"8 b!t it may also be observed that species overdetermined 9hat 9ent on"% >acehas a formative function8 to be s!re8but it (orks in con6unction (ith species difference to enable the

violence at 5bu =hraib and other camps


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Dnding Slavery# 3o9 Ce ?ree :oday@s Slaves8 6ales identifies three core components of slavery today# controlthro!gh violence8 economic e+ploitation8 and the loss of free 9ill"% 4gain8 it is the denial of h!manity that isidentified as the dynamic that e+poses individ!als to being perceived and treated violently as slaves% :his is not todeny8 of co!rse8 that the ca!ses of slavery are m!ltipleZ poverty8 e+treme capitalism8 international debt policies8greed8 state corr!ption and apathy8 and armed conflict are I!st some of the ca!ses 6ales identifies% .et8 thes!bh!man fig!re highlights the concept!al vehicle8 a denial of e2!al h!manity8 9hich facilitates violence againsth!mans to compel their labo!r% c) Aa9s of 9ar :he resonance of the s!bh!man fig!re may also be fo!nd in

9estern I!rispr!dence relating to the cond!ct of 9ar% 4s the title of his recent article8 HSpecies Car# Aa98 Fiolenceand 4nimals@8 intimates8 la9 lect!rer :arik Kochi arg!es that a species (ar is at the root of (ar and violencegenerally 3e notes that the Dla(s of (arE that describe ho( nations may engage each other incombat differentiate bet(een t(o categories of violence$legitimate and non%legitimate violence% 3einsists that the human%nonhuman distinction is the primary political distinction organi0ing the la(son (ar and not, as many (ould believe8 the notion of friend-enemy as arl Schmidt espo!sed% Kochi locatesthe (ar of humans against nonhumans as lying at the cru- of race (ar and (estern political and

legal theory 1n making this claim8 Kochis argumentIoins posth!manist8 postcolonial and feminist theory bylocating species difference as intricately connected to the a-es of gender, race, and cultural

difference3e adds to ;a,ack@s race thinking"8 9hich incorporates gender and religio!s$c!lt!ral difference8 b!tmisses adverting to species difference% ?rom o!r treatment of nonhumans (e learn that only certaindeaths are valued in our cultural and legal order as DgenocideE or DmurderE (hile others are

comparatively diminished through their representations as DslaughterE, DcullingE or DharvestE

Kochi@s emphasis on legitimate violence and life val!e e+plains this approach to the h!man$animal distinction8 abinary 9hich goes on to inform 9hat h!mans may do to other h!mans in e+ec!ting 9ar% Chether it is the la9s of9ar on 9hat co!nts as legitimate violence8 the logic of the camps as to 9hich bodies may be s!bIect to violence9itho!t legal rights and protection8 or the flo!rishing of contemporary slavery and$or slavery-like practices8 thes!bh!man fig!re is critical to prod!cing violence against h!mans%


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anthro alt suicide

1ur alternative is to approach the affirmatives so called e-tinction scenarios as a thought

e-periment


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LlifeL is not to be !nderstood in Oa biologically narro9 senseO%;atherhe arg!es that the term LlifeL sho!ld be !sed in acomprehensive non-technical 9ay s!ch that it refers also to things biologists may classify as non-living% :his 9o!ldincl!de rivers8 landscapes8 c!lt!res8 and ecosystems8 all !nderstood as Othe living earthO (/aess8 M'8 p%)% ?rom this perspective the statement L+harms yL renders LyL some9hat vag!e% Chat occ!rs is not so m!ch a conflict over the degree of ethical commitment8 bet9een Oshallo9O and OdeepecologyO or bet9een OlightO and Odark greensO per se8 b!t rather a broader re-dra9ing of the content of the s!bIect of Cestern philosophical disco!rseand its re-definition as LlifeL% S!ch a position involves differing metaphysical commitments to the notions of being8 intelligence and moral activity% :hisbl!rring and re-defining of the s!bIect of moral disco!rse can be fo!nd in other ecocentric 9ritings (e%g% Aovelock8 MZ Dckersley8 M) and in otherphilosophical approaches% V5W 1n part o!r approach bears some similarity 9ith these LholisticL approaches in that 9e share dissatisfaction 9ith themodern8 Cestern vie9 of the Ls!bIectL as p!rely h!man-centric% ?!rther8 9e share some of their criticism of bo!rgeois green lifestyles% 3o9ever8 o!rapproach is to stay partly 9ithin the position of the modern8 Cestern h!man-centric vie9 of the s!bIect and to 2!estion 9hat happens to it in the field of

moral action 9hen environmental catastrophe demands the radical e+tension of ethical obligations to non-h!man beings% :hat is8 if 9e stick 9ith themodern h!manist s!bIect of moral action8 and follo9 serio!sly the e+tension of ethical obligations to non-h!man beings8 then 9e 9o!ld s!ggest that9hat 9e find is that the !topian demand of modern h!manism t!rns over into a !topian anti-h!manism8 9ith s!icide as its o!tcome% 7ne 9ay ofattempting to re-think the modern s!bIect is th!s to thro9 the iss!e of s!icide right in at the beginning and ackno9ledge its position in modern ethicaltho!ght% :his 9o!ld be to recognise that the 2!estion of s!icide resides at the center of moral tho!ght8 already% Chat s!rvives 9hen h!mans no longere+istG :here contin!es to be a debate over the e+tent to 9hich h!mans have ca!sed environmental problems s!ch as global 9arming (as opposed tonat!ral8 cyclical theories of the earthLs temperat!re change) and over 9hether phenomena s!ch as global 9arming can be halted or reversed% 7!rposition is that regardless of 9here one stands 9ithin these debates it is clear that h!mans have inflicted degrees of harm !pon non-h!man animals andthe nat!ral environment% 4nd from this point 9e s!ggest that it is the operation of speciesism as colonialism 9hich m!st be addressed% 7ne approach isof co!rse to adopt the approach taken by Singer and many 9ithin the animal rights movement and remove o!r species8 homo sapiens8 from the centre ofall moral disco!rse% S!ch an approach 9o!ld thereby take into acco!nt not only h!man life8 b!t also the lives of other species8 to the e+tent that the livingenvironment as a 9hole can come to be considered the proper s!bIect of morality% Ce 9o!ld s!ggest8 ho9ever8 that this philosophical approach can betaken a n!mber of steps f!rther% 1f the standpoint that 9e have a moral responsibility to9ards the environment in 9hich all sentient creat!res live is tobe taken serio!sly8 then 9e perhaps have reason to 2!estion 9hether there remains any strong ethical gro!nds to I!stify the f!rther e+istence ofh!manity% ?or e+ample8 if one considers the modern scientific practice of e+perimenting on animals8 both the notions of progress and speciesism are

implicitly dra9n !pon 9ithin the moral reasoning of scientists in their I!stification of committing violence against nonh!man animals% :he typical line ofthinking here is that beca!se animals are val!ed less than h!mans they can be sacrificed for the p!rpose of e+panding scientific kno9ledge foc!ssed!pon improving h!man life% ertainly some 9ithin the scientific comm!nity8 s!ch as physiologist olin 6lakemore8 contest aspects of this claim andarg!e that e+perimentation on animals is beneficial to both h!man and nonh!man animals (e%g% Erasson8 0008 p%N0)% S!ch claims are Ldisingen!o!sL8ho9ever8 in that they hide the relative distinctions of val!e that !nderlie a moral I!stification for sacrifice 9ithin the practice of e+perimentation (cf%Aa?ollette T Shanks8 M8 p%55)% 1f there is a benefit to non-h!man animals this is only incidental8 9hat remains central is a practice of sacrificing the

lives of other species for the benefit of h!mans% ;ather than reIect this common reasoning of modern science 9e arg!e thatit sho!ld be reconsidered !pon the basis of species e2!ality% :hat is8 modern science needs to ask the 2!estion of#LChoL is the best candidate for LsacrificeL for the good of the environment and all species concernedG :he moralresponse to the violence8 s!ffering and damage h!mans have inflicted !pon this earth and its inhabitants mightthen be to arg!e for the sacrifice of the h!man species%:he moral act 9o!ld be the global s!icide of h!manity%


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anthro alt prereA

5lt is a prereAuisite to the aff% all forms of e-clusion are patterned off the humanJnon%human

divide% de%normali0ing the anthropocentric order is critical to challenging the endless (ar on

difference

Kochi, 7K9 (:arik8 S!sse+ la9 school8 Species 9ar# Aa98 Fiolence and 4nimals8 Aa9 !lt!re and 3!manities7ct 5%N)$$;SC

:his reflection need not be seen as carried o!t by every individ!al on a daily basis b!t rather as that 9hich is dra9n !pon from time to time 9ithin p!blic

life as h!mans inter-s!bIectively coordinate their actions in accordance 9ith partic!lar en!nciated ends and plan for the f!t!re% M 1n this respect8 the

violence and killing of species (ar is not simply a Auestion of survival or bare life, instead, it is

bound up (ith a consideration of the good?or most modern h!mans in the Cest the good life" involves the daily killing of

animals for dietary need and for pleas!re%4t the heart of the 2!estion of species 9ar8 and all 9ar for that matter8 resides a2!estion abo!t the legitimacy of violence linked to a philosophy of val!e% :he 2!estion of 9ar-la9 sits 9ithin a 9iderhistory of decision making abo!t the relative val!es of different forms of life% Aegitimate" violence is !nder-laid by c!lt!ral8religio!s8 moral8 political and philosophical conceptions abo!t the relative val!es of forms of life% laying o!tthro!gh history are distinctions and hierarchies of life-val!e that are e+tensions of the original h!man-animaldistinction%


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anthro at$ frame(ork

The "ac failure to attend to our relationship as debaters, 6udges and coaches beyond the human

sphere makes them a part of an educational practice that sustains anthropocentric ordering of

(orld despite the Dempo(ermentE offered by the affirmative

Bell and >ussell 7K (4nne % by grad!ate st!dents in the ?ac!lty of Dnvironmental St!dies8 .ork Bniversity and onstance A% a grad!atest!dent at the 7ntario 1nstit!te for St!dies in Dd!cation8 Bniversity of :oronto8 6eyond 3!man8 6eyond Cords# 4nthropocentrism8 ritical edagogy8and the oststr!ct!ralist :!rn8 http#$$999%csse-scee%ca$>D$4rticles$?!ll:e+t$>D5-N$>D5-N-bell%pdf)$$;SC

So far8 ho9ever8 s!ch 2!eries in critical pedagogy have been limited by their neglect of the ecological conte+ts of9hich st!dents are a part and of relationships e+tending beyond the h!man sphere%:he gravity of this oversight isbro!ght sharply into foc!s by 9riters interested in environ-mental tho!ght8 partic!larly in the c!lt!ral and historical dimensions of the environmental

crisis% ?or e+ample8 /elson (MN) contends that o!r inability to ackno9ledge o!r h!man embeddedness in nat!re res!lts ino!r fail!re to !nderstand 9hat s!stains !s% Ce become inattentive to o!r very real dependence on others andto the 9ays o!r actions affect them% Dd!cators8 therefore8 9o!ld do 9ell to dra9 on the literat!re of environ-mental tho!ght in order tocome to grips 9ith the misg!ided sense of independence8 premised on freedom from nat!re8 that informs s!ch no-tions as empo9erment%" ?!rther8

calls for ed!cational practices sit!ated in the life-9orlds of st!dents go hand in hand 9ith criti2!es ofdisembodied approaches to ed!cation% 1n both cases8 critical pedagogy challenges the liberal notion ofeducation (hose sole aim is the development of the individual, rational mind(Eiro!+8 MM8 p% Z=cKenna8 MM8 p% MMZ Shapiro8 M)% :heorists dra9 attention to the importance of nonverbal disco!rse (e%g%8 Ae9is T Simon8 M'&8 p% &5) and to thesomatic character of learning (e%g%8 Shapiro8 M8 p% &)8 both overshado9ed by the intellect!al a!thority long granted to rationality and science (Eiro!+8M5Z eters8 M5Z S% :aylor8 MM)%


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anthro at$ perm

erm fails

Hudson, 7kM(Aa!ra8 !lt!ral St!dies h< B-o!rnal of =ar+ist Aiterary Ero!p8 http#$$999%mediationsIo!rnal%org$articles$the-political-animal)$$;SC

1n his disc!ssion of religion8 =ar+ arg!es that the recognition of religion as the alienated self-conscio!sness of h!man beings allo9sh!mans to kno9" themselves#1 therefore kno9 my o9n self8 the self-conscio!sness that belongs to its very nat!re8 confirmed not in religionb!t rather in annihilated and s!perseded religion%"N5 =ar+ arg!es that 3egel@s negation of the negation8 9hich is to lead in apositive progression to9ard the 4bsol!te8 is act!ally the negation of pse!do-essence8 not tr!e essence# 4 pec!liarrole8 therefore8 is played by the act of s!perseding in 9hich denial and preservation denial and affirmation are bo!nd together%"N& ;eligion is the

misrecogni,ed8 abstract8 and alienated form of h!man self-conscio!sness% 1n recogni,ing this8 and in s!persedingit8 a better!nderstanding of h!man self-conscio!sness and potentiality is revealed % ;ather than 9aiting for re9ard in thene+t life8 9e m!st change o!r lives in the material 9orld % ;eligion is a h!man constr!ct8 not a force from o!tside% 3!manismappears as the ann!lment of religion8 b!t it8 too8 remains an abstraction !ntil bro!ght into relation 9ith thenat!ral 9orld% D+trapolating from =ar+ here8 9e might say that the concept of Dthe humanE occupies the same space

in our conceptual frame(ork as religion does$:he s!persession of the concept of the h!man as anessence based in a political identity 8 or even an anti-nat!ralism8 re2!ires that 9e recogni,e that the concept isthe res!lt of the alienation of h!man beings from their sens!al 8 living selves# the concept of the h!man" is notthe thing-in-itself% /at!re as presented in 3egel 9as only the alienated form of the 4bsol!te and8 as s!ch8 remained an abstraction of tho!ght%=ar+ arg!es that 9e m!st come to recogni,e the sens!al reality of nat!re and the s!persession of the abstract tho!ght-entity%4s elements ofnat!re o!rselves8 9e m!st move beyond the abstract forms thro!gh 9hich 9e recogni,e o!rselves and come toterms 9ith the fact that 9e are nat!ral8 sens!al beings8 animals 9ho may be captivated8 9ho may also beprocessed8 obIectified8 reified things as 9ell as transcendent beings%1n bare life8 perhaps8 9e find the first moment of thiss!persession# Bnder modern capitalist sovereignty8 9e are all e2!ally abandoned by the la9 9e have created to free !s from nat!re% Ce are all e2!ally

red!ced to mere specimens of h!man biology8 m!te and !ncomprehending of the 9orld in 9hich 9e are thro9n% Species-being8 or h!manity as aspecies8" may re2!ire this recognition to move beyond the pse!do-essence of the religion of h!manism%

>ecogni0ing that (hat (e call Dthe humanE is an abstraction that fails to fully describe (hat (eare, (e may come to find a ne( (ay of understanding humanity that recuperates the natural

(ithout domination :he bare life that res!lts from e+p!lsion from the la9 removes even the ill!sion of freedom% ;egardless of one@slocation in prod!ction8 the threat of losing even the fiction of citi,enship and freedom affects everyone% :his may create ne9 means of organi,ing

resistance across the partic!lar divisions of society% ?!rthermore8 the concept of bare life allo9s !s to gest!re to9ard a moredetailed8 concrete idea of 9hat species-being may look like% 4gamben hints that in the recognitionof this fact8 that in o!ressence(e are all animals, thatwe are all living dead,might reside the possibility of a kind of redemption%;ather than the mystical hori,on of a f!t!re comm!nity8 the passage to species-being may be e+perienced as a deprivation8 aloss of identity%Species-being is not merely a positive res!lt of the development of historyZ it is e2!ally the absence of many of the feat!res ofh!manity" thro!gh 9hich 9e have learned to make sense of o!r 9orld% 1t is an absence of the kind of individ!ality and atomismthat str!ct!re o!r 9orld !nder capitalism and !nderlie liberal democracy8 and 9hich contin!e to inform the

tenets of deep ecology% :he development of species-being re2!ires the collapse of the distinction bet9eenh!man and animal in order to change the shape of o!r relationships 9ith the nat!ral 9orld %4 tr!e species-being depends on a sort of reconciliation bet9een o!r h!man" and animal" selves8 a breakdo9n of thedistinction bet9een the t9o both 9ithin o!rselves and in nat!re in general% 6are life 9o!ld then represent notonly e+p!lsion from the la9 b!t the possibility of its overcoming%ositioned in the ,one of indistinction8 no longer a s!bIect ofthe la9 b!t still s!bIected to it thro!gh absence8 9hat 9e e2!ivocally call the h!man" in general becomes virt!ally indisting!ishable from the animal ornat!re% 6!t thro!gh this e+p!lsion and absence8 9e may see not only the la9 b!t the system of capitalism that shapes it from a position no longer blindedor captivated by its spell% :he str!ct!re of the la9 is revealed as al9ays s!spect in the false division bet9een nat!ral and political life8 9hich are nevertr!ly separable% :ho!gh clearly the sit!ation is not yet as dire as 4gamben@s invocation of the 3oloca!st s!ggests8 9e are all8 as citi,ens8 !nder the threatof the state of e+ception% Cith the decline of the nation as a form of social organi,ation8 the 9hittling a9ay of civil liberties and8 9ith them8 the state@spromise of the good life" (or the good death") even in the most developed nations8 9ith the 9eakening of labor as the bearer of resistance toe+ploitation8 ho9 are 9e to envision the f!t!re of politics and societyG
http://www.mediationsjournal.org/articles/the-political-animal)//RSWhttp://www.mediationsjournal.org/articles/the-political-animal)//RSWhttp://www.mediationsjournal.org/articles/the-political-animal)//RSWhttp://www.mediationsjournal.org/articles/the-political-animal)//RSW


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erm still links

>% 6aird Callicott8 rofessor of hilosphy at B/:8 7337VEnvironmental Ethics p% 5'-550W6ryan /orton8 another environmental antiphilosopher8 thinks that theoretical environmental ethics is not only an irrelevant s!bterf!ge8 b!t that it is alsodo9nright pernicio!s% Dnvironmental ethicists arg!ing 9ith one another abo!t 9hether nat!re has intrinsic as 9ell as instr!mental val!e and abo!t9hether intrinsic val!e is obIective or s!bIective divide environmentalists into deep and shallo9 camps% Chile these t9o camps spend precio!s time andenergy critici,ing one another8 their common enemy8 the hydra-headed forces of environmental destr!ction8 remains !nopposed by a !nited and resol!te

co!nterforce%6!t according to /orton a long and 9ide anthropocentrism OconvergesO on the same environmental policies-thepreservation of biological diversity8 for e+ample- as nonanthropocentrism%3ence the intellect!al differences bet9een anthropocentrists andnonanthropocentrists8 deep ecologists and reform environmentalists are8 practically speaking8 otiose% Dnvironmental philosophers8 in /ortonLs vie98sho!ld therefore cease spinning nonanthropocentric theories of the intrinsic val!e of nat!reand8 as /orton himself does8 concentrate instead on refiningenvironmental policy% /orton opts for anthropocentrism beca!se it is the more conservative alternative% =ost people are anthropocentrists to begin 9ithand 9hen the instr!mental val!e of a 9hole and healthy environment to both present and f!t!re generations of h!mans is f!lly acco!nted8 an-

thropocentrism8 he believes8 is s!fficient to s!pport the environmental policy agenda% N/ortonLs Oconvergence hypothesis8O ho9ever8 is dead9rong% 1f all environmental val!es are anthropocentric and instr!mental8 then they have to compete head-to-head 9ith the economicval!es derivedfrom converting rain forests to l!mber and p!lp8 savannahs to cattle past!re8 and so on% Dnvironmentalists8 in other 9ords8 m!st sho9 that preservingbiological diversity is of greater instr!mental val!e to present and f!t!re generations than l!crative timber e+traction8 agric!lt!ral conversion8hydroelectric empo!ndment8 mining8 and so on% ?or this simple reason8 a pers!asive philosophical case for the intrinsic val!e of nonh!man nat!ralentities and nat!re as a 9hole 9o!ld make a h!ge practical difference% Car9ick ?o+ e+plains 9hy% Eranting an entity intrinsic val!e 9o!ld not implyOthat it cannot be interfered 9ith !nder any circ!mstances%OL 6elieving8 as 9e do8 that h!man beings are intrinsically val!able does not imply that h!manbeings o!ght never be !prooted8 imprisoned8 p!t at grave risk8 or even deliberately killed% 1ntrinsically val!able h!man beings may-ethically may-be

made to s!ffer these and other ins!lts 9ith s!fficient I!stification% :herefore8 ?o+ points o!t8 the mere fact that moral agents m!st be able to I!stify theiractions in regard to their treatment of entities that are intrinsically val!able means thatrec ogni,ing the intrinsic val!e of the nonh!man

9orld has a dramatic effect !pon the frame9ork ofenvironmental debate and decision - making % 1f the nonh!man 9orld isonly considered to be instr!mentally val!able then people are permitted to !se and other9ise interfere 9ith any aspect of it for 9hatever reasons they9ish (i%e%8 no I!stification is re2!ired)% 1f anyone obIects to s!ch interference then8 9ithin this frame9ork of reference8 the on!s is clearly on the person9ho obIects to I!stify 9hy it is more !sef!l to h!mans to leave that aspect of the nonh!man 9orld alone% 1f8 ho9ever8 the nonh!man 9orld is consideredto be intrinsically val!able then the on!s shifts to the person 9ho 9ants to interfere 9ith it to I!stify 9hy they sho!ld be allo9ed to do so# anyone 9ho9ants to interfere 9ith any entity that is intrinsically val!able is morally obliged to be able to offer a s!fficient I!stification for their actions% :h!srecogni,ing the intrinsic val!e of the nonh!man 9orld shifts the on!s of I!stification from the person 9ho 9ants to protect the nonh! man 9orld to theperson 9ho 9ants to interfere 9ith it-and that8 in itself8 represents a f!ndamental shift in the terms of environmental debate and decisionmaking%5>!st

as Sayre seems to think of moral norms as hanging alone in an intellect!al void8 so /orton seems to thinkof environmental policies in the same9ay%Ce environmentalists I!st happen to have a pol icy agenda-saving endangered species8 preserving biodiversity in all its forms8lo9ering 7 emissions8 etc% :o rationali,e these policies-to sell them to the electorate and their representatives-is the intellect!al task8 if there is any%(=!ch of /ortonLs research for his book8 Bnity 4mong Dnvironmentalists8 consisted of intervie9ing the Cashington based lobbyists for Obig tenO

environmental gro!ps%S!ch cyni cism maybe characteristic of lobbyists 9ho are hired to pitch a policy8b!tstarting 9ith a policy andlooking for pers!asive reasons to s!pport it is not ho9 sincere environmentalists o!tside the 6elt9ay act!ally think%) eople I!st donLt adopt apolicy like they decide9hich color is their favorite%:hey adopt it for 9hat seems to them to be good reasons % ;easonscome first8 policies second8 not the other 9ay aro!nd% =ost people8 of co!rse8 do not t!rn to philosophers for something to believe-asif they didnLt at all kno9 9hat to think and philosophers can and sho!ld tell them% ;ather8 philosophers s!ch as :horea!8 =!ir8 Aeopold8 and ;oistongive voice to the other9ise inchoate and artic!late tho!ghts and feelings in o!r changing c!lt!ral Jeitgeist% 4 ma+i mally stretched anthropocentrismmay8 as /orton arg!es8 rationali,e the environmental policy agenda8 b!t anthropocentrism may no longer ring tr!e%:hat is8 the claim that all and onlyh!man beings have intrinsic val!e may not be consistent 9ith a more general evol!tionary and ecological 9orldvie9% 1 sho!ld think that contemporaryenvironmental philosophers9o!ld 9ant to give voice and form to the still small b!t gro9ing movement that s!pports environmental policies for the rightreasons-9hich8 as ?o+ points o!t8 also happen to be the strongest reasons%Eranted8 9e may not have the leis!re to 9ait for a maIority to come over to ane9 9oridvie9 and a ne9 nonanthropocentric8 holistic environmental ethic% Ce environmentalists have to reach people 9here they are8 intellect!allyspeaking8 right no9% So 9e might pers!ade >e9s8 hristians8 and =!slims to s!pport the environmental policy agenda by appeal to s!ch concepts asEod8 creation8 and ste9ardshipZ 9e might pers!ade h!manists by appeal to collective enlightened h!man self-interestZ and so on% 6!t that is noarg!ment for insisting8 as /orton seems to do8 that environmental philosophers sho!ld stop e+ploring the real reasons 9hy 9e o!ght to val!e other

forms of life8 ecosystems8 and the biosphere as a 9hole%:he event!al instit!tionali,ationof ane9 holistic8 nonanthropocentric environmentaleth ic 9ill make as m!ch practical difference in the environmental arena as the instit!tionali,ation of the intrin sic val!eof all h!man beings has made in the social arena% 4s recently as a cent!ry and a half ago8 it 9as permissible to o9n h!man beings% Cith theevent!al instit!tionali,ation of Dnlightenment ethics-pers!asively artic!lated by 3obhes8 Aocke8 6entham8 and Kant8 among others-slavery 9asabolishedin Cestern civili,ation% 7f co!rse8 a case co!ld have been made to slaveo9ners and an indifferent p!blic that slavery

9as economically back9ard and more tro!ble than it 9as 9orth% 6!t that 9o!ld not have gotten at the po9erf!l moraltr!th that for one h!man being to o9n another is 9rong% Cith the event!al instit!tionali,ationof a holistic8 nonanthropocentricenvironmental ethic-today pers!asively artic!lated by 4ldo Aeopold8 4rne /aess8 3olmes ;oiston8 and Fal l!m9ood8 among others-the 9antondestr!ction of the nonh!man 9orld 9ill8 hopef!lly8 come to be regarded as e2!ally !nconscionable%


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'tate reforms produce human domination of nature %%% only a radical orientation a(ay from

speciesm solves

;oderick !ash8 rofessor of 3istory and Dnvironmental St!dies at B-S68 "9G9VThe Rights of Naturep% M&-M&&W

Karl =ar+8 of co!rse8 had st!died this last form of hierarchy and proposed a revol!tionary remedy% 6ookchin began9here =ar+ stopped% 3e recommended discarding ecological as (ell as economic class distinctions along(ith the governments that sanctioned and sustained them This meant revolution and8 here again86ookchin transcended =ar+% :he nineteenth-cent!ry revol!tionary called for a government of and by the 9orkingclassZ Bookchin (anted no government at all His ob6ective (as not to sei0e po(er for one group oranotherbut to dissolve % it entirely as an apparatus by (hich people related to each other and, as a

species, to nature 4s early as M&5 6ookchin linked anarchism and ecology% 6oth% perspectives8 he believed8stressed the e2!al val!e of every part of the comm!nity and the necessity of ma+imi,ing individ!al freedom so thatevery component co!ld f!lfill its potential% O1 s!bmit8O 6ookchin 9rote in ODcology and ;evol!tionary :ho!ghtO (M&5)8Othat an anarchist comm!nity 9o!ld appro+imate a VnormalW ecosystemZ it 9o!ld be diversified8 balanced andharmonio!s%O & :he means to this end8 hee+plained in his maIor 9ork8 The Ecology of Freedom (M')8 9as thro!ghan Oethics of complementarityO derived from an Oecological vision of nat!re%O 6ookchinLs !topia 9as not only based on

ecological modelsZ it included the ecosystem% 3e so!ght a One9 and lasting e2!ilibri!m 9ith nat!reO I!st as he did 9ithother h!mans%6ookchin 9as !nder no ill!sion abo!t the fact that his ecoanarchism necessitated the (holesalereplacement of his civili0ation:s ;institutional and ethical frame(ork%"3e also kne9 that this 9as another

9ord for revol!tion% O1 9o!ld like to ask8O he 9rote in M8 Oif the environmental crisis does not have its roots in thevery constit!tion of society as 9e kno9 it today8 if the changes that are needed%%8 do not re2!ire a f!ndamental8 indeedrevol!tionary8 reconstit!tion of society along ecological linesGO 1t 9as from this perspective that 6ookchin8 like thedeep ecologists 9hom he anticipated8 critici,ed most manifestations of 4merican conservation and even large parts ofmodern environmentalism% 4s one of the first of the radical environmentalists8 andas an avo(ed revolutionary,Book%chin remained profoundly suspicious of those (ho (ould save the (orld by banning aerosol

cans or staging Iarth%


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erm cant overcome the link the "5C treats nature as a kno(able good for ma-imi0ation

cant go north and south at the same timeS

Taylor 9G(r!e8 Senior Aect!rer of la9 and a fo!nding member of the /e9 Jealand entre for Dnvironmental Aa9 at the Bniversity of 4!ckland84n Dcological 4pproach to 1nternational Aa9# ;esponding to the hallenges of limate hange (3ardcover) p% N-8 5-')

:he 2!estion Lare ecocentric ethics really necessaryGL is fre2!ently asked% o!ld 9e not8 for e+ample8 achieve o!renvironmentalgoals bymore rigoro!s environmentallegislation G 7bvio!sly m!ch co!ld be improved as a conse2!ence of tighter controls8 b!t t9o importantlimitations 9o!ld remain% ?irst8 the 2!estion of Lho9 clean is cleanL 9o!ld contin!e to be ans9ered solely by reference to h!man needs and standards%:h!s 9ater 2!ality 9o!ld he determined by interests s!ch as h!man 9elfare8 recreation needs and aesthetic val!es% :he interests of nat!re and the needsof f!lly f!nctioning ecosystems8 9hich f!ll belo9 a h!man centred threshold8 9o!ld be left !nprt+ected% 6y taking into acco!nt a m!ch larger and morecomple+ set of ecocentrically determined interests8 to!gher environmental standards 9o!ld he achieved%M Second8 as 6osselmann points o!t8

decision makers 9o!ld not be able to make the important paradigm I!mp to protecting nat!re for its o9n sake%Corse8 in cases 9here decision makers felt morally committed to s!ch a I!mp8 they 9o!ld be forced to find constrained logic to I!stify their decisions%:he variety of ethical approaches to environmental decision making has raised the 2!estion of moral pl!ralism% Stone8 for e+ample8 has s!ggested that

sit!ations can be resolved according to either anthropocentric or ecocentric vie9s depending on the nat!re of the problem% :h!s decision makersare able to s9itch from one val!e system to anothe r% S!ch a process is reIected by commentatorss!ch as N% 6airdallicott 9ho believes that ecocentric ethics are Lnot only a 2!estion of better rational arg!ments b!t the e+pression of a f!ndamentally changed

attit!de to nat!re% allicott reminds Stone that anthropocentric attit!des and ecocentric ethics represent 2!ite different paradigms %That in reality people do not follow anthropocentric attitudes in the morning, only to switch to ecocentric ethics after lunch% 1n the conte+tof /e9 JealandLs primary environmental legislation8 this debate is c!rrently being 9orked thro!gh in practice% :he ;eso!rce =anagement 4ct MM

(M;=4L) is g!ided by Ls!stainable managementL8 a concept 9hich is defined in both anthropocentric and ecocentric terms8 leaving room for tensionbet9een the s!pporters of alternative approaches%O M :o date the ;=4 has been largely dominated by anthropocentricic interests d!e to a fail!re bykey a!thorities8 s!ch as the Dnvironment o!rt and local govern ment8 to make the significant changes in attit!de re2!ired by the 4ctLs ecocentricprinciples% 1t has been s!ggested that this tension8 evident in implementation of the ;=48 can only be resolved by an interpretation of s!stainablemanagementL 9hich is ecological%

8f (e (in that a moral universe anchored in humanism, they cant severe that link since its the

reason for the plan

=reene8 4ssistance rofession omm!nications B:-4!stin8 "99G(;onald8Argumentation and Advocacy, S!mmer8 p% 0-M)

1n Sco

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