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BehaviourismWhat is behaviorism all about?Behavior is the response of an organism to stimuli.

The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa).

Behaviourism is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli.

Behaviourism, behaviours are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.

According to behaviourism, behaviour can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.

Based on the idea that learning is the development of habit, connection between a stimulus and response.Two types of behaviourInvoluntary--reexes, physiological states (e.g. heart rate, often associated with emotions)Classical conditioningStimuli from environment paired with reex or physiological state to form conditioned physical or emotional responses.

Voluntary-purposeful activity behaviour to get somethingOperant conditioningBehaviour changes that are in response to consequences.

The behaviouristsTheoristsTopicsIvan PavlovClassical conditioningJohn B. WatsonConditioning Edward L. ThorndikeStimulus responseB. F. SkinnerOperant conditioningAlbert BanduraSocial learning - modellingClassical Conditioning Pavlov (1927), a Russian physiologist discovered classical conditioning in dogs.

What is Classical Conditioning?Also known as respondent conditioning refers to a form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli.

In classical condition, a response that is automatically produced by one stimulus becomes associated, or linked, with another stimulus that would not normally produce this response.

Stimulus Response Key Elements of Classical Conditioning1. Unconditioned StimulusThe unconditioned stimulus (US) is any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response.In Pavlovs experiment, the US was the food (meat powder).

2. Unconditioned ResponseThe unconditioned response (UR) is the response that occurs automatically when the US is presented.A UR is a reflexive, involuntary response that is predictably caused by a US.In Pavlovs experiments, the UR was the salivation.

3. Conditioned StimulusThe conditioned stimulus (CS) is the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce the UR.Yet, through repeated association with the US, the CS triggers a very similar response to that caused by the US.Association refers to the pairing or linking of 1 stimulus with another stimulus.Once conditioning has occurred and the originally neutral stimulus produces the response of salivating, then it is called the CS.4. Conditioned ResponseThe conditioned response (CR) is the learned response that is produced by the CS.The CR occurs after the CS has been associated with the UCS.The behaviour involved in a CR is very similar to that of the UR, but it is triggered by the CS alone.Pavlovs dogs displayed a CR (salivation) only when they began to salivate to a CS. When the dog responded to a CS, such as the sound of a bell, classical conditioning had taken place because salivation would not be a usual response to the sound of a bell.Ivan Pavlov's Classical ConditioningBefore Conditioning

Unconditioned StimulusUnconditioned ResponseNeutral StimulusNo ResponseIvan Pavlov's Classical ConditioningDuring Conditioning

Unconditioned StimulusNeutral StimulusUnconditioned ResponseIvan Pavlov's Classical ConditioningAfter Conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus ConditionedResponseAnother example

The process of classical conditioning Before conditioningunconditioned stimulus (US)Unconditioned response (UR)

During conditioningNeutral stimulus (NS)Unconditioned stimulus (US)Unconditioned response (UR)

After conditioningConditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned response (CR)

Discussion: As a teacher, how to trains children tidy up the toys with classical conditioning?Examples of Classical ConditioningSchool bell rings, children slide papers into desk and put on their backpacks.Barney the song Happy family.mean?The point is, we learn to associate a stimulus with a response, and eventually our body does this automatically in the presence of the stimulus. Our response is involuntary. Classical Conditioning ..Classical conditioning can face extinction, where the learning is undone.Elimination of CR by presentation of CS alonePavlov rings bell, no food

Remember: Classical conditioning is more than forming an association it is an involuntary, physiological responseB.F. Skinner (1904 1990) American psychologist - influential from the 1930s - 60s developed operant conditioning Skinner was interested in education He believed that behavior is sustained by reinforcements or rewards, not by free will. Famous for the skinner box & the teaching machine Often worked with pigeons & rats and applied what he learned with these animals to human learning

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)This involves conditioning voluntary, controllable behaviors.With Operant Conditioning the Response comes before the Stimulus.Response StimulusSkinners Operant ConditioningBehaviorIncreasesBehavior DecreasesPositive ReinforcementNegative ReinforcementPositivePunishmentPresence of Pleasant StimulusAbsence of Unpleasant StimulusPresence of Unpleasant StimulusNegativePunishmentAbsence of Unpleasant StimulusB. F. Skinner (1904 1990)Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.

Reinforcementis any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.

Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows.

Operant conditioningThere are two kinds of reinforces:Positive reinforcesare favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. A response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something.Example: Teacher praises a child who helps her carry the books.

Negative reinforcesinvolve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. A response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.Example: Ann finished homework on time, mother allow Ann no need to do extra worksheet.

Operant conditioningThere are two kinds of punishment:Positive punishment, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. A response is decreased by the give something considered unpleasant.Example: Hannah draw at the classroom wall, teacher reprimands Hannah with give a task to her which clean the classroom wall.

Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. A response is decreased by the removal something considered pleasant.Example:After Wendy getting in a fight with her sister over who gets to play with a new toy, the mother simply takes the toy away.Shaping New BehaviorsShaping is a process of reinforcing a series of responses that increasingly resemble the desired final behaviorWhen a desired behavior occurs rarely or not at all, we use shapingFirst reinforce any response that in some way resembles the desired behavior, then one that is closer etc.Think of animal training or the hyper kid who cant sit in his chair in class do things in small stepsDifferences Between Negative Reinforcement & PunishmentNegative reinforcement: Something unpleasant is removed & as a result you are more likely to do it againSomething happened that was goodPunishment: A consequence happens that you dont like and you are less likely to do it again. The punishment can add something or take something away.Something happened that was badCritiques of Behaviorism External rewards may diminish intrinsic motivation Studies where participants work on an interesting task (ex: puzzles) - experimental group is given a reward when finished while the control group is not. After initial period, during a non-rewarded time participants are given a choice between continuing to work on the task or switching to another activity. Typical result is that participants in the experimental group spend less time on the activity than the control group. This is taken as indicating that reward reduces intrinsic motivation. Pizza Hut used to give away free pizza to kids who read a certain number of pages. This practice was discontinued as it actually eroded students intrinsic motivation to read!

More Critiques Behaviorism doesnt account for anything that isnt an observable behaviorThere has to be more going on than what is observable - doesnt there?Behaviorism only accounts for learning through direct experience with the environment (not observational learning)

Application to teachingClassical ConditioningUse attractive learning aids.Decorate the classrooms.Encourage students to work in small groups for difficult learning tasks.Greet the students and smile at them when he comes to the classroom.Inform the students clearly and specifically the format of quizzes, tests, and examinations.Make the students understand the rules of the classrooms.Give ample time for students to prepare for and complete the learning tasks. Application to teachingOperant conditioningRecognize and reinforce positive behaviours and task accomplishments.Use various types of reinforcement such as teacher approval (praise, smiles, attention, and pats on the shoulder), concrete reinforcement (cookies, candies, and stationeries) and privileges (longer recess time and more time with friends).Reinforce good behaviours and punish bad ones consistently.Use schedule of reinforcement, such as surprise rewards, to encourage persistence.Use positive punishment as the last option.Use negative punishment, such as detention class, instead.Tell the students which behaviour is being punished.

Albert Bandura - ModellingModelling observational learning.Children acquire experiences and knowledge through imitate.Basic Processes of Observational Learning 1. Attentional Processes(attend to and accurately perceive models behavior)2. Retention Processes(remember the models behavior)3. Motor Reproduction Processes(translate symbolically coded memories of the models behavior into new response patterns)4. Motivational Processes(if positive reinforcement is potentially available, enact the modeled behavior)The Bobo Doll StudyAlbert Banduras Bobo doll study in 1961 was a classic study that demonstrates the social learning theory. The study showed that after viewing adults strike and kick a Bobo doll, children would imitate the behavior in another environment. This was important, as it suggests that the violence could be imitated by viewers.Results showed 88% of the children imitated aggressive behavior following the viewing of the tape of adults acting aggressively toward the doll.8 months later 40% of the same children reproduced the violent behavior observed in the Bobo doll experiment.The children were shown three different endings to the video. The video first showed that the adults were praised for their aggressive behavior. The second group the adult was told to sit in a corner. The third group showed the adult walk out of the room. While controversial, Bandura maintained that his experiment demonstrated that children are influenced by witnessing or modeling of aggression in others.

The Bobo Doll Study (cont.)Video Bobo doll studyGardner and Multiple Intelligences TheoryIntroductionThe theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes nine different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults.

What is intelligence?An intelligence is the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings. -- Howard Gardner

Definition:The ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is valued in a culture;A set of skills that make it possible for a person to solve problems in life;The potential for finding or creating solutions for problems, which involves gathering new knowledge. Comparison traditional intelligence with multiple intelligenceTraditional intelligenceMultiple intelligenceIntelligence can be measured by short-answer tests such as IQ test.

Assessment based on individual performance or called as performance based assessment.People are born with a fixed amount of intelligence.

Human beings have all of the intelligences, but each person has a unique combination, or profile.

Intelligence level does not change over a lifetime.

We can all improve each of the intelligences, though some people will improve more readily in one intelligence area than in others.

Intelligence consists of ability in logic and language.

We can all improve each of the intelligences, though some people will improve more readily in one intelligence area than in others.

ContTraditional IntelligenceMultiple IntelligenceIn traditional practice, teachers teach the same material to everyoneM.I. pedagogy implies that teachers teach and assess differently based on individual intellectual strengths and weaknesses.

Teachers teach a topic or "subject.Teachers structure learning activities around an issue or question and connect subjects. Teachers develop strategies that allow for students to demonstrate multiple ways of understanding and value their uniqueness.

Gardners nine intelligences

The Multiple Intelligences are:

Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence - word smartLogical-mathematical Intelligence - number/reasoning smartVisual/Spatial Intelligence - picture smartBodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence - body smartMusical/Rhythmic Intelligence - music smartInterpersonal Intelligence - people smartIntrapersonal Intelligence - self smartNaturalist Intelligence - nature smartExistential Intelligence think smart

Gardners nine intelligencesLinguistic IntelligenceThe capacity to use language to express what's on your mind and to understand other people. Implication: Provide opportunities for speaking in front of classroom.Future: Poets, writers, newscasters

Gardners nine intelligencesLogical/Mathematical IntelligenceThe capacity to understand the underlying principles of some kind of causal system, the way a scientist or a logician does; or to manipulate numbers, quantities, and operations, the way a mathematician does.Implication: Incorporate puzzles into learning centers.Future: accounting, banking, medicine, scientific research

Gardners nine intelligencesMusical Rhythmic IntelligenceThinks in tones, learns through rhythm and melody, enjoys playing musical instruments, remembers songs, and notices nonverbal sounds in the environment.Implication: Singing nursery rhymes, let children explore different musical instruments with five senses.Future: music composers, music teachers, musical theatre.

Gardners nine intelligencesVisual / SpatialLearning visually and organizing ideas spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them, the ability to see things in ones mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem.Implication: Provide a visually stimulating environment such as decorate classroom with chart. Using picture to make explanation.Future: artists, architecture, advertising

Gardners nine intelligencesBodily/Kinesthetic IntelligenceThe capacity to use your whole body or parts of your body (your hands, your fingers, your arms) to solve a problem, make something, or put on some kind of production. Implication: Provide hands-on activity in learning activity.Future: dancers, dramatic acting, mime, physical education

Gardners nine intelligencesNaturalist IntelligenceIinvestigates, experiments, questions, and finds out about elements of the phenomena of the natural world, weather patterns, growing things, animals, conditions that change characteristics (water changes from liquid to solid when frozen).Implication: Provide outdoor activity to children, observing at the natural.Future: Farmers, gardeners, florists, geologist.

Gardners nine intelligencesIntrapersonal IntelligenceEenjoys working independently, likes to be alone, appears to be self-motivated, and needs quiet space and time.Implication: Prepare a quiet corner (near language center) in the classroom. Include daily journal writing or self reflection activity.Future: Psychiatry and spiritual counseling.

Gardners nine intelligencesInterpersonal IntelligenceUunderstands and cares about people, is the social child, has lots of friends, and learns from cooperative learning experiences, and likes group games.Implication: Provide group activity to children, encourage children interact during group activity. Future: counseling, politics, sociologists, therapists.

Gardners nine intelligencesExistential IntelligenceThe ability and inclination to pose (and ponder) questions about life, death, and ultimate realities. Children who learn in the context of where humankind.Implication: Integrate social studies topic with all subject, provide discussion activity about humankind with children.Future: philosopher, priest, theorist.

Application to teachingIntegrated curriculum.Hands on activities.Performance based assessment.Consider childs background.Positive expectation to all individual.

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 2005)Ecological Systems Theory

55Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 2005)Ecological Systems Theory childrens development greatly influenced by the environment.It identifies five environmental systems:MicrosystemMesosystemExosystemMacrosystem ChronosystemThat an individual interacts with:SchoolNeighborhoodChurchtheir family their peers.

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 2005)Microsystemencompasses the environment of parents, family, peers, child care, schools, neighborhood, religious groups, parks etc. The environment setting where the child spends most of their time.Bi-directional relationships are the foundation for a childs cognitive and emotional growth.58Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 2005)Mesosystem Links or interaction between microsystems.Relate to all of environmental influences in the microsystems. Examples:Interactions between the family and teachers.Relationship between the childs peers and the family.

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 2005)ExosystemSocial setting in which children do not play active role but institutions of society that indirectly affect a childs development.ExamplesParents workplaceFunding for educationImpacts a childs development by influencing structures in the microsystem

60Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 2005)MacrosystemDescribes the culture in which individuals live such as democracy, national economy, Eastern/Western culture, political culture.Provides the values, beliefs, customs, and laws of the culture in which a child grows upInfluences how parents, teachers, and others raise a childMay be conscious or unconsciousExample: contemporary society violence and media violence. As a result, many children are becoming violent and many children are fearful of and threatened by violence.

61Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 2005)ChronosystemThe environmental contexts and events that influence children over their lifetimes, such as divorce.Temporal changes in life events.Example: divorces are one transition. 62Applications to teachingTeacher-parent relationship.Provide healthy environment to children.Event integrate the community.Advocate childs welfare.

Abraham Maslow (1908 1970)64Abraham Maslow (1908 1970Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, human needs are: Life essentials (basic needs), such as food and water. Safety and security Belonging and love Achievement and prestige Self actualization

the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs

65Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

PHYSIOLOGICAL OR SURVIVAL NEEDSSAFETY NEEDSLOVE, AFFECTION, AND BELONGINGNESS NEEDSESTEEM NEEDSSELF-ACTUALIZATIONNEED11Abraham Maslow (1908 1970The physiological needs. Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human survival.For example:FoodWaterOxygenSleepProtection from extreme temperaturesEliminationSensory needsMotor needs

67Sensory needs-hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting, and mental stimulationMotor needs-if muscles are not stimulated, they will atrophy

Abraham Maslow (1908 1970The safety and security needsThe need to be free from anxiety and fear

The need to be secure in the environment

The need for order and routine

Safety and Security needs include:Personal securityFinancial securityHealth and well-beingSafety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

Abraham Maslow (1908 1970)The love and belonging needs.Social acceptance, friendship, to be loved

Need to belong, to relate to others.

Humans need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others.

In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness,social anxiety, andclinical depression.

69Abraham Maslow (1908 1970)EsteemMaslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-respect, the need for strength, competence, mastery,self-confidence, independence and freedom. Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness. Feeling important and worthwhile includes respect, approval, appreciation.

We engage in activities that bring achievement, success, and recognition.

70Abraham Maslow (1908 1970)Self-actualizationThis level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is and realizing that potential. the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becomingThis is a broad definition of the need for self-actualization, but when applied to individuals the need is specific.

71Suggestions for Application of Maslow's Theory to EducationPhysiologicalreduced & free lunch programscorrect room temperaturesbathroom breaksdrink breaks

Suggestions for Application of Maslow's Theory to EducationSafetywell planned lessons, carried out in an orderly fashioncontrolled classroom behaviorsemergency procedures well planned, discussed & practicedfair disciplineconsistent expectationsattitude of teacher: accepting & nonjudgmental, pleasant, nonthreateningprovide praise for correct responses instead of punishment for incorrect responses

Suggestions for Application of Maslow's Theory to EducationLove & BelongingWith regard to teacher-student relationshipsuse one-on-one instructionprovide positive comments & feedback rather than negativeget to know students (likes, dislikes, concerns)be available for students in needlisten to studentsbe supportive, have personal helpers on rotating basis.show that you value students thoughts, opinions & judgmentsshow trust of students by providing situation where it is necessary.

With regard to student-student relationshipsclass discussionspeer tutoringprovide situations requiring mutual trustShow & tell, sharingSuggestions for Application of Maslow's Theory to EducationEsteemSelf-esteempace instruction to fit individual needfocus on strengths & assetstake individual needs & abilities into account when planning lessons and carrying them outteach & model learning strategiesbase new teaching, strategies & plans on learning outcomesbe alert to student difficulties & intervene as soon as possiblebe available & approachable so students having difficulties feel comfortable coming for helpinvolve all students in class participation & responsibilitieswhen necessary to discipline a child, do as privately as possible

Respect from othersdevelop a classroom environment where students are positive &nonjudgmentalstar of the weekaward programs for jobs well doneproviding deserved positions of statusrecognition programs for special effort (eg. helpful citizens of the week)develop & carry out a curriculum to encourage children to be empathetic& good listenersemploy cooperative learning in such a way as to develop trust between group membersinvolve students in activities of importance & worthiness (ex. Cleaning up the environment)

Suggestions for Application of Maslow's Theory to EducationSelf-actualizationMaximizing ones potential.expect students to do their bestgive students freedom to explore & discover on their ownmake learning meaningful--connect to "real" lifeplan lessons involving metacognitive activitiesget students involved in self-expressive projectsallow students to be involved in creative activities & projects.76