Understanding Gender Equality in Zimbabwe

Understanding Gender Equality in Zimbabwe

Women and Men in Zimbabwe Report

2019

October 2020

Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency

P.O. Box CY, 342, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe

Tel: (263-4)706681-8

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.zimstat.co.zw

mailto:[email protected]

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Table of Contents List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................................. v

Acronyms and Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................... vii FOREWORD. .......................................................................................................................................................... ix

CHAPTER 1: Population Composition ............................................................................................................. 1 1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Population Size ............................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Population Distribution by Rural /Urban and Sex ........................................................ 1 1.3 Population Distribution by Province and Sex .............................................................. 2 1.4 Population Distribution by Age Group and Sex ........................................................... 3

CHAPTER 2: Household and Family ................................................................................................................ 6 2.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 6 2.1 Marital Status by Age Group and Sex .......................................................................... 6

2.3 Polygyny ....................................................................................................................... 8 2.4 Trends in Child Marriages .......................................................................................... 10

2.5 Living Arrangements .................................................................................................. 11

CHAPTER 3: Health Status and the Environment .................................................................................... 14 3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 14 3.1 Life Expectancy at Birth ............................................................................................. 14

3.2 Child Health and Survival .......................................................................................... 15 3.3 Undernutrition ............................................................................................................ 17 3.4 Mortality ..................................................................................................................... 17

3.5 Maternal Mortality ..................................................................................................... 18

3.6 Trends in Antenatal and Postnatal Care ..................................................................... 19 3.8 Health Insurance ......................................................................................................... 22 3.10 Environment ............................................................................................................. 23

CHAPTER 4: Education and Training ........................................................................................................... 26 4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 26 4.1 Literacy Rates by Age and Sex .................................................................................. 26

4.2 School Attendance ...................................................................................................... 26 4.3 Educational attainment ............................................................................................... 27 4.4 School Enrolment ....................................................................................................... 28 4.7 Enrolment at Tertiary ................................................................................................. 29

CHAPTER 5: Women’s Access and Ownership of Agricultural Productive Resources ............. 49 5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 49

5.1 Access to and Ownership of Agricultural Land ......................................................... 49

5.2 Agricultural Population .............................................................................................. 50 5.3 Land Use Rights ......................................................................................................... 50 5.2 Ownership of Agricultural Assets .............................................................................. 52 5.3 Ownership of Livestock ............................................................................................. 52 5.5 Agriculture Labour ..................................................................................................... 53

CHAPTER 6: Participation in Economic Activities .................................................................................. 58 6.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 58

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6.1 Participation in Labour Force ..................................................................................... 58

6.2 Employment and Unemployment ............................................................................... 59 6.3 Occupational Segregation ........................................................................................... 60 6.4 Industrial Sector ......................................................................................................... 60

6.5. Work Related Income ................................................................................................ 61 6.6 Share of Women in Wage Employment in the Non-Agriculture Sector .................... 61 6.7 Gender Pay Gap in the Agricultural Sector ................................................................ 62 6.9 Time Use in Economic Activities .............................................................................. 63 6.10 Reconciliation of Work and Family Life ................................................................. 63

CHAPTER 7: Power and Participation in Decision Making ................................................................. 67 7.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 67 7.1 Women and Men in Politics and Public Sector .......................................................... 67 7.3 Crime Prevention and the Judiciary ........................................................................... 68

7.4 Access to Mass Media ................................................................................................ 68

7.5 Media Personnel ....................................................................................................... 69

CHAPTER 8: Gender Based Violence ............................................................................................................ 74 8.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 74

8.1 Violence Against Children ......................................................................................... 74 8.2 Domestic Violence ..................................................................................................... 75

8.5 Women’s Experience of Physical and Sexual Violence ............................................ 76

Appendix A: Questionnaire for Collecting SDGs 5.a.1 and 1.4.2 ........................................................ 78

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................... 81

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List of Figures

Figure 1.1: Female and Male Percentage Population in Zimbabwe, 2017 ICDS ............................................... 1 Figure 1.2: Distribution of Population by Rural/Urban and Sex, 2017 ICDS ..................................................... 2 Figure 1.3: Provincial Sex Ratios, 2017 ICDS .................................................................................................................. 3 Figure 1.4: Percentage Distribution of Population by Age Group and Sex, Zimbabwe, 2017

ICDS….…………. ...................................................................................................................................................... 4 Figure 2.1: Distribution of Population Aged 15 Years and Above who are Currently Married, 2017

ICDS……………. ....................................................................................................................................................... 6 Figure 2.2: Distribution of Population Aged 15 Years and Above who had Never Married, 2017

ICDS……………. ....................................................................................................................................................... 7 Figure 2.3: Distribution of Population Aged 15 Years and Above who are Divorced, 2017

ICDS……………. ....................................................................................................................................................... 7 Figure 2.4: Distribution of the Population Aged 15 Years and Above who are Widowed, 2017

ICDS…………… ........................................................................................................................................................ 8 Figure 2.5: Distribution of Women and Men Aged 15 to 49 Years who are in Polygynous Unions,

2019 MICS…. ......................................................................................................................................................... 9 Figure 2.6: Distribution of Women and Men Aged 15 to 49 Years in Polygynous Unions by Level of

Education and Household Wealth, 2019 MICS ....................................................................................... 9 Figure 2.7: Trends in Early Marriages, 2019 ................................................................................................................ 10 Figure 2.8: Marital Status of Heads of Households .................................................................................................... 12 Figure 3.1: Life Expectancy at Birth ................................................................................................................................. 15 Figure 3.2: Infant Mortality Rates for the Period 2010-2019 ............................................................................... 16 Figure 3.3: Child Mortality Rates for the Period 2010-2019 ZDHS and MICS 2019………... ...................... 16 Figure 3.4: Nutritional Status of Children Age 0-5 Years, ZDHS 2019 MICS ................................................... 17 Figure 3.5: Age Specific Mortality Rates by Age Group, 2017 ICDS .................................................................... 18 Figure 3.6: Maternal Mortality Ratio, 2010 to 2019: ZDHS and MICS ............................................................... 18 Figure 3.7: Hospital Based Maternal Mortality Rate; 2009 to 2017; 2017 National Health

Profile……….. ....................................................................................................................................................... 19 Figure 3.8: Percentage of Women, 15-49 Years who Received ANC from a Trained Provider, 2005/6,

2010/11 and 2015 ZDHS and 2019 MICS.............................................................................................. 20 Figure 3.9: Number of ANC Visits and Number of Months Pregnant at First ANC Visit, 2019

MICS…………. ..................................................................................................................................................... 20 Figure 3.10: Timing of First PNC Visit among Newborns, 2019 MICS ............................................................... 21 Figure 3.11: Timing of First PNC Visit among Mothers, 2019 MICS ................................................................... 22 Figure 3.12: Population Covered by Medical Insurance, 2019 LFCLS ............................................................... 23 Figure 3.13: Distribution of Households According to Time Taken to Fetch Drinking Water, 2019

MICS…………….. .................................................................................................................................................. 24 Figure 3.14: Percentage Distribution of Households without Water on Premises According to Person

Collecting water used in the Household, 2019 MICS ....................................................................... 24 Figure 3.15: Distribution of Households by Source of Energy Mostly Used for Cooking, 2017

PICES…………… ................................................................................................................................................. 25 Figure 4.1: Distribution of Population Aged 3 to 24 Years by School Attendance, 2017 ICDS................ 27 Figure 4.2: Grade Specific Net Enrolment in Primary Education, Ministry of Primary and Secondary

Education, 2018…………. .............................................................................................................................. 28 Figure 4.3: Form Specific Net Enrolment in Secondary Education, Ministry of Primary and Secondary

Education, 2018…………. .............................................................................................................................. 29 Figure 5.1: Documented Ownership of Agricultural Land among the Total Agricultural Population, 2019 LFCLS .......................................................................................................................... 51 Figure 5.2: Alienation Rights to Agricultural Land .................................................................................................... 51

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Figure 5.3: Proportion of Total Agricultural Population with Ownership or Secure Rights over Agricultural Land by Sex; and Share of Women among Owners or Rights-Bearers Bearers of Agricultural Land, 2019 LFCLS ............................................................................................................ 52

Figure 5.4: Distribution of Cattle by Sex of Farm Owner, Head of Household or Plotholder, 2017 ALS……………… ...................................................................................................................................................... 53

Figure 6.1: Labour Force Participation Rate by Age Group and Sex, 2019 LFCLS. ....................................... 59 Figure 6.2: Distribution of Economically Active Population by Current Activity, 2019 LFCLS............... 59 Figure 6.3: Share of Women in the Ten Selected Occupational Categories, 2019 LFCLS .......................... 60 Figure 6.4: Percent Distribution of Income Received among Women and Men who were in Paid

Employment, 2019 LFCLS .............................................................................................................................. 61 Figure 6.5: Gender Pay Gap in the Agricultural Sector, 2015, 2017 ALS…… ................................................... 62 Figure 6.6: Currently Employed Persons by Actual Hours Worked in All Jobs, 2019 LFCLS ................... 63 Figure 6.7: Averge Time Spend in Unpaid Aactivities (hrs per week) in Own Household by Women

and Men , 2019 LFCLS .................................................................................................................................. 64 Figure 7.1: Exposure to Mass Media by Women and Men Aged 15-49 Years, 2019 MICS ........................ 69 Figure 8.1: Cases of Abuse Reported through ChildLine Zimbabwe, 2016, 2017 and 2018, ChildLine

Zimbabwe 2019…………. .............................................................................................................................. 75 Figure 8.2: Number of Domestic Violence Cases Reported to the Police Victim Friendly Unit, 2013 to

2019; Police General Headquarters, Statistics Unit, 2014 ............................................................ 76 Figure 8.3: Distribution of Women 15-49 who Experienced Physical or Sexual Violence in the Last 12

Months, 2010/11 ZDHS, 2015 ZDHS and 2019 MICS ..................................................................... 76

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List of Tables Table 1.1: Total Population by Province and Sex, Zimbabwe 2017 ICDS ............................................................ 4 Table 1.2: Total Population by Age Group, Sex and Sex Ratio, Zimbabwe 2017 ICDS ................................... 5 Table 1.3: Population Distribution and Density, 2017 ICDS. .................................................................................... 5 Table 2.1: Population Aged 15 Years and Above by Marital Status and Sex, Zimbabwe 2017

ICDS……………. .................................................................................................................................................... 13 Table 2.2: Composition of Private Households by Size and Sex of Head of Household, 2019

LFCLS…………… .................................................................................................................................................. 13 Table 4.1: Literacy Rates for Population Aged 15 Years and Above by Sex, Zimbabwe 2019

LFCLS…… ............................................................................................................................................................. 31 Table 4.1a: Distribution of Population Age 3 Years and Above by Highest Level of Education

Completed..…… ................................................................................................................................................. 31 Table 4.1b: Primary School (Grade 1-7) Gross and Net Enrolment Ratios by Province and Sex,

2018..…… ............................................................................................................................................................ 32 Table 4.1c: Secondary School (Form 1-6) Gross and Net Enrolment Ratios by Province and Sex,

2018..…… ............................................................................................................................................................ 32 Table 4.2: Enrolment in Polytechnics and Industrial Trainng Colleges by Sex, 2013-2019 .................... 33 Table 4.3a: Enrolment at Gweru Polytechnic College by Programme of Study by Sex, 2016 .................. 34 Table 4.3b: Enrolment at Masvingo Polytechnic College by Programme of Study by Sex, 2016 ........... 35 Table 4.3c: Enrolment at Kwekwe Polytechnic College by Programme of Study by Sex, 2016 .............. 36 Table 4.3d: Enrolment at Mutare Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016 .............. 37 Table 4.3e: Enrolment at Bulawayo Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016......... 38 Table 4.3f: Enrolment at Harare Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016 ............... 40 Table 4.3g: Enrolment at JM Nkomo Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016 ....... 43 Table 4.4: Enrolment in Universities by Sex, 2017 .................................................................................................. 44 Table 4.5: Enrolment in Universities by Sex, 2019 .................................................................................................. 44 Table 4.5a: Enrolment at Africa Univeristy by Faculty and Sex, 2017 .............................................................. 45 Table 4.5b: Enrolment at Bindura Univeristy of Science Education by Faculty and Sex, 2017 .............. 46 Table 4.5c: Enrolment at Chinhoyi Univerity of Technologyby Faculty and Sex, 2017 .............................. 46 Table 4.5d: Enrolment at Great Zimbabwe Univerisity by Faculty and Sex, 2017 ....................................... 46 Table 4.5e: Enrolment at Lupane State Univerisity by Faculty and Sex, 2017 ............................................... 47 Table 4.5f: Enrolment at Midlands State Univeristy by Faculty and Sex, 2017 ............................................. 47 Table 4.5g: Enrolment at the National Univeisity of Science and Technology Univeristy by Faculty

and Sex, 2017 ..................................................................................................................................................... 47 Table 4.5h: Enrolment at University of Zimbabwe by Faculty and Sex, 2017 ............................................... 47 Table 4.5i: Enrolment at the Zimbabwe Open University by Faculty and Sex, 2017 .................................. 48 Table 4.5j: Enrolment at the Harare Institute of Technology by Faculty and Sex, 2017 ........................... 48 Table 5.1: Ownership of Agricultural Land by Sex of Land Owner, 2019 ........................................................ 55 Table 5.2a: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Owner among Large

Scale Commercial Farmers, 2017 .............................................................................................................. 54 Table 5.2a: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Owner among Small

Scale Commercial Farmers, 2017 .............................................................................................................. 55 Table 5.2a: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Owner among A1

Farmers, 2017 ................................................................................................................................................... 55 Table 5.2a: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Owner among A2

Farmers, 2017 ................................................................................................................................................... 55 Table 5.2a: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Owner in Old

Resettlement Schemes, 2017 ...................................................................................................................... 56

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Table 5.2a: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Owner among Communal Farmers, 2017 ............................................................................................................................ 56

Table 5.3a: Number of livestock in Large Scale Commercial Farms by Sex of Farm Owner, 2017

ALS…………… ....................................................................................................................................................... 56 Table 5.3b: Number of livestock in Small Scale Commercial Farms by Sex of Farm Owner, 2017

ALS…………… ....................................................................................................................................................... 57 Table 5.7: Number of livestock in A1 Farms by Sex of Farm Owner, 2017 ALS ............................................ 57 Table 5.8: Number of livestock in A2 Farms by Sex of Farm Owner, 2017 ALS ............................................ 57 Table 5.9: Number of livestock in Communal Farming Areas by Sex of Head of Household, 2017

ALS…………… ....................................................................................................................................................... 57 Table 5.10:Number of livestock in Old Resettlement Farms by Sex of Head of Plotholder, 2017

ALS…………… ....................................................................................................................................................... 57 Table 5.11: Percent Distribution of Employed Persons in the Agriculture Sector Age 15 Years and

Above by Status in Employment and Sex, 2019 LFCLS…………… .................................................. 57 Table 6.1: Percent Distribution of Currently Employed Population Aged 15 Years and Above by

Industrial Sector and Sex, 2019 LFCLS ................................................................................................... 65 Table 6.2: Percent Distribution of Share of Women in Wage (Paid) Employment in the Non-

Agriculture Sector by Industry, 2019 LFCLS ........................................................................................ 66 Table 7.1: Participation of Women and Men in Selected Public Decision Making Positions, 2019 ...... 70 Table 7.2: Share of Women in the Top Positions in the Public Service, 2018 and 2019 ............................ 70 Table 7.3: Prison Services Personnel in the Decision Making Positions: Zimbabwe Prison and

Correctional Service; 2016 to 2019 ......................................................................................................... 71 Table 7.4: Distribution of Position in the Judiciary by Sex, 2016 to 2019 ....................................................... 72 Table 7.5: Zimpapers Editorial Employees by Designation and Sex, 2016 to 2019 .................................... 73 Table 7.6: Zimbabwe Broadcasting Holdings Personnel by Selected Designations and Sex as at

31December 2018 ........................................................................................................................................... 73 Table 8.1: Percentage Distribution of Counts of Abuse Reported to ChildLine Zimbabwe by Year and

Sex of Victim, 2019 .......................................................................................................................................... 77

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome ALS Agricultural and Livestock Survey ANC Antenatal Care BPfA Beijing Platform for Action CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women EPI Expanded Programme on Immunisation HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IFSA Inventory of Facilities and Social Amenities IMNCI Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illness IMR Infant Mortality Rate LFPR Labour Force Participation Rate LFS Labour Force Survey LSCF Large Scale Commercial Farms MDGs Millennium Development Goals MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey MoHCC Ministry of Health and Child Care MHTESTD Ministry of Higher & Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development NGP National Gender Policy NSDS National Strategy for the Development of Statistics NSS National Statistical System PNC Post Natal Care PMTCT Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission SADC Southern African Development Community SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SSCF Small Scale Commercial Farms UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UN WOMEN United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women WHO World Health Organization ZBH Zimbabwe Broadcasting Holdings ZDHS Zimbabwe Demographic Health Survey

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Recommended Citation: Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT) Understanding Gender Equality in Zimbabwe: 2019 Women and Men Report

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FOREWORD

This Report presents statistics on women and men in Zimbabwe. It aims to bring to

light progress made in addressing gender issues in areas such as education, health,

participation in decision making, access to agricultural productive services and

participation in employment activities. It is the sixth publication in the series by the

Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT), the first having been produced in

1991. The second was published in 1995, the third in 2002, the fourth in 2013 and the

fifth in 2016.

Although women in Zimbabwe have seized the opportunities and benefits of education

and participation in the labour force in the recent past, they still face challenges in

getting full access to such opportunities. Women are confronted with numerous gender

related challenges in the political, economic and social sectors which inhibit them from

attaining their full potential. On the social side, women are more likely to suffer abuse

and violence than men which in the end affects their health and well-being. Women are

less likely than men to be in paid employment, they tend to engage more in unpaid care

work than men, and overall, they work more hours than men in non-economic

activities.

Information on women and men presented in this Report is not exhaustive. While more

sex disaggregated information can be obtained from ZIMSTAT and its various

publications, it is necessary to nurture close co-operation between users and producers

in developing comprehensive systems of statistical information on women and men.

Under the National Strategy for the Development of Statistics (NSDS), the Agency set

up a committee on Gender Statistics to enhance co-operation under the National

Statistical System (NSS).

ZIMSTAT is grateful to the various Government Departments and civil society

organisations for providing data for input into this report.

Taguma Mahonde

DIRECTOR-GENERAL

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CHAPTER 1: Population Composition

1.0 Introduction

This chapter presents an analysis of the age and sex composition of the Zimbabwean population. Information on the sex composition of the population is important for policy planning and strategic development for women and men. Age is important in the analysis of a population since social and economic characteristics vary with age. Different standard age groups are used and these are associated with distinct stages in life or the phenomenon being studied. For instance, age groups 0-1 and 15-49 years are used for analysing infant mortality and maternal mortality, respectively.

1.1 Population Size

The 2017 Intercensal Demographic Survey (ICDS) estimated the population of Zimbabwe at 13 572 560, comprising of 6 514 829 males and 7 057 731 females as shown in Table 1.1. The proportion of the male and female population was 48 percent and 52 percent, respectively, as shown in Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1: Female and Male Percentage Population in Zimbabwe, 2017 ICDS

1.2 Population Distribution by Rural /Urban and Sex

Rural women face a plethora of challenges in accessing basic services such as health, family planning, education and some means of production unlike their counterparts who reside in urban areas. Under the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), State Parties are, therefore, obliged to take

Male48%Female

52%

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all appropriate measures to address issues of rural development bearing in mind that most of the people living in rural areas are women. The 2017 ICDS revealed that 68 percent of the population usually reside in rural areas. Women constitute 52 percent of the rural population and 53 percent of the urban population. See Figure 1.2. Population densities across provinces reveal that the country’s population is mostly concentrated in Harare and Bulawayo Metropolitan provinces, See Table 1.3.

Figure 1.2: Distribution of Population by Rural/Urban and Sex, 2017 ICDS

1.3 Population Distribution by Province and Sex

Zimbabwe has a total of ten provinces. Harare is predominantly urban while Bulawayo is wholly urban. The remaining provinces are predominantly rural settlements. The province with the highest proportion of the country’s population was Harare Metropolitan with 14.5 percent followed by Manicaland with 13.7 percent. The province with the least population was Bulawayo, 5.4 percent followed by Matabeleland North with 5.5 percent. See Table 1.1. The 2017 ICDS showed that the ratio of males to females (sex ratio) was 91.8. Matabeleland South was the only province that had more males than females, with a sex ratio of 103.5. See Figure 1.3 below for provincial sex ratios.

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Figure 1.3: Provincial Sex Ratios, 2017 ICDS

1.4 Population Distribution by Age Group and Sex

Zimbabwe has a fairly young population with 60.2 percent of the population being under 25 years of age as shown in Figure 1.4. This has policy implications in the country especially in planning for health for the children under five years and education for those in the age group 3-24 years. Furthermore, 13.9 percent of the population is below five years of age while 46.3 percent is between 5 and 24 years old. About 44 percent of the female population is in the reproductive age group of 15-49 years. This also has implications on policies targeting reproductive health as well as population growth due to fertility. Table 1.2 shows the distribution of the population across the five year age groups. Within the younger age groups, there are generally more males than females as shown by sex ratios1 of 102 in the 5-9, 103 in the 10-14, and 101in the 15-19 years age groups .

1 Number of males to females in a given population expressed as males per 100 females.

85.6 92.2 94.1 99.8 93.9 103.587.1 89.5 93.1 84

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Figure 1.4: Percentage Distribution of Population by Age Group and Sex, Zimbabwe, 2017 ICDS

Table 1.1: Total Population by Province and Sex, Zimbabwe 2017 ICDS

Province Male Female Total Percent

Manicaland 46.1 53.9 1 861 755 13.7

Mashonaland Central 48 52 1 441 944 10.6

Mashonaland East 48.5 51.5 1 366 522 10.1

Mashonaland West 50 50 1 567 449 11.5

Matabeleland North 48.4 51.6 744 841 5.5

Matabeleland South 50.9 49.1 810 074 6.0

Midlands 46.6 53.4 1 514 325 11.2

Masvingo 47.2 52.8 1 553 145 11.4

Harare 48.2 51.8 1 973 906 14.5

Bulawayo 45.7 54.8 738 600 5.4

Total 47.9 52.1 13 572 561 100

8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0

0-45-9

10-1415-1920-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-4950-5455-5960-6465-6970-7475-7980-84

85+

FemaleMale

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Table 1.2: Total Population by Age Group, Sex and Sex Ratio, Zimbabwe 2017 ICDS

Age Group Male Female Total Sex Ratio

0-4 6.8 7.1 13.9 96.0

5-9 7.2 7.1 14.3 102.1

10-14 6.2 6.0 12.2 102.5

15-19 5.6 5.5 11.1 101.1

20-24 4.0 4.7 8.7 84.3

25-29 3.3 3.9 7.2 85.3

30-34 3.2 3.8 7.0 83.9

35-39 2.7 2.9 5.6 92.4

40-44 2.3 2.4 4.7 95.7

45-49 1.7 1.6 3.3 109.7

50-54 1.1 1.5 2.6 71.6

55-59 0.9 1.4 2.3 66.0

60-64 0.8 1.3 2.1 62.3

65-69 0.6 1.0 1.6 67.5

70-74 0.5 0.6 1.1 77.3

75-79 0.3 0.5 0.8 65.4

80-84 0.2 0.3 0.5 64.1

85+ 0.3 0.4 0.7 70.8

Not Stated 0.0 0.0 0.1 108.8

Total 47.9 52.1 100.0 91.8

Table 1.3: Population Distribution and Density, 2017 ICDS.

Province Total Population Area (sq.km.) Density

Manicaland 1 861 755 36 459 51.1 Mashonaland Central 1 441 944 28 347 50.9 Mashonaland East 1 366 522 32 230 42.4 Mashonaland West 1 567 449 57 441 27.3 Matabeleland North 744 841 75 025 9.9 Matabeleland South 810 074 54 172 15.0 Midlands 1 514 325 49 166 30.8 Masvingo 1 553 145 56 566 27.5 Harare 1 973 906 872 2 263.7

Bulawayo 738 600 479 1 542.0

Total 1 3572 561 390 757 34.7

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CHAPTER 2: Household and Family

2.0 Introduction

This chapter presents an analysis of marriages and living arrangements characteristics in Zimbabwe. Information on the household size, headship in relation to sex and marital status of household members, form a basis of the analysis.

2.1 Marital Status by Age Group and Sex

The age at which a person gets into a first marriage has implications on their fertility, education, health as well as their participation in economic and productive activities. Women and men around the world are marrying at later ages, reflecting increases in education levels, later entry into labour force, changing norms about formal marriage and informal unions based on cohabitation, and increased economic independence and empowerment for women (UN, 2015). Table 2.1 shows the marital status of the population aged 10 years and above while Figure 2.1 depicts the distribution of the married population according to the 2017 ICDS. At younger age groups up to 34 years, more women in the age group 15-29 years were married as compared to their male counterparts. This can be explained by the fact that women tend to marry at a younger age than men. In the older age groups, most of those who were not married were widowed, and the majority were women.

Figure 2.1: Distribution of Population Aged 15 Years and Above who are Currently Married, 2017 ICDS

Figure 2.2 shows the distribution of the never married population aged 15 years and above. Generally, across all the age groups, more men than women had never been married.

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Figure 2.2: Distribution of Population Aged 15 Years and Above who had Never Married, 2017

ICDS

Divorce or separation can have multiple disruptive and lasting consequences not only for both partners, but also for children and other dependant family members. Women are less likely than men to re-marry after a divorce, and often-times find themselves in more vulnerable social and economic situations. In most countries, the proportion of women aged 45-49 years who are divorced or separated is at least 25 percent higher than the proportion of men who are divorced or separated (UN, 2015). Figure 2.3 shows the proportions of divorcees among the population aged 15 years and above. It is important to note that between 15 and 29 years, the proportion of divorced women was far more than that of divorced men.

Figure 2.3: Distribution of Population Aged 15 Years and Above who are Divorced, 2017 ICDS Widowhood, just like divorce, is more prevalent in women than in men. Conflicts and disease epidemics in sub-Saharan African countries result in early female widowhood

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60

-64

65

-69

70

-74

75

+P

erce

nt

Women Men

8 | P a g e

(UN, 2015). However, the fact that men are more likely to remarry than women after the death of a spouse results in more women being widowed. Figure 2.4 shows the proportion of widowed population aged 15 years and above as reported in the 2017 ICDS. Widowhood generally increases with age.

Figure 2.4: Distribution of the Population Aged 15 Years and Above who are Widowed, 2017

ICDS

2.3 Polygyny

Polygynous unions tend to be associated with wider age gaps between wives and husbands, lower contraceptive use and high fertility2. Information on polygyny was sought during the 2019 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (2019 MICS). Figure 2.5 shows that polygyny generally increased with age in the broad age group of 15 to 44 years. As expected, women are more likely to be in polygynous marriages than men.

2 Barbieri and Hertrich, 2005

0.0

0.4

1.0

2.2

6.4

12

.2

19

.0

27

.7

32

.4

40

.9

52

.1

65

.7

76

.8

0.0

0.4

0.5

0.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

4.9

5.4

7.9 5

.2

19

.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

15

-19

20

-24

25

-29

30

-34

35

-39

40

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50

-54

55

-59

60

-64

65

-69

70

-74

75

+P

erce

nt

Women Men

9 | P a g e

Figure 2.5: Distribution of Women and Men Aged 15 to 49 Years who are in Polygynous Unions,

2019 MICS.

Figure 2.6 shows other determinants of polygynous unions. For both women and men, the proportion in polygynous union generally decreased with education and household wealth. However, the rate of decrease among women is more pronounced.

Figure 2.6: Distribution of Women and Men Aged 15 to 49 Years in Polygynous Unions by Level

of Education and Household Wealth, 2019 MICS.

6.1 6.67.5

10.9

12.3

14.8

12.3

10.1

0.71.9

2.9

4.9 5.2

8.4

4.3

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 Total

Per

cen

t

Women Men

25.9

16.2

8.0

4.8

16.9

13.0

9.1 7.9

4.64.3 4.53.2

5.5 5.34.0 4.1 2.9

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Pre

-pri

mar

y o

r n

on

e

Pri

mar

y

Seco

nd

ary

Hig

her

Po

ore

st

Seco

nd

Mid

dle

Fou

rth

Ric

hes

t

Education Household Wealth

Per

cen

t

Women Men

10 | P a g e

2.4 Trends in Child Marriages

The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child and the Constitution of Zimbabwe section 81(1) define a child as any person who is below the age of 18 years. The Marriage Act [Chapter 5:11] states that marriage of girls between 16 and 18 years requires the consent of a parent/guardian or of a judge of the High Court in the absence of the parent/guardian and that the marriage of a girl below 16 years of age requires the consent of the responsible minister. The Act makes a distinction between boys and girls by setting different marriage ages. The Customary Marriages Act [Chapter 5:07] does not specify a minimum age of marriage. It is important to note that most of the marriages happening in the country follow the customary way and are, therefore, unregistered unions. These challenges with the marriage law regime poses problems when it comes to monitoring and preventing child marriages. In January 2016, the Constitutional Court formally outlawed child marriages as being unconstitutional3. Child marriage4 is usually associated with high fertility compared to fertility among women who marry at later ages. Women who marry at younger ages are more likely to marry older men. Health consequences associated with early marriages include pregnancy related illness and deaths. In addition, women are likely to suffer abuse in cases where the spousal age difference is wide. Data from the 2019 MICS shows that child marriages, especially marriages before age 15, have been on the decline over time. Figure 2.7 shows that among the women who were in the age group 15-19 years in 2019, 1.7 percent of them were married before they reached age 15. Among women who were between 40 and 44 years, the corresponding percentage was as about 7 percent.

Figure 2.7: Trends in Early Marriages, Marriage before age 15; 2019 MICS

3 Loveness Mudzuru and Ruvimbo Tsopodzi vs the Minister of Justice Legal and Parliamentary Affairs and 2

others. CCZ 12/2015

4 In 2019 MICS child marriage is referred to as early marriage.

1.7

5.4

4.5

5.55.2

6.86.3

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49

%

Age Group

11 | P a g e

2.5 Living Arrangements

In recent years, living arrangements of families have been changing. Declining fertility rates, increasing age at first marriage and the increasing prevalence of divorce and never marrying are leading to smaller families, one parent families and one person households (UN, 2015). Data from past censuses and surveys show a general decline in the average household size; 4.8 in 19925, 4.4 in 20026 and 4.2 in 20177. In 2017, women constituted 36 percent of the 397 231 one member households. Household Headship and size A head of household refers to that usual member of the household who manages the day to day activities of the household and its members and is regarded as such by other usual members of the household. Household headship is considered important in the context of decision making between males and females. The head of household is responsible for the day to day running of the household and is involved in all decision making processes, with or without the involvement of other household members. The 2019 LFCLS revealed that out of the 3.5 million households in Zimbabwe, about 39 percent were headed by females. One member households constituted about 12 percent of the households in the country. See Table 2.2 for the distribution of household heads and size in the country. Analysis into the marital status of heads of households suggests that when a woman is married, she is less likely to be the head of household compared to her male counterpart. Conversely, when a women is divorced or widowed, she is more likely to be the household head than the men. See Figure 2.8.

5 1992 Population Census Report

6 2002 Population Census Report

7 2017 ICDS

12 | P a g e

Figure 2.8: Marital Status of Heads of Households, 2019 LFCLS

6.2

38.1

15.8

39.9

7.5

86.1

3.7 2.7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Never Married Married Divorced Widowed

%

Female Male

13 | P a g e

Table 2.1: Population Aged 15 Years and Above by Marital Status and Sex, Zimbabwe 2017 ICDS

Age Group

Marital Status

Total Married Never Married Divorced Widowed

Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men

15-19 17.6 2.0 80.1 97.9 2.3 0.1 0.0 750 855 759 134

20-24 59.5 24.2 31.9 73.7 8.2 2.1 0.4 0.0 641 223 540 776

25-29 77.0 62.8 11.2 32.2 10.7 4.6 1.0 0.4 525 451 448 235

30-34 79.6 79.9 6.1 13.4 12.1 6.3 2.2 0.5 514 843 432 210

35-39 76.9 86.7 4.9 6.9 11.8 5.9 6.4 0.5 399 441 369 206

40-44 72.3 87.1 3.6 6.1 11.9 4.2 12.2 2.5 323 611 309 814

45-49 66.8 89.1 3.2 2.3 11.1 5.2 19.0 3.5 213 982 234 843

50-54 59.9 88.0 3.7 3.0 8.7 4.5 27.7 4.5 199 135 142 646

55-59 54.4 87.9 1.4 2.7 11.8 4.5 32.4 4.9 188 980 124 781

60-64 49.8 86.8 1.7 2.6 7.6 5.2 40.9 5.4 182 806 113 846

65-69 39.7 85.3 0.7 1.0 7.5 5.7 52.1 7.9 130 127 87 895

70-74 27.2 89.5 0.0 0.5 7.1 4.8 65.7 5.2 86 200 66 618 75+ 14.9 77.1 0.3 0.4 8.0 2.7 76.8 19.8 171 158 114 363

Total 56.1 56.8 21.9 37.5 8.8 3.6 13.2 2.0 4 327 812 3 744 367

Table 2.2: Composition of Private Households by Size and Sex of Head of Household, 2019 LFCLS

Household Size

Male Headed Female Headed Total

Percent

Total Households

Percent Number Percent Number Number Percent

1 60.9 256 239 39.1 164 646 100 420 885 12.2

2 47.8 197 766 52.2 215 821 100 413 587 12.0

3 54.7 331 250 45.3 273 798 100 605 049 17.5

4 60.4 393 381 39.6 257 932 100 651 313 18.8

5 67.0 367 983 33.0 181 006 100 548 988 15.9

6 69.4 262 941 30.6 115 814 100 378 755 11.0

7 69.4 151 728 30.6 66 902 100 218 630 6.3

8 72.1 82 774 27.9 31 953 100 114 727 3.3

9+ 69.0 71 785 31.0 32 209 100 103 994 3.0

Total 61.2 2 115 847 38.8 1 340 080 100 3 455 928 100

14 | P a g e

CHAPTER 3: Health Status and the Environment

3.0 Introduction

Good health is pivotal to human happiness and well-being. Better health makes an important contribution to economic progress, as healthy populations live longer and are more productive. The World Health Organisation defines health as a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease. Differentials in the health status between women and men can be summed up in three interrelated categories, i.e. development, biology and gender (ibid). Zimbabwe has signed and ratified a number of human rights instruments in which the right to life and good health are enshrined. These include the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Article 24), CEDAW (Article 12) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Article 12). In addition the Constitution of Zimbabwe, in Section 75, provides for the right to health services and states among other things that the State must ensure that no person is refused emergency medical treatment at any health institution. This chapter presents information on selected health indicators such as life expectancy at birth, infant and child mortality rates, maternal mortality.

3.1 Life Expectancy at Birth

Life expectancy at birth is an indicator of the overall health status of a population. It is the average number of years a new born baby can expect to live if mortality patterns prevailing at the time of birth were to remain the same throughout the life of that baby. According to the 2017 ICDS, life expectancy in Zimbabwe was 60 years. Sex differentials were apparent between males and females, with females having a life expectancy of 61 years compared to 58 years among males. Trends on life expectancy are shown in Figure 3.1 below.

15 | P a g e

Figure 3.1: Life Expectancy at Birth: 2002 Population Census, 2012 Population Census

Mortality Thematic Report and 2017 ICDS

3.2 Child Health and Survival

Nutrition, immunisation and supportive environment in early life are key determinants in the health and survival of children and their physical, cognitive and emotional development (UN, 2015). It is thought optimal development of children can result in good health habits in adolescence and reduces the burden of disease in adult life. The health and nutrition of girls, in particular, influence maternal health during the reproductive years and affect the survival and well-being of future generations (UN, 2015). Deaths during the first year of life constitute a substantial proportion of the total deaths in Zimbabwe. The level of mortality for this age group is measured by the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) which is the number of children dying before they celebrate their first birthday out of 1 000 infants born alive. Trends in infant mortality between 2010 and 2019 are shown in Figure 3.2. Differences in infant mortality between females and males were apparent.

42.2

57.4 58

46.5

6461

44.2

60.7 60

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

2002 Population Census 2012 Population Census 2017 ICDS

Life

Exp

ecta

ncy

Men Women Both Sexes

16 | P a g e

Figure 3.2: Infant Mortality Rates for the Period 2010-2019 (ZDHS 2010/11, 2012 Population

Census, 2014 MICS, 2015 ZDHS and 2019 MICS)

Child mortality rate is the probability of a child dying between the first and the fifth birthdays. Figure 3.3 shows that between 2010 and 2019, no major differences in mortality were observed between boys and girls.

Figure 3.3: Child Mortality Rates for the Period 2010-2019 (ZDHS 2010/11, 2014 MICS, 2015 ZDHS and 2019 MICS)

There have been a number of interventions by the Ministry of Health and Child Care (MoHCC) aimed at reducing childhood mortality. These include the Essential Care for Every baby, Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illnesses (IMNCI), Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission (PPTCT) programme and the Expanded Programme on Immunisation (EPI) which has led to significant reductions in infant, childhood and under five mortality.

44

5750

54

39

6470

5963

54

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

2010 2012 2014 2015 2019

Per

cen

t

Female Male

2521 23

1824

2127

20

0

10

20

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40

50

60

70

80

90

100

2010 2014 2015 2019

Per

cen

t

Female Male

17 | P a g e

3.3 Undernutrition

The nutritional status of children is the consequence of three interacting factors which are food intake, health status, and parental and health care (Alkema et al, 2014). Nutritional deficiencies are the sixth leading cause of death in children below five years of age in developing countries. Nutritional deficiencies weaken the immune system and increase vulnerability of children to diseases, such as pneumonia, diarrhoea, malaria and measles (UN, 2015). In Zimbabwe, nutritional deficiencies were ranked sixth among the top ten leading causes of mortality in children under one year old, and first in the top ten causes of mortality among children between one and four years old (MoHCC, 2017). Data from the 2019 MICS on nutritional status of children under five years showed that stunting was more prevalent among boys than girls, 26.7 percent compared to 20.4 percent. There was a small difference in proportions of girls and boys who were wasted. See Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Nutritional Status of Children Age 0-5 Years, MICS 2019

3.4 Mortality

Women generally live longer than men due to biological make up and gender roles (Weeks, 2008). During the course of life, there are noticeable shifts in the risk of dying owing to different factors. For instance, mortality is highly likely in the first week of life and first month after birth, then drops sharply, reaching a low point around age 5 to 10 years, before rising steadily in old ages. Information on mortality and cause of death is important in the formulation of appropriate preventive and curative measures as well as planning, managing and evaluating the performance of health systems. Differentials in mortality among males and females were observed in information collected in 2017 ICDS. See Figure 3.5. Mortality was generally high during childhood and old age groups, that is above 75 years.

9.0

20.4

2.8 2.2

10.3

26.7

3.0 2.9

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Underweight Stunted Wasted Overweight

Per

cen

t

Female Male

18 | P a g e

Figure 3.5: Age Specific Mortality Rates by Age Group, 2017 ICDS

3.5 Maternal Mortality

Maternal mortality is a leading cause of death in women of reproductive age. In 2017, an estimated 533 women died during pregnancy, or the first 42 days after delivery (or termination of pregnancy) due to causes related to pregnancy or childbirth (MoHCC, 2017). In Zimbabwe, there has been a general decrease in the maternal mortality as shown from data collectd in ZDHS and MICS. In 2010/11the MMR was 960 deaths per 100 000 live births and the ratio decreased to 462 in 2019. See Figure 3.6 below.

Figure 3.6: Maternal Mortality Ratio, 2010 to 2019: ZDHS and MICS.

0

20

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120

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160

0

1-4

5-9

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rtal

ity/

10

00

Po

pu

lati

on

Female Male

960

614651

462

0

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600

700

800

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2010/11 ZDHS 2014 MICS 2015 MICS 2019 MICS

MM

R

19 | P a g e

Maternal deaths that happen in health institutions (institutional deaths) also show a similar picture to what is depicted from survey data. Hospital based maternal mortality generally shows a decreasing trend especially after 2011. See Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: Hospital Based Maternal Mortality Ratio; 2009 to 2017; 2017 National Health

Profile

Most of the major causes of maternal mortality recorded in health facilities are preventable and manageable with access to quality health care services. It is imperative that all pregnant women have better access to maternity care services during Antenatal Care (ANC), labour and delivery, including emergency care when required to reduce maternal mortality. Postpartum Haemorrhage, Eclampsia, Pregnancy induced hypertension, Puerperal sepsis and Pneumonia were the top five leading causes of maternal mortality in 2017 (MoHCC, 2017).

3.6 Trends in Antenatal and Postnatal Care

The health care services that a mother receives during pregnancy, childbirth, and the immediate postnatal period are important for the survival and wellbeing of both the mother and the infant. Antenatal care enables early detection of complications and prompt treatment. It also enables health promotion and disease prevention through health messages and counselling of pregnant women. Antenatal care from a trained provider is important to monitor pregnancy. Figure 3.8 shows the trends in the proportion of pregnant women who received antenatal care at least once and at least four times from a trained provider8 according to the last three rounds of the ZDHS and 2019 MICS.

8 In the surveys, a trained provider was either a nurse, nurse midwife or a doctor

131148

366

229

194168

148135 136

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Mat

ern

al M

ort

alit

y R

atio

20 | P a g e

Figure 3.8: Percentage of Women, 15-49 Years who received ANC from a Trained Provider

2005/6, 2010/11, 2015 ZDHS and 2019 MICS

The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends at least four focussed ANC visits for every pregnant woman. Health professionals recommend that the first antenatal visit should occur within 12 to 16 weeks of pregnancy. The second visit should occur at 28 weeks, the third visit at 32 weeks, and the fourth visit at 36 weeks.

Figure 3.9 shows the number of months pregnant at first ANC visit and number of visits made by pregnant women in urban and rural areas as at 2019.

Figure 3.9: Number of ANC Visits and Number of Months Pregnant at First ANC Visit, 2019 MICS

9490

93 93.3

7164

7672

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

2005/6 2010/11 2015 2019

Per

cen

t

At least once At least 4 times

4.3

27

.6

67

.8

12

.7

0.4

4.3

27

.4

34

.5 29

.4

4.5

0

4.1

21

.9

73

.3

9.1

0.7

4.1

46

.3

31

.2

15

.7

2.5 0.2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

No

Visits

1-3

4+

8 o

r mo

re visits

No

t Kn

ow

n

No

visits

Less than

4 m

nth

s

4-5

mo

nth

s

6-7

mo

nth

s

8+

No

t kno

wn

Number of ANC Visits Number of Months Pregnant

Per

cen

t

Urban Rural

21 | P a g e

There is not much difference in ANC coverage between rural and urban women. In urban areas, 73% of the expectant women had the recommended four or more ANC visits compared to 68% in rural areas. A higher proportion (46 percent) of women in rural areas made their first ANC visit during the first three months of pregnancy (first trimester) than those residing in urban areas (27 percent). Post Natal Care (PNC) is important for both the mother and the child to identify and treat complications arising after the delivery of the child. Figure 3.10 shows the timing of the first PNC check of newborns delivered two years preceding the 2019 MICS. Results showed that about 93% of the newborns received PNC within the recommended two days after birth.

Figure 3.10: Timing of the First Post Natal Check among Newborns, 2019 MICS

With regards to the timing of the first PNC check for the mother, about 83 percent received the check within the recommended two days following delivery. See Figure 3.11 below.

85

5.3 1.7 1.4

33.8

48.1

9.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Health Checkfollowing

birth while infacility or at

home

Same Day 1 Dayfollowing

birth

2 daysfollowing

birth

3-6 daysfollowing

birth

After firstweek

followingbirth

No post natalcare visit

Per

cen

t

Time after birth of newborn's first PNC

22 | P a g e

Figure 3.11: Timing of the First Post Natal Check among Mothers, 2019 MICS

3.8 Health Insurance

According to the WHO, Universal Health Coverage means that all people can use the promotive, preventive, curative, rehabilitative and palliative health services they need, of sufficient quality to be effective, while also ensuring that the use of these services does not expose the user to financial hardship. Health insurance, therefore, is meant to protect people against financial risk by ensuring that the cost of using health services does not put people at risk of financial harm9. According to the 2019 LFCLS, about 7 percent of the total population had some form of health insurance, with females more likely than males to be insured. Among the younger age groups up to 44 years, females were more likely to be insured. At 45 years and above, it is males who had a higher likelihood of being insured than women. See Figure 3.12.

9 www.who.int/health_financing/universal_coverage_definition/en/

76.5

4.1 1.2 0.8

21.7

42.8

29.3

0102030405060708090

100

Health Checkfollowing

delivery whilein facility or at

home

Same Day 1 Dayfollowing

birth

2 daysfollowing

birth

3-6 daysfollowing

birth

After firstweek

followingbirth

No post natalcare visit

Per

cen

t

Time after delivery of mother's first PNC

http://www.who.int/health_financing/universal_coverage_definition/en/

23 | P a g e

Figure 3.12: Population Covered by Medical Insurance, 2019 LFCLS

3.10 Environment

Women and the environment is one of the 12 critical areas of concern for achieving gender equality identified in the Beijing Platform for Action. The Platform for Action highlighted that environmental conditions have a different impact on the lives of women and men due to existing gender inequality. It further highlighted that women’s role in sustainable development is hampered by unequal access to economic resources, information and technology, and limited participation in policy formulation and decision making in natural resources and environment management10. Safe drinking water Access to safe, clean drinking water is a fundamental human right important for the full enjoyment of life and other human rights. Lack of access to clean drinking water compounded by poor sanitation has an impact on the burden of disease and increases the workload of both women and men. When the source of water is far, the quantity of water that gets collected is less likely to be sufficient for minimum drinking needs or for good hygiene practices (WHO, 2011). It has been shown that the quantity of water declines drastically if more than half an hour per trip is needed to collect the water. Results from the 2019 MICS depicted in Figure 3.13 shows that slightly more than a third of households in Zimbabwe had sources of water on their premises, with 40 percent of the households requiring about 30 minutes per round trip to fetch water. About 20 percent of the households required more than 30 minutes per round trip to fetch water for the household.

10 UN Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women; paragraph 249

7.26.6

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Un

der

5

5-9

10

-14

15

-19

20

-24

25

-29

30

-34

35

-39

40

-44

45

-49

50

-54

55

-59

60

-64

65

+

Tota

l

% C

ove

rage

Age Group

Female Male

24 | P a g e

Figure 3.13: Distribution of Households According to Time taken to Fetch Drinking Water,

2019 MICS

Generally, when water is not available at the premises, women are more often charged with the responsibilities of collecting water for cleaning and cooking, in addition to other households chores. This drastically reduces their time spent on paid work. Women mostly bear the responsibility of collecting water among households that do not have water on premises. See Figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14: Percentage Distribution of Households without Water on Premises According to

Person Collecting Drinking Water Used in the Household, 2019 MICS

32.2

40

19.8

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Water on Premises Up to and including 30 mins More than 30 mins

% o

f H

ou

seh

old

s

78.7

14.3

4 1.7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Woman (15+) Man (15+) Female Child Under 15 Male Child Under 15

Adults Children

% h

ou

seh

old

s

25 | P a g e

Sources of fuel Access to modern energy services, including electricity and clean modern cooking solutions, is essential to the achievement of sustainable development. The use of solid fuels for cooking in the house, such as firewood and other solid fuels threatens the lives of women and men. Women in particular are more exposed than men to indoor pollutants due to their role of cooking and caring for children and other family members (UN, 2015). The use of wood causes smoke and solid particulate waste that contaminates the air and can cause respiratory problems if not vented outside the dwelling. In addition, the need for firewood increases the workload for household members but mostly for women as they are charged with household chores more than men. Information on sources of energy for cooking by households collected in the 2019 MICS showed that about 70 percent of the household population were living in households with primary reliance on solid fuels and other technologies11 for cooking while about 26 percent used electricity. Thirty percent of the population lived in households that used clean fuels12 for cooking. See Figure 3.15.

Figure 3.15: Distribution of Households by Source of Energy Mostly Used for Cooking, 2017

PICES

11 Includes wood, crop residue, grass,

12 Includes electricity (both main grid and solar) and gas.

5.5

83.7

30.1

94.3

16.1

69.7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Rural Urban Total

% h

ou

seh

old

mem

ber

s

Clean Fuels and technologies Solid Fuels and Technologies

26 | P a g e

CHAPTER 4: Education and Training

4.0 Introduction

The Constitution of Zimbabwe recognises education as a fundamental human right as it is an essential tool for achieving sustainable development. Section 27(2) of the same Constitution provides that the state must take measures to ensure that girls are afforded the same opportunities as boys to obtain education at all levels. The United Nations asserts that education is an investment in human capital that confers benefits to both individuals and societies, allowing them to reach their fullest potential. Education is indispensable for closing the gap between women and men in terms of social and economic opportunities and is key to empowering women and allowing them to become agents of change in economic, social and political spheres. It also improves the chances of women leading a healthy life and passing on the benefits to future generations (UNESCO, 2014). This chapter seeks to highlight gender disparities in the education sector in areas of literacy, fields of education and school attendance. It will also show progress made in the education of girls and boys, women and men in the recent past.

4.1 Literacy Rates by Age and Sex

Literacy is the ability to read and write, with understanding, a simple statement related to one’s daily life. It involves a continuum of reading skill and often includes basic arithmetic skills (numeracy)13. In the absence of a literacy survey in Zimbabwe, persons aged 15 years and above and have completed at least grade three of primary education are considered to be literate. From the 2019 LFCLS, it can be seen that literacy levels were generally high. See Table 4.1.

4.2 School Attendance

Participation in school can be defined in terms of current attendance or enrolment over time. In Zimbabwe the school age population spans from age three to 24 years and it is therefore important to look at the current attendance of this cohort. Data from the 2017 ICDS showed that about 65 percent of males and 61 percent of females in the age group 3 to 24 years were attending school. A slightly higher proportion of females had left school compared to males. See Figure 4.1.

13 UNESCO: Global Education Digest, 2006

27 | P a g e

Figure 4.1: Distribution of Population Aged 3 to 24 Years by School Attendance, 2017 ICDS

4.3 Educational attainment

Educational attainment, the highest level of education an individual has completed, is a measure of human capital and the skills available in a given population. Whereas current enrolment rates only provide information on the school population at a given time, educational attainment indicates the education level of an entire adult population, reflecting long term trends in participation and completion of primary, secondary and tertiary education (UN, 2015). Higher levels of educational attainment directly translates into availability of a relatively high level of skill and knowledge within the labour force. Studies have shown that progress in educational attainment contributes to economic growth and improved labour market outcomes including productivity, participation, and income and career progression14. Table 4.1a shows results from the 2019 LFCLS on highest level of education completed by population aged 3 years and above. The results show that among the people who had completed lower secondary, the majority were women. Women also dominated among people who had completed apprenticeship/teacher training and short cycle tertiary courses. It is important to note that those with no level of education completed, includes children aged 3 years who infact are yet to start school.

14 Thevenon et al , 2012

11.8

61.3

27.0

12.0

64.9

23.1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Never Attended Currently Attending Left School

Per

cen

t

Women Men

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4.4 School Enrolment

It is essential that both boys and girls get equal opportunities for accessing basic education. Figure 4.2 shows the grade specific net enrolment ratios15 for children who were in primary school in 2018. Across all grades, more girls were in the correct age for their grade compared to boys. It is important to note that a majority of the children who were in primary school were either too old or too young for the grades they were attending.

Figure 4.2: Grade Specific Net Enrolment in Primary Education (Grade 1-7), Ministry of

Primary and Secondary Education, 2018

The overall enrolment ratios in primary school are shown in Table 4.1b. It is important to note that there is parity in enrolment for both Gross16 and Net Enrolments. Enrolment in secondary education depicted in Figure 4.3 shows that a higher percentage of girls was generally in correct forms for their ages compared to boys. Table 4.1c shows overall enrolment in secondary school as measured by gross and net enrolment ratios.

15 Net Enrolment Ratio is the number of pupils enrolled who are of the official age group for a given level

of education divided by the population for the same age group expressed as a percentage.

16 The Gross Enrolment Rate is defined as the total enrolment in a specific level of education, regardless of

age, expressed as a percentage of the eligible official school-age population corresponding to the same

level in a given school year.

40.037.0 35.8

32.4 33.7 31.927.2

37.833.2 31.0

27.1 27.5 26.321.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7

% N

ER

Girls Boys

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Figure 4.3: Form Specific Net Enrolment in Secondary Education (Grade 1-7), Ministry of

Primary and Secondary Education, 2018

4.7 Enrolment at Tertiary

Education acquired after secondary level is vital in shaping one’s career in life. Women and men with tertiary education are more likely to be economically empowered and earn higher incomes. At society level, tertiary education graduates contribute to human capital which is essential for economic development, productivity growth, innovation and the healthy functioning of the Government and civil society (UNESCO, 2007). Analysis of fields of study of women and men over time helps understand the progress made in addressing gender disparities that exist in the labour force and specific sectors. Data from the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science and Technology Development (MoHTIESTD) on enrolment in technical colleges for the period 2013 to 2019 is shown in Table 4.2. In terms of share of women in total enrolment, it is at the School of Hospitality and Tourism (SCHOTO) were women constituted more than 70 percent of enrolment over the six years. Data on enrolment in specific fields of study is shown for selected Technical Colleges in Tables 4.3a to g. It can be noted that it is in very few cases were women outnumber males in terms of enrolment in specific fields of study. The field of study that men and women choose has an impact on their future lives, careers, incomes and roles in society. Many factors influence students’ subject preference in tertiary education, including performance in education, perception of one’s own abilities, social, economic and family background, career aspirations and labour market expectations. Gender-based stereotypes and gender differences in the balance between job and family responsibilities are also a significant factor (UN, 2015). It is these choices of fields of study that will result in the current gender imbalances in the areas of work, research and leadership. Table 4.4 and 4.5 show information on enrolment of women and men in Universities in 2017 and 2019. Overall, there were more females than males attending university

27.4 26.6 25.620.4

6.9 7.0

20.7 20.1 19.416.1

6.2 6.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4 Form 5 Form 6

% N

ER

Girls Boys

30 | P a g e

education between the two years. Information on enrolments in specific areas of study for selected universities in 2017 is presented in Tables 4.5 a to j. In general, there are more males than females studying sciences while females dominated in the areas of arts and humanities.

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Table 4.1: Literacy Rates for Population Aged 15 Years and Above by Sex, Zimbabwe 2019 LFCLS

Age Group Women Men

15-19 99.5 99.2

20-24 99.2 99.2

25-29 99.0 98.4

30-34 99.4 99.4

35-39 99.0 99.0

40-44 98.5 98.8

45-49 98.0 98.3

50-54 95.7 98.7

55-59 85.2 95.3

60-64 92.4 93.4

65-69 91.1 91.3

70-74 90.5 91.9

75-79 89.3 91.0

80-84 84.0 84.4

85+ 86.0 81.7

Total 97.9 96.9 Table 4.1a: Distribution of Population Age 3 years and above by Highest Level of Education

Completed, Zimbabwe 2019 LFCLS

Percent Total

Level Completed Women Men Total Women Men Total None 59.6 40.4 100 616 502 417 944 1 034 446 ECE 50.6 49.4 100 433 763 423 684 857 447 Primary 53.1 46.9 100 2 956 740 2 616 188 5 572 928 Vocational, National Foundation Certificate 51.1 48.9 100 9 999 9 554 19 553 Lower Secondary 52.6 47.4 100 2 493 028 2 246 422 4 739 450 Upper Secondary 40.8 59.2 100 98 197 142 601 240 798 Vocational Certificate 48.7 51.3 100 46 941 49 380 96 321 Vocational/Apprenticeship/Teacher Training 59.7 40.3 100 79 354 53 512 132 866 Tertiary-Short Cycle 51.7 48.3 100 70 325 65 674 135 999 Tertiary-Higher National Diploma/Bachelor/Bachelor Honours 47.7 52.3 100 98 749 108 242 206 991 Tertiary- Masters/Doctoral Medical Courses 45.1 54.9 100 19 127 23 303 42 430 Doctorate 0.0 100.0 100 0 998 998 Not Known 42.5 57.5 100 755 1 021 1 776 Level not Known 0.0 100.0 100 0 347 347 Total 52.9 47.1 100 6 923 483 6 158 870 13 082 353

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Table 4.1b: Primary School, (Grade 1-7), Gross and Net Enrolment Ratios by Province: 2018

Province GER NER

Girls Boys Girls Boys

Manicaland 114.7 117.0 97.6 96.5

Mashonaland Central 107.3 107.8 92.2 89.7

Mashonaland East 109.3 110.1 95.4 93.2

Mashonaland West 110.1 110.7 95.2 92.6

Matabeleland North 104.1 103.6 92.0 89.6

Matabeleland South 101.2 100.1 88.8 86.1

Midlands 107.4 107.1 93.8 91.3

Masvingo 110.3 111.5 95.4 93.6

Harare 84.7 89.4 78.7 81.7

Bulawayo 104.8 110.6 96.6 100.4

Total 105.7 107.3 92.5 91.3

Source: Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, 2018 Table 4.1c: Secondary School, (Form 1-6), Gross and Net Enrolment Ratios by Province: 2018

Province GER NER

Girls Boys Girls Boys

Manicaland 63.0 64.0 59.2 58.2

Mashonaland Central 51.5 50.9 48.9 46.7

Mashonaland East 67.4 66.0 64.7 61.7

Mashonaland West 54.7 57.7 52.2 53.7

Matabeleland North 54.9 43.0 51.9 39.5

Matabeleland South 55.9 44.1 53.0 41.4

Midlands 58.7 55.8 55.5 51.1

Masvingo 62.2 63.0 58.6 57.2

Harare 42.4 52.0 40.5 48.8

Bulawayo 56.1 64.0 53.0 59.8

Total 56.4 57.1 53.5 52.7

Source: Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, 2018

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Table 4.2: Enrolment in Polytechnics and Industrial Training Colleges by Sex, 2013-2019

Total Enrolment % Share of Women

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2019 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2019

Gweru 499 1 393 1 486 1 688 1 727 2 427 56.3 44.1 43.3 41.2 40.6 47.3 JM Nkomo 436 636 534 409 464 719 48.6 58.0 52.2 50.1 48.3 57.3 Kushinga Phikelela 602 741 731 769 940 1 244 55.3 55.3 52.9 50.8 47.8 51.0 Kwekwe 2 934 2 277 2 837 3 170 3 519 4 996 14.9 30.7 28.4 25.2 27.5 34.0 Masvingo 1 775 2 207 2 083 1 895 1 633 3 132 43.1 40.2 37.2 34.6 37.8 43.6 Mutare 2 004 2 043 2 358 2 243 2 512 3 342 35.1 34.3 33.2 32.3 31.4 45.0 SCHOTO 584 634 605 429 607 769 74.0 75.1 75.2 73.0 72.8 78.2 Harare 5 002 4 400 5 148 5 464 6 894 8 224 37.4 39.2 37.0 38.8 40.1 44.6 Bulawayo 3 561 3 167 3 209 3 147 2 962 4 789 39.1 33.4 33.7 33.2 34.2 47.3 St Peters 241 244 255 246 242 264 4.6 2.5 3.1 2.8 4.1 6.4 Msasa 493 282 209 499 639 768 1.6 3.5 4.3 3.6 6.6 11.5 Westgate 439 301 331 235 295 548 4.3 4.0 6.6 4.7 4.1 12.4 Mupfure 307 375 292 287 305 238 28.7 28.8 33.9 33.8 33.8 38.7

Danhiko 164 183 190 173 172 206 48.2 42.1 40.5 46.2 50.6 52.9

Total 19 041 18 883 20 268 20 654 23 570 31 666 34.8 37.9 36.2 34.7 36.5 43.2

Source: Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development, 2019

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Table 4.3a: Enrolment at Gweru Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016

Programme Total Enrolment

% Share of Women Male Female Total

Secretarial Studies 0 19 19 100.0

Records Management 5 20 25 80.0

Library & Information Science 8 17 25 68.0

Information Technology 70 54 124 43.5

Cosmetology 0 7 7 100.0

Clothing Technology 0 45 45 100.0

Education 91 138 229 60.3

Motor Mechanics 58 4 62 6.5

Diesel Plant Fitting 135 12 147 8.2

Auto-Electrics 42 16 58 27.6

Motor Vehicle Body Repair 7 1 8 12.5

Accountancy 50 95 145 65.5

Banking & Finance 27 50 77 64.9

Marketing Mgt 10 19 29 65.5

Human Resources Mgt 13 19 32 59.4

Transport Mgt 12 19 31 61.3

Purchasing & Supply Mgt 28 45 73 61.6

Tourism and Hospitality 2 11 13 84.6

Electrical Power Engineering 114 17 131 13.0

Instrumentation and Control 32 12 44 27.3

Communication Systems 21 7 28 25.0

Machine shop Engineering 55 7 62 11.3

Fabrication Engineering 55 6 61 9.8

Refrigeration 21 16 37 43.2

Draughting & Design Technology 16 0 16 0.0

Total 872 656 1 528 42.9

Source: Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development, 2016

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Table 4.3b: Enrolment at Masvingo Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016

Programme Total


Chemical Engineering 47 30 77 39.0

Science Technology 13 13 26 50.0

Applied Chemical Technology 4 0 4 0.0

Applied Art & Design 14 3 17 17.6


Precision Machining 37 1 38 2.6




Carpentry & Joinery 19 2 21 9.5

Plumbing & Drain laying 40 5 45 11.1

Brick & Block laying 41 3 44 6.8

Industrial Clothing Design 3 62 65 95.4


Civil & Construction 98 10 108 9.3


Computer Systems 6 1 7 14.3

Electrical Power 197 43 240 17.9

Environmental Health 92 51 143 35.7

Food Science Technology 14 44 58 75.9

Horticulture 13 18 31 58.1



Marketing Management 11 23 34 67.6

Fabrication 112 5 117 4.3

Machineshop 81 3 84 3.6

Draughting & Design 25 2 27 7.4

Education 22 24 46 52.2

Secretarial studies 1 27 28 96.4

Hospitality & Tourism 10 35 45 77.8

Records Management 3 20 23 87.0 Bachelor of Technology Food Science

6 10 16 62.5

Total 1 324 743 2 067 35.9

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Table 4.3c: Enrolment at Kwekwe Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016

Programme Total



ICT 90 86 176 48.9

Purchasing and Supply Mgt 35 100 135 74.1




Records Mgt 1 5 6 83.3

Secretarial 0 5 5 100.0

Marketing Mgt 10 36 46 78.3

Electrical Power 309 71 380 18.7


Instrumentation & Control 145 44 189 23.3


Machineshop 147 10 157 6.4


Food Science 2 17 19 89.5

Electronic Communication 38 26 64 40.6

Metallurgical assaying 101 43 144 29.9

Quantity Surveying 127 56 183 30.6

Refridgeration 23 14 37 37.8

Plumbing & Drainlaying 7 3 10 30.0

Brick & Blocklaying 22 1 23 4.3

Millwrighting 76 4 80 5.0


Tourism & Hospitality 1 4 5 80.0




Industrial metallurgy 2 1 3 33.3

Industrial & Manufacturing Tech 163 9 172 5.2

Electrical & Manufacturing Tech 111 22 133 16.5

Total 2 191 873 3 064 28.5

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Table 4.3d: Enrolment at Mutare Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016

Programme Total % Share of

Women Male Female Total

Fashion & Design 2 7 9 77.8 Industrial Clothing Design 0 24 24 100.0 Cosmetology 0 6 6 100.0 Art & Design 2 2 4 50.0 Music 3 3 6 50.0 Science Technology 21 45 66 68.2 Environmental Health 21 22 43 51.2 Horticulture 27 17 44 38.6 Human Resources Mgt 25 39 64 60.9 Purchasing Management 59 62 121 51.2 Marketing Management 37 21 58 36.2 Transport Management 15 24 39 61.5 Records Management 6 13 19 68.4 Library & Information Sciences 0 1 1 100.0 Information Technology 119 68 187 36.4 Secretarial/Office Mgt 0 17 17 100.0 Accountancy 77 128 205 62.4 Banking & Finance 20 41 61 67.2 Brick & Block Laying 24 1 25 4.0 Plumbing 21 0 21 0.0 Carpentry & Joinery 6 0 6 0.0 Painting & Decorating 38 1 39 2.6 Construction Technology 22 1 23 4.3 Quantity Surveying 53 25 78 32.1 Civil Engineering 113 18 131 13.7 Irrigation Engineering 42 8 50 16.0 Wood Technology 13 0 13 0.0 Electrical Power 182 30 212 14.2 Computer Systems 28 7 35 20.0 Communication Systems 26 3 29 10.3 Fabrication 63 1 64 1.6 Refrigeration 41 6 47 12.8 Machineshop 60 1 61 1.6 Motor Mechanics 114 0 114 0.0 Automobile Electrics 80 6 86 7.0 Vehicle Body Repair 20 0 20 0.0 Diesel Plant Fitting 100 3 103 2.9 Education 10 25 35 71.4 Hospitality & Tourism Mgt 5 34 39 87.2 Professional Cookery 9 11 20 55.0 Bakery Studies 3 5 8 62.5 Food & Baverage 1 3 4 75.0 B-Technology Wood 2 0 2 0.0

Total 1 510 729 2 239 32.6

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Table 4.3e: Enrolment at Bulawayo Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016

Programme Total


Applied Art and Design 3 3 6 50.0

Architectural Technology 60 10 70 14.3

Automobile Electrics & Electronics 35 2 37 5.4

Brick and Blocklaying 10 1 11 9.1

Accountancy 125 200 325 61.5


Civil Engineering 153 43 196 21.9




Draughting & Design Technology 44 4 48 8.3


Electronic Communication Systems 79 26 105 24.8



Plant Engineering 49 6 55 10.9

Hairdressing 0 1 1 100.0

Fashion Design 3 20 23 87.0

Beauty Therapy 0 1 1 100.0

Further Education 7 8 15 53.3


Human Resources Management 29 36 65 55.4


Instrumentation & control Systems 4 1 5 20.0

Library & Information Science 0 0 0 0.0

Machine shop 97 5 102 4.9


Meat Inspection/Hygiene 3 7 10 70.0


Motor Vehicle Mechanics 116 5 121 4.1

Motor Vehicle Body Repair 6 0 6 0.0

Plumbing & Drain Laying 8 4 12 33.3


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Table 4.3e (Continued): Enrolment at Bulawayo Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016

Programme

Total % Share of


Records & Information Mgt 2 10 12 83.3

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 36 13 49 26.5

Plastics & Rubber Technology 5 1 6 16.7



Surveying & Geomatics 27 15 42 35.7

Urban & Regional Planning 10 17 27 63.0


Road & Rail Transport Mgt 7 1 8 12.5

Production Engineering 7 1 8 12.5


Millwright Work 26 1 27 3.7

Industrial Clothing Design & Con 1 26 27 96.3

Water Resources Engineering 30 14 44 31.8



Applied Biological Technology 4 4 8 50.0

Commercial Design 9 4 13 30.8

Construction Technology 23 1 24 4.2

Mechanical Engineering 6 4 10 40.0

Foundry Work 4 0 4 0.0

Power Plant Operations 11 1 12 8.3

B-Tech Environmental 29 1 30 3.3

B-Tech Water Resources 12 2 14 14.3

Total 2 055 1 014 3 069 33.0

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Table 4.3f: Enrolment at Harare Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016

Programme Total % Share of


Industrial Clothing Design & Construction 14 82 96 85.4


Panel Beating 9 0 9 0.0



Motor Cycle Mechanics 7 0 7 0.0


Auto-electrics 57 12 69 17.4

Automotive Engineering 40 1 41 2.4

Civil Engineering 113 21 134 15.7

Architectural Technology 41 12 53 22.6

Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering 45 10 55 18.2

Surveying & Geomatics 40 10 50 20.0

Urban & Regional Planning 29 13 42 31.0


Valuation & Estate Management 27 15 42 35.7

Cartography 21 3 24 12.5



Further Education 3 3 6 50.0

Health Services 9 37 46 80.4

Human resources Management 27 71 98 72.4


Pensions Management 13 29 42 69.0

Payroll Administration 19 7 26 26.9

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Table 4.3f: (Continued) Enrolment at Harare Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016

Programme Total


Purchasing & Supply Management 70 101 171 59.1


Transport Management 54 31 85 36.5

Plumbing & Drain Laying 30 4 34 11.8


Construction Technology 29 4 33 12.1

Brick & Block laying 43 4 47 8.5


Instruments & Control 180 27 207 13.0

Electronic Communication System 97 21 118 17.8


Microwave & Radar 1 0 1 0.0


Records Management 11 43 54 79.6

Library & Information Sciences 15 55 70 78.6

Mass Communication 27 33 60 55.0

Mechanical Engineering 144 7 151 4.6

Machine shop Engineering 177 10 187 5.3

Fabrication Engineering 104 9 113 8.0

Refrigeration 64 16 80 20.0

Draughting & Design 53 12 65 18.5

Vehicle Body Building 21 1 22 4.5

Applied art & Design 9 4 13 30.8

Origination 3 6 9 66.7

Machine Printing 4 0 4 0.0

Print Finishing 8 1 9 11.1

Photography 2 0 2 0.0

Fine Art 3 2 5 40.0

Graghic Design 21 3 24 12.5

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Table 4.3f: (Continued) Enrolment at Harare Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016

Programme Total


Packaging 6 0 6 0


Chemical Engineering 49 39 88 44.3

Metallurgical Assaying 33 21 54 38.9


Plastics & Rubber Technology 22 22 44 50.0


Pharmaceutical Technology 32 47 79 59.5


Applied Biological Technology 7 20 27 74.1

Tourism & Hospitality Management 14 79 93 84.9

Professional Cookery/Culinary Arts 7 45 52 86.5

Bakery Studies 6 28 34 82.4

B-Tech Applied Chemical Technology 16 11 27 40.7

Total 3 081 1 838 4 919 37.4

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Table 4.3g: Enrolment at JM Nkomo Polytechnic College by Programme of Study and Sex, 2016

Programme Total



Animal Production 11 18 29 62.1


Banking and Finance 6 0 6 0.0

Brick & Block Laying 10 0 10 0.0

Clothing 0 3 3 100.0




Fashion Design 1 2 3 66.7


Human Resources Management 9 18 27 66.7


Marketing 4 2 6 33.3


Purchasing 19 22 41 53.7

Secretarial 0 8 8 100.0

Total 262 193 455 42.4

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Table 4.4: Enrolment at Universities by Sex of Students, 2017

University Male Female Total % Share of

Women

Africa University 916 976 1 892 51.6

Bindura University of Science Education 2 624 2 692 5 316 50.6

Catholic University 1 403 1 121 2 524 44.4

Chinhoyi University of Technology 3 867 3 123 6 990 44.7

Great Zimbabwe University 5 544 8 054 13 598 59.2

Harare Institute of Technology 937 589 1 526 38.6

Lupane State University 1 209 1 813 3 022 60.0

Midlands State University 10 825 9 810 20 635 47.5

National University of Science Education 4 315 3 988 8 303 48.0

Reformed Church University 164 470 634 74.1

Solusi University 248 191 439 43.5

University of Zimbabwe 5 209 5 737 10 946 52.4

Women’s University in Africa 1 534 2 810 4 344 64.7

Zimbabwe Ezekiel Guti University 197 223 420 53.1

Zimbabwe Open University 4 597 7 076 11 673 60.6

Total 43 589 48 673 92 262 52.8 Source: Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science and Technology Development, 2017

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Table 4.5: Enrolment at Universities by Sex of Students, 2019

Male Female Total % Share of

Women

Africa University 1 161 1 380 2 541 54.31 Arrupe Jesuit University 91 7 98 7.14 Bindura University of Science Education 2 703 2 973 5 676 52.38

Catholic University in Zimbabwe 1 277 1 521 2 798 54.36

Chinhoyi University of Technology 5 267 4 742 10 009 47.38

Great Zimbabwe University 5 615 9 104 14 719 61.85

Gwanda State University 187 59 246 23.98

Harare Institute of Technology 1 107 716 1 823 39.28

Lupane State University 1 226 1 847 3 073 60.10

Manicaland State University of Applied Sciences 417 171 588 29.08 Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology 120 73 193 37.82

Midlands State University 10 874 11 004 21 878 50.30

National University of Science and Technology 4 925 3 920 8 845 44.32

Reformed Church University 183 435 618 70.39

Solusi University 675 771 1 446 53.32

University of Zimbabwe 8 293 9 130 17 423 52.40

Women's University in Africa 653 2 530 3 183 79.48

Zimbabwe Ezekiel Guti University 64 985 1 049 93.90

Zimbabwe National Defense University 25 12 37 32.43

Zimbabwe Open University 6 672 8 769 15 441 56.79

Total 51 535 60 149 111 684 53.86

Table 4.5a: Enrolment at Africa University by Faculty and Sex, 2017

Faculty Male Female Total % Share of

Women

Agriculture and environment 71 38 109 34.9

Arts 30 32 62 51.6

Commerce 401 369 770 47.9

Education 51 60 111 54.1

Health Sciences 104 137 241 56.8

Sciences 63 41 104 39.4

Social Sciences and Humanities 196 299 495 60.4

Total 916 976 1 892 51.6 Source: Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science and Technology Development, 2017

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Table 4.5b: Enrolment Bindura University of Science Education by Faculty and Sex, 2017

Faculty Male Female Total % Share

of Women

Science Education 760 881 1 641 53.7

Social Sciences and Humanities 227 518 745 69.5

Sciences 356 242 598 40.5

Agriculture and Environment Science 299 260 559 46.5

Commerce 227 791 1 773 44.6


Table 4.5c: Enrolment at Chinhoyi University of Technology by Faculty and Sex, 2017

Faculty Male Female Total % Share of

Women

Agriculture and Environment 464 374 838 44.6

Art & Design 213 312 525 59.4

Commerce 2 115 1 955 4 070 48.0

Education 18 7 25 28.0

Engineering 890 224 1 114 20.1

Hospitality and Tourism 96 231 327 70.6

Sciences 71 20 91 22.0


Table 4.5d: Enrolment at Great Zimbabwe University by Faculty and Sex, 2017

Faculty Male Female Total

Agriculture and Environment 157 129 286

Arts 628 783 1 411

Commerce 1 157 929 2 086

Education 2 070 4 426 6 496

Law 49 73 122

Sciences 246 99 345

Social Sciences and Humanities 1 237 1 615 2 852

Total 5 544 8 054 13 598

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Table 4.5e: Enrolment at Lupane State University by Faculty and Sex, 2017



Arts 3 8 11

Commerce 561 884 1 445

Education 41 32 73

Sciences 7 4 11

Social Sciences and Humanities 503 821 1 324

Total 1 209 1 813 3 022

Table 4.5f: Enrolment at Midlands State University by Faculty and Sex, 2017

Faculty Male Female Total Arts 1 352 1 624 2 976 Commerce 3 895 3 010 6 905 Education 532 839 1 371 Agriculture and Environment 656 385 1 041 Law 134 165 299 Medicine 7 8 15 Engineering 117 32 149 Sciences 1 464 621 2 085 Social Sciences and Humanities 2 668 3 126 5 794 Total 10 825 9 810 20 635

Table 4.5g: Enrolment at the National University of Science and Technology by Faculty and Sex, 2017


Sciences 966 826 1 792

Commerce 1 853 2 462 4 315

Engineering 1 027 321 1 348

Medicine 54 69 123

Science Education 369 262 631

Social Sciences and Humanities 46 48 94

Total 4 315 3 988 8 303

Table 4.5h: Enrolment at the University of Zimbabwe by Faculty and Sex, 2017

University of Zimbabwe Male Female Total


Arts 377 800 1 177

Commerce 1 249 1 043 2 292

Medicine 583 581 1 164

Education 153 222 375

Engineering 585 142 727

Law 179 295 474

Sciences 748 537 1 285

Social Sciences and Humanities 1 041 1 913 2 954

Veterinary Science 63 66 129

Total 5 209 5 737 10 946

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Table 4.5i: Enrolment at the Zimbabwe Open University by Faculty and Sex, 2017

Table 4.5j: Enrolment at the Harare Institute of Technology by Faculty and Sex, 2017


Commerce 152 147 299

Engineering 410 146 556

Sciences 375 296 671

Total 937 589 1 526



Arts 237 339 576

Commerce 1 074 1 056 2 130

Education 1 943 3 773 5 716

Health Sciences 46 303 349

Sciences 197 75 272

Social Sciences and Humanities 752 1 200 1 952

Total 4 597 7 076 11 673

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CHAPTER 5: Women’s Access and Ownership of Agricultural Productive Resources

5.0 Introduction

The Beijing Platform for Action urges governments to undertake all the necessary administrative and legislative reforms to give women equal and full access to economic resources, including the right to ownership of land, other forms of property and credit17. Despite the fact that the majority of the population working in the agriculture sector are women, access to and ownership of agricultural productive resources by women remains low. This chapter explores differentials between women and men in accessing productive resources in the agricultural sector.

5.1 Access to and Ownership of Agricultural Land

Land is a key economic resource inextricably linked to access to, use of and control over other economic and productive resources and livelihoods. Especially in rural and peri-urban areas, agricultural land is a key input for agricultural production; it can be used as collateral to access financial resources or extension services. In both rural and urban areas, if rented or sold, land can generate income. Access, ownership and/or control of land is critical for poverty reduction, food security, fostering of gender equality and inclusiveness, and reduction of land degradation, amongst other sustainable development objectives. The importance of land tenure in sustainable development has been recently recognized by the establishment of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicators 1.4.2 and 5.a.1. In order to measure and monitor progress towards reaching these goals, along with the many other SDG targets, wide-reaching data collection efforts have been developed following the guidelines developed by the UNSD through the Evidence and Data for Gender Equality (EDGE) project. SDG indicator 1.4.2 measures: “Proportion of total adult population with secure tenure rights to land, with (a) legally recognized documentation; and (b) who perceive their rights to land as secure, by sex and by type of tenure.” And SDG indicator 5.a.1 measures: “Proportion of total agricultural population with ownership or secure rights over agricultural land by sex; and (b) share of women among owners or rights-bearers of agricultural land, by type of tenure”. In order to collect baseline information for the indicators, a module on land use rights was included in the 2019 Labour Force and Child Labour Survey and it covered both agricultural and non-agricultural land. Results presented in this report are for SDG indicator 5.a.1. See Appendix A for the questionnaire used in the survey.

17BPFA Strategic Objective A.2(b)

50 | P a g e

5.2 Agricultural Population

The 2019 LFCLS survey revealed an agricultural population18 of 11 235 467, comprising 6 402 982 (56.99%) females and 4 832 485 (43.01%) males.

5.3 Land Use Rights

In Zimbabwe, land is owned by the State. Therefore the term land ownership is commonly used to indicate possession of the rights most akin to ownership in a private property system, such as long term leases, occupancy, tenancy or use rights granted by the State, often for several decades, and that are transferrable. In the survey, ownership/use rights information was collected using the following proxy conditions:

a. Legal Document: The availability of a legally recognized document b. Right to Sell: The ability of an individual to permanently transfer the asset in

question in return for cash or in-kind benefits. c. Right to bequeath: The ability of an individual to pass on the asset in question

to another person(s) after his or her death, by written will, oral will or intestate (without a will). The rights to sell and or to bequeath are also referred to as alienation rights.

Table 5.1 shows the results on the use rights of land among the agricultural population. Overall, 2.8 percent of the agricultural population have documented ownership of the agricultural land with women constituting 2 percent and men 3.8 percent. See Figure 5.1.

18 Agriculture Population was defined in the survey as the population whose livelihood is linked to

agricultural land. Our interest is on adult agricultural population, i.e. adult population living in agricultural

households. A household is considered agricultural if it has operated land for agricultural purposes or

held/tended livestock over the past 12 months, regardless of the final purpose.

51 | P a g e

Fig 5.1: Documented Ownership of Agricultural Land among the total Agricultural Population,

2019 LFCLS

With regards to alienation rights of agricultural land, i.e. the right to sell and the right to bequeath, almost equal proportions of women and men, 33 percent each, indicated that they have this right. A higher proportion of men (12.5 percent) have the right to sell the land compared to women (10.9 percent). Over two thirds of both women and men indicated that they have the right to bequeath the agricultural land. See Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Alienation Rights to Agricultural Land, 2019 LFCLS

2.0

3.8

2.8

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

Women Men Total

Per

cen

t

42.8

42.0

42.5

10.9

12.5

11.6

65.0

66.4

65.6

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0

Women

Men

Total

Right to bequeath Right to sell Alienation rights

52 | P a g e

Results of SDG 5.a.1 are depicted in Figure 5.3 below. About 45 percent of the population in agriculture have ownership or secure rights over agricultural land with women constituting a smaller proportion (44.9 percent) than males (45.9 percent). With regards to the share of women among owners or rights-bearers of agricultural land, women constitute more than half, (56.4 percent).

Figure 5.3: Proportion of Total Agricultural Population with Ownership or Secure Rights over

Agricultural Land by Sex; and (b) Share of Women among Owners or Rights-Bearers of Agricultural Land, 2019 LFCLS

5.2 Ownership of Agricultural Assets

Ownership of assets has a bearing on one’s ability to access credit. Assets, including land are used as a form of collateral required for one to be granted a loan. The fact that the majority of owners of agricultural land are men implies that ownership of agricultural assets is high among males than females. Tables 5.2a to f shows the distribution of agricultural vehicles by type of vehicle and sex of owner in the six land use sectors.

5.3 Ownership of Livestock

Livestock, also an agricultural asset, is a form of collateral that can be used for accessing bank loans. Data from the 2017 ALS depicted in Figure 5.4 shows that about 91 percent of cattle were on male owned large scale commercial farms. Among all the cattle found in communal lands, about 35 percent belonged to households headed by females. See also Tables 5.3a to f on the distribution of farm animals by sex of farm owner, plot holder or head of household.

56.4

44.9

43.6

45.9

45.3

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0

5.a.1 (b)

5.a.1 (a)

SDG

Ind

icat

or

Total Men Women

53 | P a g e

Figure 5.4: Distribution of Cattle by Sex of Farm Owner, Head of Household or Plotholder, 2017 ALS

5.5 Agriculture Labour

Women and men play a key role in crop and livestock production. The 2019 LFCLS noted that 36 percent of the employed population were in the agriculture, forestry and fishing sector out of which, 42 percent were female. Table 5.4 shows that there were more women than men in the agriculture sector who were in vulnerable employment. Women constituted about 81 percent of contributing family workers in agriculture industry. However, when it comes to remunerated work, there are more males than females. Women constituted about 38 percent of the employees (in paid employment) in the agricultural sector.

8.6

17.8 16.710.4

34.7

22.5

91.4

82.2 83.389.6

65.3

77.5

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

LSCF SSCF A1 A2 Communal Old ResettlementSchemes

%

Agricultural Sector

Female Owned Male Owned

54 | P a g e

Table 5.1: Ownership of Agricultural Land by Sex of Land Owner, 2019 LFCLS

Percent Total

Female Male Total Female Male Total

Documented Ownership 2.0 3.8 2.8 127 232 182 025 309 257

Documented Ownership and right to sell 9.2 11.7 10.3 588 720 567 518 1 156 238

Documented Ownership-non-formal 0.2 0.1 0.1 9 609 5 169 14 778

Alienation rights 42.8 42.0 42.5 2 741 268 2 031 128 4 772 396

Right to sell 10.9 12.5 11.6 456 592 380 325 836 917

Right to bequeath 65.0 66.4 65.6 2 717 908 2 024 855 4 742 763

Agricultural population with ownership or secure rights over agricultural land19 44.9 45.9 45.3 2 873 396 2 218 322 5 091 718

Source: LFCLS 2019

Table 5.2a: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Farm Owner in

Large Scale Commercial Farms, 2017

Sex of Farm Owner

Female Male

Tractors 96 1 893

Tractor Drawn

Ploughs 42 729

Cultivators 38 536

Planters 15 471

Harrows 35 622

Animal Drawn

Ploughs 160 862

Cultivators 81 593

Planters 17 106

Harrows 46 451 Source: Agriculture and Livestock Survey, 2017

19 SDG 5.a.1. (a)

55 | P a g e

Table 5.2b: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Farm Owner in Small Scale Commercial Farms, 2017

Sex of Farm Owner

Female Male

Tractors 149 986

Tractor Drawn

Ploughs 129 953

Cultivators 54 322

Planters 30 168

Harrows 44 422

Animal Drawn

Ploughs 2 518 13 534

Cultivators 1 226 6 290

Planters 251 1 114

Harrows 1 015 5 540

Table 5.2c: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Farm Owner in

A1 Farms, 2017

Sex of Farm Owner

Female Male

Tractors 155 1 836 Tractor Drawn

Ploughs 250 2 138 Cultivators 38 552 Planters 91 249

Harrows 46 527 Animal Drawn

Ploughs 17 596 91 361

Cultivators 3 822 25 906 Planters 170 2 194 Harrows 3 654 22 793

Table 5.2d: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Farm Owner in

A2 Farms, 2017

Sex of Farm Owner

Female Male

Tractors 890 7 721

Tractor Drawn

Ploughs 408 3 716

Cultivators 71 1 408

Planters 178 1 289

Harrows 346 3 136

Animal Drawn

Ploughs 2 057 11 171

Cultivators 788 5 120

Planters 139 639

Harrows 797 4 962

56 | P a g e

Table 5.2e: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Plot Holder in Old Resettlement Schemes, 2017

Sex of Plot holder

Female Male

Tractors 123 891

Tractor Drawn

Ploughs 117 1 038

Cultivators 76 190

Planters 26 228

Harrows 5 299

Animal Drawn

Ploughs 20 763 68 950


Planters 205 1 509

Harrows 4 470 20 269 Table 5.2f: Ownership of Agricultural Vehicles by Type of Vehicle and Sex of Head of

Household among Communal farmers, 2017

Sex of Head of Household

Female Male

Tractors 456 245

Tractor Drawn

Ploughs 1 397 712

Cultivators 127 192

Planters

Harrows 143 185

Animal Drawn

Ploughs 243 216 384 421


Planters 703 3 022 Harrows 31 345 53 835

Table 5.3a: Number of livestock in Large Scale Commercial Farms by Sex of Farm Owner, 2017

ALS Sex of farm owner

Livestock

Donkeys Sheep Goats Pigs Hybrid

Broilers Layers Indigenous

Chickens Rabbits Other

Livestock Male 598 4 287 9 792 15 436 529 702 711 18 289 691 1 832 Female 0 155 564 0 0 87 2 249 0 0 Total 598 4 441 10 356 15 436 529 702 798 20 538 691 1 832

57 | P a g e

Table 5.3b: Number of livestock in Small Scale Commercial Farms by Sex of Farm Owner, 2017ALS

Sex of farm owner

Livestock

Donkeys Sheep Goats Pigs Rabbits Layers Indigenous

chickens Turkeys & Geese

Other Livestock

Male 2 859 8 911 51 893 5 600 2 214 1 017 248 941 2 653 20 553

Female 599 520 14 989 982 1 527 41 808 48 452 400 2431

Total 3 458 9 431 66 882 6 582 3 741 42 824 297 393 3 053 22 984 Table 5.3c: Number of livestock in A1 Farms by Sex of Farm Owner, 2017 ALS

Livestock Sex of farm owner Donkeys Sheep Goats Pigs

Hybrid Broilers Layers

Indigenous Chickens Rabbits Turkeys

Male 56 002 32 575 423 985 17 666 73 235 2 335 1 541 842 22 807 84 563

Female 7 400 4 049 89 331 2 061 1 280 1 271 315 174 4 751 10 029

Total 63 402 36 624 513 316 19 727 74 515 3 605 1 857 016 27 558 94 592 Table 5.3d: Number of livestock in A2 Farms by Sex of Farm Owner, 2017 ALS

Sex of farm owner

Livestock

Donkeys Sheep Goats Pigs Indigenous

Chickens Rabbits

Male 5 356 55 156 129 467 9 221 319 203 16 887 Female 310 10 530 14 211 123 53 244 274

Total 5 666 65 687 143 678 9 344 372 447 17 161 Table 5.3e: Number of livestock in Communal farming areas by Sex of Head of Household, 2017 ALS

Livestock Sex of head of household Donkeys Sheep Goats Pigs

Hybrid Broilers

Indigenous Chickens Rabbits

Turkeys and Geese

Male 290 798 147 075 2 206 855 135 116 33 452 5 865 704 94 328 356 077 Female 158 465 70 031 1 463 585 32 394 93 165 3 700 385 75 343 176 480 Total 449 263 217 106 3 670 441 167 509 126 616 9 566 089 169 671 532 557

Table 5.3f: Number of livestock in Old Resettlement Farms by Sex of Head of Plot holder, 2017 ALS

Livestock Sex of plot holder Donkeys Sheep Goats Pigs Broilers

Indigenous chickens Rabbits

Turkeys and Geese

Male 19 771 13 383 212 681 19 502 26 054 938 343 15 590 59 646 Female 7 018 3 175 73 224 3 249 12 908 255 237 2 887 13 128

Total 26 789 16 558 285 905 22 752 38 962 1 193 580 18 477 72 774

Table 5.4: Percent Distribution of Employed Persons in the Agriculture Sector Aged 15 Years and Above

by Status in Employment and Sex, 2019 LFS

Status in Employment Women Men Total

Employers 34.1 65.9 100

Own account workers 49.2 50.8 100

Employees 38.2 61.8 100

Contributing family worker 80.6 19.4 100

Total 41.5 58.5 100

58 | P a g e

CHAPTER 6: Participation in Economic Activities

6.0 Introduction

According to UN (2015), women generally do as much work as men, but the types of work they do, as well as the conditions under which they work and their access to opportunities for advancement differ from those of men. Women work less than men in the labour market, but more within households on domestic activities. In the labour market, they are more likely to be unemployed, less likely to be employed as wage and salaried workers and are more likely to work as contributing family workers. The Beijing Platform for Action identifies women and the economy as a critical area of concern, and calls for attention to the need to promote and facilitate their equal access to employment and resources, improved employment conditions, as well as in the harmonisation of work and family responsibilities for women and men.20 This chapter discusses the characteristics of the employed and unemployed women and men. Particularly, the chapter covers women’s and men’s participation in the labour force, employment and unemployment, economic activities engaged in, sectors of employment, work related income and unpaid work. These characteristics are important for policy and programme formulation to achieve gender equality and equity.

6.1 Participation in Labour Force

The proportion of the working age population (15 years and above) that engages actively in the labour market, either by working or looking for work, is measured by the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR). The 2019 LFS revealed that 43 percent of the population aged 15 years and above was actively engaged in the labour market. Figure 6.1 shows women generally participate less than men in the labour market.

20 United Nations, 1995

59 | P a g e

Figure 6.1: Labour Force Participation Rate by Age Group and Sex, 2019 LFCLS.

6.2 Employment and Unemployment

Although women’s share in the labour force has increased over the years, the gap between the percentage of women in paid employment and that of men remains wide. Data from the 2019 LFCLS presented in Figure 6.2 shows that women were less likely to be in paid employment (57.4%) than men (64.8%). Women were more likely to be engaged as own account workers than men. It is important to note that close to one percent of the women were engaged as contributing family workers.

Figure 6.2: Distribution of Economically Active Population by Current Activity, 2019 LFCLS

14

.8

35

.6

45

.2

49

.1

51

.5 47

.4 46

42

.8

31

.5 22

.2

9.1

22

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57

.9

70

.4

74

.7 69

.3

68

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69

.2

71

.6

54

.9

43

.2

19

.3

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

15 - 19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 44 45 - 49 50 - 54 55 - 59 60 - 64 65+

LFP

R

Age Group

Women Men

3.2

38.8

57.4

0.65.6

32.3

64.8

0.30

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Employer Own Account Worker Employees Contributing FamiliyWorker

Per

cen

t

Status in Employment

Women Men

60 | P a g e

6.3 Occupational Segregation

Women and men tend to work in different occupations (horizontal segregation) and in different positions within the same occupational group (vertical segregation). The segregation of women and men in different occupations is usually associated with gender roles or stereotypes. The choices and opportunities available to women and men in terms of their education and training also results in gender based occupational segregation. Figure 6.3 shows the share of women in ten occupational groups according to the 2019 LFS. Women were least represented in occupations of armed forces, plant and machine operators and in crafts and related trades. Representation of women was highest among service and sales workers, professionals and clerical support workers.

Figure 6.3: Share of Women in the Ten Selected Occupational Categories, 2019 LFCLS

6.4 Industrial Sector

Table 6.1 presents information on the distribution of currently employed population aged 15 years and above by industrial sector and sex. Out of the 2.9 million employees in the country, slightly over 1 million were in the agriculture, forestry and fishing sector, with women contributing 42 percent of employees in this sector. Women were least represented in the electricity and transportation industries, about 8 percent each, and in the construction industry (9 percent). Women were mostly employed in domestic households than men and in the retail trade industry.

7.4

33.7

58.434.7

57.3 59 49.3

2311.9

42.9

0102030405060708090

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Per

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61 | P a g e

6.5. Work Related Income

Women are less likely to be employed than men and, when they are employed, they are more likely to be in vulnerable jobs, such as contributing family work or own account work. When compared to other jobs, these types of jobs are often associated with irregular income or no income at all, resulting in lower proportions of women having cash labour income. The 2019 LFCLS collected information on income received for work done in the main job among all the people who were in paid employment during the one month preceding the survey. Figure 6.4 shows that a higher proportion of women than men received low levels of income for work done. When the income level increases, men were likely to be the recipients than women. .

Figure 6.4: Percent Distribution of Income Received among Women and Men who were in Paid Employment, 2019 LFCLS

6.6 Share of Women in Wage Employment in the Non-Agriculture Sector

The 2019 LFCLS showed that women are mostly employed in the agriculture sector (34 percent) and in the sector itself, they constitute about 42 percent of the workforce. To this effect, it is imperative to analyse the share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector in relation to the total wage employment. The indicator shows the extent to which women have access to paid employment, which affects their integration into the monetary economy. It also indicates the degree to which labour markets are open to women in industry and services which affects not only equal employment opportunities for women but also economic efficiency through flexibility of the labour market and the economy’s capacity to adapt to change over time.

16

.8

52

.7

5.6 4.3

3.5 2.4

3.8

4.3 0

.9 1

3.5 1

.1

10

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47

9.5 6

.2

5.7 4

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2.9 0

.8

1.7

5.7 3

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0

10

20

30

40

50

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$1

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Per

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Income Received

Women Men

62 | P a g e

From Table 6.2, it can be observed that of the 2.9 million employees, 919 thousand were in paid employment in the non-agricultural sector of whom 43 percent were women.

6.7 Gender Pay Gap in the Agricultural Sector

Differences in pay for men and women arise from a variety of factors. They include individual characteristics of workers, such as their level of education and work experience, as well as factors connected to the job they perform such as occupation, type of contract, economic sector and size of the establishment in which they work. Gender inequalities in all these areas are associated with traditions and stereotypes influencing the choice of education, professions and career paths of women and men21. Data from the 2017 ALS shows that women generally earn less than men. Women working on a permanent basis in LSCF in 2015 were earning about 83 percent of what their male counterparts were earning. The situation worsened in 2017 where women earned about 78 percent of what men earned. See Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5: Gender Pay Gap in the Agricultural Sector, 2015 and 2017; 2017 ALS

21 Blau and Kahn, 2007

83.1

94.2

78.1

90.8

77.773.4

58.3

79.9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

LSCF SSCF A1 A2

Pay

Gap

-%

Agricultural Sector

2015 2017

63 | P a g e

6.9 Time Use in Economic Activities

Time spend in economic activities is a determinant of income received by an individual. Because of their gender roles in society, women usually spend less time in economic activities than males do. Data from the 2019 LFCLS showed that more women generally work less hours per week than men. About 53 percent women and 47 percent men worked for less than 20 hours in the reference week. As the number of hours increased, more men than women worked for longer hours. See Figure 6.6 below.

Figure 6.6: Currently Employed Persons by Actual Hours Worked in all Jobs, 2019 LFCLS

6.10 Reconciliation of Work and Family Life

Although data presented in previous sections has shown an overall increase in women’s participation in the labour force (see section on Participation in Labour Force), they continue to bear the majority of responsibilities at home and perform most unpaid work including taking care of children and other household members, cooking, cleaning and other household work. Although these unpaid activities are productive, they are not included within the System of National Accounts (SNA) boundary.

Figure 6.7 shows that women generally spend more time in unpaid activities than men. Women spend an average of 14 hours per week in unpaid caring for children under five years in own household compared to about 7 hours spend by men. Women spend an average of 12 hours per week preparing meals. This is more than twice the

52

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42

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32

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56

.0

58

.0

67

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0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Under 20 20 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 48 49+

Per

cen

t

Hours Worked per Week

Women Men

64 | P a g e

number of hours men spent on the same activity. Women also spent a substantially large amount of time cleaning the house or yard than their male counterparts.

Figure 6.7: Average Time Spend in Unpaid Activities (in hours per week) in Own Household by

Women and Men, 2019 LFCLS

12

.3

3.2

5.8

4.0

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65 | P a g e

Table 6.1: Percent Distribution of Currently Employed Population Aged 15 Years and Above

by Industrial Sector and Sex, 2019 LFCLS

Industry

Percent Total

Male Female Percent Number

Agriculture, forestry and fishing 58.5 41.5 100 1 041 507

Mining and quarrying 83.5 16.5 100 208 979

Manufacturing 70.5 29.5 100 217 977

Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply 92.4 7.6 100 7 520

Water supply; sewerage, waste management and remediation 76.4 23.6 100 13 868

Construction 91.0 9.0 100 104 145

Wholesale trade 68.2 31.8 100 9 942

Retail trade; sale and repair of motor vehicles and motor cycles 36.9 63.1 100 491 347

Transportation and storage 91.7 8.3 100 84 885

Accommodation and food service activities 38.5 61.5 100 40 154

Information and communication 73.7 26.3 100 12 680

Financial activities 60.1 39.9 100 11 249

Insurance activities 52.1 47.9 100 6 496

Real estate activities 71.4 28.6 100 1 807

Professional, scientific and technical activities 57.0 43.0 100 20 103

Administrative and support service activities 77.2 22.8 100 50 681

Public administration and defence; compulsory social security 60.6 39.4 100 69 633

Education 39.1 60.9 100 195 721

Human health and social work activities 37.8 62.2 100 57 475

Arts, entertainment and recreation 84.4 15.6 100 10 347

Other service activities 56.8 43.2 100 73 144

Activities of households as employers of domestic personnel 28.1 71.9 100 165 632

Activities of extraterritorial organizations and bodies 63.9 36.1 100 1 772

Total 56.6 43.4 100 2 897 064

66 | P a g e

Table 6.2: Percent Distribution of Share of Women in Wage (Paid) Employment in the Non-

Agriculture Sector by Industry, 2019 LFCLS

Percent Total

Industry Women Men Percent Number

Mining and quarrying 8.6 91.4 100 61 234

Manufacturing 14.8 85.2 100 72 715

Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply 8.6 91.4 100 6 628

Water supply; sewerage, waste management and remediation activities 30.1 69.9 100 8 410

Construction 11.8 88.2 100 48 959

Wholesale trade 28.7 71.3 100 6 324

Retail trade; sale and repair of motor vehicles and motor cycles 44.4 55.6 100 84 975

Transportation and storage 9.9 90.1 100 39 818

Accommodation and food service activities 55.9 44.1 100 28 451

Information and communication 28.2 71.8 100 8 138

Financial activities 35.7 64.3 100 8 044

Insurance activities 55.2 44.8 100 5 090

Real estate activities 63.4 36.6 100 815

Professional, scientific and technical activities 39.1 60.9 100 14 452

Administrative and support service activities 23.7 76.3 100 44 562

Public administration and defence; compulsory social security 39.6 60.4 100 69 171

Education 61.0 39.0 100 183 805

Human health and social work activities 62.8 37.2 100 53 088

Arts, entertainment and recreation 12.2 87.8 100 6 954

Other service activities 27.1 72.9 100 12 802 Activities of households as employers undifferentiated goods services- and producing activities of households for own use 71.5 28.5 100 152 899

Activities of extraterritorial organizations and bodies 36.1 63.9 100 1 772

Total 43.1 56.9 100 919 106

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CHAPTER 7: Power and Participation in Decision Making

7.0 Introduction

Women and Girls have a right to participate in civil society activities, vote in elections, be elected to government office, serve on boards, and make their voices heard in any process that will ultimately affect them, their families, and their communities. Investing in girls’ and women’s right to political participation is a necessary step to achieving global gender equality and democratic governance. Throughout the world, the power relations that shape social, political, economic and cultural life prevent women from participating fully in all areas of their lives, whether it’s in the home or in the public arena. While women’s dedicated efforts to challenge the status quo have allowed more women to reach positions of power in recent years, they continue to be under-represented in all areas of decision making such as religion, the media, culture, law and military services. Women also face significant barriers to their full and equal participation in the structures and institutions which govern their lives.

7.1 Women and Men in Politics and Public Sector

Equal participation of women and men in politics is central to more inclusive and democratic governance. Several human rights mechanisms, including the CEDAW, elaborate the nature of women’s civil and political rights and the steps required to promote equality between women and men. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 21(1) states that “everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives”. At national level, Section 17 of the Constitution in states that there must be full gender balance and the full participation of women in all spheres of Zimbabwean society on the basis of equality with men. It also specifically states that there shall be equal representation in all institutions and agencies of government at every level, including in any Commissions established under the Constitution. Women’s participation in political decision making as full and equal partners with men has not yet been achieved. Although women make up about half of the electorate, have attained the right to vote and hold office in almost all the countries of the world, they continue to be underrepresented as members of national parliaments22.

22 United Nations, 2010; Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2011.

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Table 7.1 shows that in 2019 there were low levels of representation of women in all the selected public offices. Women constituted about 44% of members of the Upper House of parliament and 32 percent in the Lower House. Table 7.2 shows the distribution of women and men occupying senior positions in the public sector for the period 2018-19. Again the data shows low representation of women at all levels.

7.3 Crime Prevention and the Judiciary

One of the key areas where women have been underrepresented over the years is the justice delivery system. In traditions and stereotypes that existed, women were regarded as not strong enough to protect and enforce law and order. Table 7.3 shows the distribution of the Prison Service Personnel in decision making positions by rank and sex between the years 2016 and 2019. It is important to note that across all ranks, women were outnumbered by men. Table 7.4 shows the distribution of personnel working in the Judicial Service Commission for the period 2016 to 2019. Women were highly represented in Labour Court.

7.4 Access to Mass Media

The media plays a key role in shaping public opinions and attitudes. The Beijing Platform for Action recognises the importance of the media in promoting the advancement of women. The media and journalists need to recognize that there are gender differentials in the pluralistic societies we live in. Media is vital in everyday life in that it is the means through which information, education and entertainment are conveyed. Knowledge of the type of media accessible to the population is important in planning for information programming. Data from the 2019 MICS on access to media shows that women generally have less access to media than men. See Figure 7.1.

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Figure 7.1: Exposure to Mass Media by Women and Men Aged 15-49 Years, 2019 MICS

7.5 Media Personnel

The media operates within social, economic and political contexts, reflecting commonly held perceptions whilst simultaneously affecting how people perceive issues. While the media has assisted in communicating information and ideas among communities, communication networks have over the years been used to spread stereotyped and demeaning images of women for narrow commercial and consumerist purposes23. The BPfA further acknowledges that until women participate equally with men in both the technical and decision making areas of the mass media, they will continue to be misrepresented and the awareness of the reality of women’s lives will continue to be lacking. Analysis of sex differentials of personnel in media assist in understanding the degree to which gender issues are taken to the public. Tables 7.5 and 7.6 present selected designations of personnel at the Zimbabwe Newspapers (Zimpapers) and the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Holdings (ZBH), respectively. At Zimpapers, women were underrepresented at all levels of decision making. Lack of women representation in vital positions in the media mean that women are not able to present, defend and mobilize support for issues that affect their lives. There was also less representation of women than men in the various positions at the ZBH.

23 Beijing Platform for Action

13.9

43.8

38

5.6

25.2

57.4

43.1

12.2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Reads a newspaper Listens to the radio Watches TV Accesses all 3 media

%

Women Men

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Table 7.1: Participation of Women and Men in Selected Public Decision Making Positions

Institution/Area 2019

% Share of Women Women Men Total

Parliament-Lower House 85 185 270 31.5 Parliament-Upper House 35 45 80 43.8 Cabinet Ministers 6 14 20 30 Provincial Ministers 5 5 10 50 Vice Chancellors of State Universities 0 11 11 0 Ambassadors 4 18 22 18.2

Source: Ministry of Women Affairs, Community, Small and Medium Enterprises, 2019 Table 7.2: Share of Women in the Top Positions in the Public Service, 2018 and 2019

Designation 2018 2019

Women Men Women Men

Permanent Secretaries 7 15 8 14

Chief Directors 13 42 14 43

Directors 72 190 79 188

Deputy Directors 151 442 174 429 Source: Ministry of Women Affairs, Community, Small and Medium Enterprises, 2019

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Table 7.3: Prison Services Personnel in the Decision Making Positions: Zimbabwe Prison and Correctional Service; 2016 to 2019

Designation 2016 2017 2018 2019

Female Male Total Female Male Total Female Male Total Female Male Total

Commissioner General - 1 1 - 1 1 - 1 1 - 1 1

Deputy Commissioner General 1 3 4 1 3 4 1 2 3 1 3 4

Commissioner 2 2 4 2 3 5 1 3 4 1 3 4

Senior Assistant Commissioner 4 8 12 7 16 23 6 16 22 6 13 19

Assistant Commissioner 4 23 27 10 24 34 9 21 30 9 19 28

Chief Superintendent 13 32 45 12 37 49 12 35 47 12 33 45

Superintendent 25 112 137 23 119 142 20 114 134 20 114 134

Chief Correctional Officer 59 234 293 68 149 217 67 242 309 68 235 303

Principal Correctional Officer 158 392 550 164 404 568 161 387 548 160 380 540

Assistant Principal Correctional Officer 461 1 387 1 848 433 1 289 1 722 431 1 268 1 699 437 1 290 1 727

Total 727 2 194 2 921 720 2 145 2 865 708 2 089 2 797 714 2 091 2 805 Source: Zimbabwe Prisons and Correctional Service, 2019

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Table 7.4: Distribution of Positions in the Judiciary by Sex, 2016-2019

Constitutional and Supreme Court

2016 2017 2018 2019

Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

Chief Justice - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1

Deputy Chief Justice - 1 - 1 1 - 1 -

Judges 5 5 6 4 6 6 5 6

High Court

2016 2017 2018 2019


Judge President - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1

Judges 13 18 13 16 14 21 14 21

Labour Court

2016 2017 2018 2019


Senior Judge 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - Judges 10 4 10 4 9 4 9 4

Chief Magistrate's Department

2016 2017 2018 2019


Magistrates 94 108 90 101 116 108 118 104 Source: Judicial Service Commission, 2019

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Table 7.5: Zimpapers Editorial Employees by Designation and Sex, 2016 to 2019

Designation 2016 2017 2018 2019


Group Editor- in-Chief - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1

Editor 1 11 1 11 2 9 2 8

Deputy Editor 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 4

Assistant Editor 1 1 1 3 1 5 0 4

Executive Editor 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1

News Editor 0 8 0 11 0 10 0 9

Deputy News Editor 1 4 1 4 1 3 0 3

Bureau Chief 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3

Leisure Editor 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Political Editor 1 1 1 2 0 2 0 1

Sports Editor 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3

Entertainment Editor 0 2 0 3 0 3 0 3

Business Editor 1 0 1 1 0 2 0 2

Deputy Business Editor 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

Deputy Sports Editor 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 1

Managing Editor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Features Editor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Gender Editor 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

Total 8 44 8 52 6 50 5 46

Source: Zimbabwe Newspapers (1980) Limited, 2019 Table 7.6: Zimbabwe Broadcasting Holdings Personnel by Selected Designations and Sex as at

31December 2018

Designation Female Male Total Chief Executive Officer - 1 1 Directors 1 3 4 Heads of Departments 1 4 5 Managers 4 14 18 Bureau Chief 2 4 6 Chief Correspondent 0 1 1 Chief Producer 1 2 3 Editor 1 4 5 Executive Producer 10 12 22 Producer/Presenter 37 41 78 Programme Compiler 0 2 2 Reporter 4 15 19 Researcher 1 0 1 Senior Cameraperson 1 6 7 Video Editor 1 1 2 Picture Editor 2 3 5 Total 66 113 179

Source: Zimbabwe Broadcasting Holdings, 2018

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CHAPTER 8: Gender Based Violence

8.0 Introduction

General Recommendation Number 19 of the CEDAW Committee defines gender based violence as “a form of discrimination that seriously inhibits women’s ability to enjoy rights and freedoms on a basis of equality with men”. The United Nations General Assembly defined violence against women as any act of “gender based violence that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of act such as coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life”. At a local level, the Constitution protects the right to life, human dignity and personal security and in case of the latter, specifically mentions in Section 52, that this right is protected against both private and public sources of violence. It also includes any violation of these rights even where these are sought to be justified on the basis of customs, traditions and other cultural practices. In addition legislation like the Domestic Violence Act [Chapter 5:16] deals extensively with gender based violence arising from the domestic sphere. The dimensions of violence include physical, sexual, psychological/emotional and economic violence occurring in the family and community, including violence condoned by the community. This chapter looks at types of violence experienced in the day to day living which include violence against children, sexual abuse and harassment, rape and domestic violence.

8.1 Violence Against Children

It is probable that the greater proportion of abuse cases go unreported as most victims choose not to do so for fear of victimisation among other reasons. Cases of child abuse in particular usually go unreported as parents and children themselves would want to protect the offenders since some of the perpetrators are their parents, close relatives or family friends. Figure 8.1 shows the number of child abuse cases reported through ChildLine Zimbabwe during the period 2016 to 2018. It is important to highlight that data on violence against children presented here does not show the overall picture of the situation on the country as it pertains to information collected by only one institution (ChildLine Zimbabwe). However such information helps in understanding the uptake and usage of services by survivors of violence who might be in need of help. The highest number of calls made over the years were relating to sexual abuse of children. It is important to note that there has been a general increase in the number of reported cases for the different forms of abuse throughout the period.

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Figure 8.1: Cases of Abuse Reported through ChildLine Zimbabwe 2016 to 2018, ChildLine

Zimbabwe 2019

Information on reported cases of child abuse shown in Table 8.1 suggests that females are disproportionately affected by violence compared to males. In 2018, 4 240 cases of sexual abuse on females were reported against 236 cases reported for males. The trend is the same for all the forms of abuse across the three years.

8.2 Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is widely acknowledged as a social ill, not just from a human rights perspective but also from an economic and health perspective. The Domestic Violence Act of 2006 was enacted “to make provision for the protection and relief of victims of domestic violence” (Domestic Violence Act [Chapter 5:16] Act 14/2006). Domestic violence includes physical, sexual, emotional, psychological, or economic abuse committed by a person against a spouse, child, or any other person who is a member of a household, dependent, or parent of a child of that household. Data from the Police Victim Friendly Unit shows that cases of domestic violence have been on an increase between 2012 and 2019 before dropping in 2019. See Figure 8.2.

3 3

53

1 7

80

1 5

91

1 7

77

66

3

44

3 9

02

2 2

09 1 7

53

2 1

48

80

7

55

4 4

76

2 5

58

3 4

28

2 1

51

68

0

67 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

4 000

4 500

5 000

Sexual Abuses Physical Abuse EmotionalAbuse

Neglect Child Marriage ChildProstitution

No

. of

case

s

2 016 2 017 2 018

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Figure 8.2: Number of Domestic Violence Cases Reported to the Police Victim Friendly Unit, 2013

to 2019; Police General Headquarters, Statistics Unit, 201924

8.5 Women’s Experience of Physical and Sexual Violence

Data from the previous rounds of ZDHS and MICS show that incidences of physical and sexual violence among women aged 15-49 years are generally on the decrease. In 2011 about 18 percent of women experienced physical violence in the 12 months preceding the survey compared to about 6 percent in 2019. See Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3: Distribution of Women Aged 15-49 Years who Experienced Physical Violence or Sexual

Violence in the Last 12 Months, 2010/11 ZDHS and 2015 ZDHS and 2019 MICS

24 2016 Figures not available

13 134 13 463

15 315

20 191 21 435

18 021

5 000

10 000

15 000

20 000

25 000

2013 2014 2015 2017 2018 2019

Nu

mb

er o

f C

ases

Year

18.4

14.5

5.5

8

5

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

2010/11 2015 2019

%

Exeperienced Physical Violence in the last 12 months

Experience of Sexual Violence in the last 12 months

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Table 8.1: Percentage Distribution of Counts of Abuse Reported to ChildLine Zimbabwe by Year

and Sex of Victim

Type of Abuse

2016 2017 2018

Males Females Males Females Males Females

Sexual Abuses 225 3 128 271 3 631 236 4 240

Physical Abuse 745 1 035 921 1 288 1 026 1 532

Emotional Abuse 251 1 340 299 1 454 875 2 553

Neglect 894 883 1 073 1 075 1 001 1 150

Child Marriage 17 646 21 786 16 664

Child Prostitution 1 43 1 54 11 56

Total 2 133 7 075 2 586 8 288 3 165 10 195 Source: ChildLine, Zimbabwe 2019

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Appendix A: Questionnaire for Collecting SDGs 5.a.1 and 1.4.2

AGRICULTURAL POPULATION AP AP1. Did this household operate any land for agricultural purposes in the last 12 months?

YES, ...................................................................................... 1

NO.......................................................................................... 2

2AP3

AP2. Was farming performed as..?

A. FOR USE/CONSUMPTION BY THE HOUSEHOLD

B. FOR PROFIT/TRADE

C. WAGE WORK FOR OTHERS

Circle all that apply

FOR USE/CONSUMPTION BY THE HOUSEHOLDA

FOR PROFIT/TRADE .................................................... B

WAGE WORK FOR OTHERS ....................................... C

AP3. Did this household raise or tend any livestock (e.g. cattle, goats, etc.) in the last 12 months?

YES, ...................................................................................... 1

NO.......................................................................................... 2

2NEXT

MODULE

AP4.Was raising/tending livestock performed as…?

A. FOR USE/CONSUMPTION BY THE HOUSEHOLD

B. FOR PROFIT/TRADE

C. WAGE WORK FOR OTHERS

Circle all that apply

FOR USE/CONSUMPTION BY THE HOUSEHOLDA

FOR PROFIT/TRADE .................................................... B

WAGE WORK FOR OTHERS ....................................... C

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LAND OWNERSHIP LW

LINE NUMBER

LW0. Do you use, own, or hold use rights for any parcel of land, either alone or jointly with someone else, irrespective of whether the parcel is used by your or another household, and irrespective of the use of the parcel (including dwelling plot, agricultural, pastoral, forest and business/commercial plots)?

LW2. Do you currently use, own, or hold use rights for any agricultural land (including pastoral land), either alone or jointly with someone else? YES………….1 NO........2 >> LW8

LW3. Is there a document for any agricultural land you own or hold use rights to that is issued by Ministry of Local Gvt, Public works and National Housing, Local Authorities (Urban or Rural) or private individual/ Organisation, such as: - Title deed, certificate of ownership, acquisition, lease or rental contract. YES...1 NO....2 >>LW5 DK……8

LW4. What type of documents are there for the agricultural land you own or hold use rights to, and is your name listed on any of the documents as owner or right use holder? RECORD UP TO THREE DOCUMENTS

LW5. Do you have the right to sell any of the agricultural land you own or hold use rights to, either alone or jointly with someone else? YES................1 NO.................2 DONT'KNOW……………………..98 REFUSAL…....99

LW6. Do you have the right to bequeath any of the agricultural land you own or hold use rights to, either alone or jointly with someone else? YES.........1 NO..........2 DONT'KNOW..98 REFUSAL....99

LW7. On a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 is not at all likely and 5 is extremely likely, how likely are you to involuntarily lose ownership or use rights to any of the agricultural land you own or hold use rights to in the next 5 years? NOT AT ALL LIKELY…………………...1 SLIGHTLY LIKELY……………............2 MODERATELY LIKELY………………..3 VERY LIKELY……………………...........4 EXTREMELY LIKELY……………..…….5 DK……………………………………………..8

Name Age DOC 1 DOC 2 DOC 3 DOC

TYPE NAME LISTED

DOC TYPE

NAME LISTED

DOC TYPE

NAME LISTED

1 2 1 2 8 1 2 98 99 1 2 98 99 1 2 3 4 5 8

CODES FOR DOCUMENT TYPE: TITLE DEED.................1 LEASE WITH AN OPTION TO PURCHASE.............2 A1 OFFER LETTER............3 A1 SETTLEMENT LETTER.......4 99 YEAR LEASE..............5 SURVEY PLAN................6 SETTELMENT PERMIT..........7 A2 OFFER LETTER…………………………..8 OTHER (SPECIFY)............96

CODES FOR NAME

LISTED? YES.........1 NO..........2

N/A…………………….3 DONT'KNOW...98 REFUSAL....99

YES...1 NO....2 >> END OF QUESTIONS

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LINE NUMBER

LAND OWNERSHIP LW

LW8. Do you currently use, own, or hold use rights for any non-agricultural land, such as land used for residential or commercial purposes, either alone or jointly with someone else YES……….1 NO..............2 >>END

LW9. Is there a document for any non-agricultural land you own or hold use rights to that is issued by Ministry of Local GVT, Public works and National Housing, Local Authorities (Urban or Rural) or private individual/ Organisation, such as: Title deed, certificate of ownership, certificate of hereditary acquisition, lease or rental contract? YES...1 NO....2 >>LW11

LW10. What type of documents are there for the non-agricultural land you own or hold use rights to, and is your name listed on any of the documents as owner or right use holder? RECORD UP TO THREE DOCUMENTS

LW11. Do you have the right to sell any of the non-agricultural land you own or hold use rights to, either alone or jointly with someone else? YES................1 NO.................2 DONT' KNOW………..98 REFUSAL……..99

LW12 Do you have the right to bequeath any of the non-agricultural land you own or hold use rights to, either alone or jointly with someone else? YES.........1 NO..........2 DONT'KNOW...98 REFUSAL....99

LW13. On a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 is not at all likely and 5 is extremely likely, how likely are you to involuntarily lose ownership or use rights to any of the non-agricultural land you own or hold use rights to in the next 5 years? NOT AT ALL LIKELY…………………...1 SLIGHTLY LIKELY……………............2 MODERATELY LIKELY………………..3 VERY LIKELY……………………...........4 EXTREMELY LIKELY……………..…….5 DK……………………………………………..8

Name Age DOC 1 DOC 2 DOC 3 DOC

TYPE NAME LISTED?

DOC TYPE

NAME LISTED?

DOC TYPE

NAME LISTED?

1 2 1 2 1 2 98 99 1 2 98 99 1 2 3 4 5

CODES FOR DOCUMENT TYPE: TITLE DEED.................1 LEASE WITH AN OPTION TO PURCHASE.............2 OTHER (SPECIFY)...........96

CODES FOR NAME

LISTED? YES.........1 NO..........2

N/A…………………..3 DONT'KNOW...98 REFUSAL....99

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REFERENCES Alkema, Leontine and others, 2014. National, regional, and global sex ratios of infant, child and under-5 mortality and identification of countries with outlying ratios: a systematic assessment. The Lancet Barbieri, Magali and Hertrich, 2005. Age difference between spouses and contraceptive practice in Sub-Saharan Africa, Population-E, col.60 no.5/6 Blau, F., and L.M. Kahn, 2007. The Gender Pay Gap: Have women gone as far as they can. Academy of Management Perspectives, vol. 21, no 1, pp. 723 Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, Annual Statistical Report, 2018 Thevenon, O. et al., 2012. Effects of Reducing Gender Gaps in Education and Labour Force Participation on Economic Growth in the OECD. OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 138, OECD Publishing. UNESCO, 2007. EFA Global Monitoring Report 2008- Education for All by 2015- Will we make it? Paris: France United Nations, 2015. The World’s Women 2015: Trends and Statistics. New York; United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division. United Nations General Assembly, 1993. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women. Resolution 48/104 (December) Weeks J.R, Population: An Introduction to concepts and Issues. Tenth Edition Zimbabwe Ministry of Health and Child Care, National Health Profile 2018 Report, Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT), Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey, 2015 Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT), Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, 2014 Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT), Labour force and Survey, 2019 Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT), Quarterly Digest of Statistics, 4th Quarter, 2019

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Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT), Population Census- Mortality Thematic Report, 2015 Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT), Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, 2019

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Understanding Gender Equality in Zimbabwe

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