Final part of the French Revolution- resolved to settle future of Europe. Principal goal was to restore power to kings/monarchies- and to redraw the rest of Europe. France was not to be punished- because they wanted her on board

Legitimacy, compensation and balance of power

Austria: Prince Clemens von Metternich

France: Charles Talleyrand

England: Robert Castlereagh

Russia: Tsar Alexander I

Prussia: King Frederick William III

Suggestion of Alex I- required rulers to run their gov’t according to Christian principles. Russia, Austria, Prussia joined. Not taken very seriously (except by Tsar)

4 Victorious Powers- Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia. This one actually holds together- agreed to meet periodically and discuss outstanding problems

Becomes….

Goal is to keep the status quo. Meets 1815-1850s (until Crimean War)

In favor of collective security- what is best for the group- requires unanimity to act.

England withdraws 1822- makes them fairly ineffective

Often criticized for ignoring liberal and nationalist voices- underestimated their power/influence after the French Revolution. (lower classes aren’t just going to take it anymore)

But it DID create stability- and kept it for 50 years. No large scale wars until 1914

Tended to be repressive in an attempt to restore the status quo- not afraid to play on concerns about violence to keep bourgeoisie in line (saw them as the swing group)

“Reflections on the Revolution in France”- an intellectual defense of Conservatism. Advised the English to move slowly in expanding political liberty. Denounced using qualities of “right and wrong” to define politics.

Reformist- not revolutionary. Individuals have the right to seek liberty in the face of tyranny.

Natural rights (Locke) best protected by a constitution (Montesquieu) Advocated constitutional monarchy and republicanism

Backbone of the liberal group- middle class businessmen and professionals- wanted their voice in gov’t, property rights and protection of free trade. (econ freedom #1 priority)

“On Liberty” argued that absolute freedom of opinion needed to be protected from gov’t censorship and tyranny of the majority

Came primarily from students/working class. Considered equality even more important than liberty- also advocated wider voting rights (universal manhood suffrage) Term came from Eng. “Philosophical Radicals” who wanted total reconstruction of gov’t and promoted social change

Iron Law of Wages: the Fact that there are always large numbers of unskilled laborers means that they will always be paid poorly- there are too many of them to be truly valuable

Iron Law of Population: Too many people causes famine- there are only so many resources to go around. Advocated occasional war and strict birth control

1st appeared in France during the reign of terror. Intelligensia, working class leaders. Often advocated revolution to achieve goals. Opposed to monarchy of any kind (even constitutional) Lots of secret societies, plots etc…

Some radicals pointed to private property as the source of society’s problems- wanted to get gov’t to create equality. Said capitalist econ is unjust- because profits of labor don’t go TO labor. Favored communal ownership of banks, factories, transportation etc…

French revolution had wanted greater equality planned by the government.

Count Henri St. Simon- said “parasites” of aristocracy should give way to “doers”

Louis Blanc- gov’t should own factories and guarantee full employment

Charles Fourier- Utopian (like Robert Owen

Jeremy Bentham: said the test of any law or institution should be based on the “greatest happiness for the greatest number”

Advocated for social relief

Dictatorship of the Proletariat. Those who own the factors of production control the economy.

Class Struggle: rich/poor, exploiters/exploited.

Surplus Value: the value of a product comes from the labor it took to make it- workers are cheated b/c the profit goes to others.

Socialism is inevitable, capitalism has sown the seeds of its own destruction

Came from both liberals and radicals-1st talked about during French Revolution, esp during the age of Napoleon.

Turn cultural unity into self gov’t- people with a common language, history, traditions- because only that gov’t would have the interest of the people at heart

Right of each culture to est. their own gov’t.

Particularly important in multi-ethnic empires in Eastern Europe

Many movements come from this- Greece, Italy, Germany, Hungary, Bohemia etc…

Said cultural groups are unique, evolving over centuries (Volksgeist) One culture is not necessarily superior to others- but all deserve respect. “nations should be people of same nationality”

Naples: Carbonari- liberal/nationalist group protesting rule by Austria

Greece: The “Eastern Question” what would happen to cultures in fading Ottoman Empire- especially those in the Balkans?

Romanticism was inspired by nature, emotion and imagination. Inspired by folktales and the “idealized” medieval world (chivalry)

Classicism came from Enlightenment- it’s about reason, symmetry and space- inspired by ancient Greece and Rome

Loved tragic figures, misunderstood by society, who had been brought down despite their inherent goodness.

Johann Von Goethe- “Sorrows of the Young Werther”

Bronte- “Wuthering Heights”

Victor Hugo- “Hunchback of Notre Dame”

Said the senses (not the head- reason) Encouraged personal freedom and flexibility. Created humanitarian movements to fight social injustice

Emphasized rebellion against middle class conventions. Express your “inner” self by being unusual or even bizarre.

Loved idealized Medieval history (honor, faith, chivalry) Created “modern” versions of ancient tales

Sir Walter Scott- Ivanhoe, King Arthur

Br. Grimm and Hans Christian Anderson- folktales- Nationalism and romanticism brought together

Enjoyed things that were bizarre and horrifying- “Gothic” literature

Edgar Allen Poe Mary Shelly-

Frankenstein Bram Stoker- Dracula Led to experiments

with “alternate realities” through drinking and drugs (opium/heroin)

Rousseau loved the ideal of the “noble savage”- said society corrupted humanity- we need to get back to nature.

Sturm and Drang- (storm and stress) German poets of 1770s-80s

Favorite literary form of period- allowed you to “express your soul”. Wanted to live Passionate, unorthodox lives away from cities and industrialization

Famous Poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge William Blake William Wordsworth Percy Bysshe Shelley Lord Byron

Influenced by the spirit of the early French Revolution-Revolt of humans against a society that oppressed them

Defied classical “rules” of poetry in favor of flowery language and imagery. Nature another inspiration- wild and free, used simple subjects in a majestic way.

Byron the embodiment of the romantic poet- “Mad, Bad and Dangerous to know” died fighting for Greek liberty (a popular Romantic cause)

George Sand- (female- pen name) wrote about romantic love and moral idealism in pastoral novels which feature strong female characters

Johan Von Goethe- Faust- sells his soul to devil for knowledge of all humanity- only to discover the grace of God is greatest knowledge of all

Victor Hugo- Les Miserables- the French underclass AFTER the revolution

18th century had been the age of “classical” music (Mozart, Hayden, Bach) the 19th century strongly influenced by romanticism- wanted to create works of passion, and nationalistic heritage

Beethoven the bridge between the two (lived 1770-1826)

Beethoven’s music was the first to convey inner emotion- fear, terror, utter joy (Ode to Joy)

Unlike earlier artists- he was not constrained by patronage- romantics unleashed artistic expression

Franz Schubert- (Romance of the Forest, Ave Maria)

Hector Berlioz (Symphanie Fantastique)

Frederic Chopin (polish Folk songs)

Giuseppe Verdi (Italian Opera, Rigoletto, La Traviatta)

Richard Wagner (German Opera- Meistersinger, Tristan and Isolde)

Peter Tchaikovsky- (Russian Ballets – the Nutcracker, Swan Lake)

Loved landscapes (reaction to industrialization) especially sort of wild, twisted etc…

Caspar David Freidrich- mountains and seas with solitary/melancholy figures.

Eugene Delacroix- emotion through movement of shadows and color

J.m.w. Turner and John Constable also famous for landscapes

Pre-Raphaelites: illustrations of romantic tales.

Spires, spikes, steeples, and idealized version of medieval architecture (with no defensive capacity) sometimes known as Victorian Gothic.

Houses of Parliament most famous example

Conservatives saw it as a rejection of the enlightenment (which they approved of b/c they blamed enlightenment for revolution)- but liked attachment to middle ages

Radicals loved the unconventional impulses and refusal to conform to society’s expectations

Advocate of radical Change and passionate supporter of republicanism .

All his works deal with outcasts- those rejected by society for issues they cannot control

Rebelled against enlightenment rationalism. Urged Germans to study their literature and history- believed it was the key to uniting the German people- create passionate nationalism “Volksgeist”

Pillars of ConservatismThe Big Three

Absolutist states- fully freaked out by the French Revolution and Napoleon.

Reacted by centralizing political power, building armies, stamping out protest, looking for total control

Russia

Still feudal- and plans on staying that way (until Crimean War – which shows them how far behind they really are)

Alexander I

Fought Napoleon, created the holy alliance.

Favored Enlightened Despotism before 1815- then became increasingly reactionary. Cracked down on student groups and secret societies with extreme violence

Decembrist Uprising 1825

Alexander I died in 1825- his younger brother (Nicholas I) unpopular. (they wanted Constantine, who had pledged reform, but then decided to become a monk.) Led by junior military officers- looking for reform but 1st to have wide scale support. Leaders exiled and/or executed.

Nicholas I

Europe’s most Reactionary monarch. Responded to uprising with repression, crackdown, and ignoring radical (and more moderate liberal) demands.

Newspapers and schools censored, Secret police expanded

Tried to keep western ideas out- but territorial expansion was bringing Russia into ever greater international contact

Slavophiles/westernizers

Competition between two groups about which way Russia should go

Slavophiles: thought Russian culture was superior- should be preserved and protected

Westernizers: Wanted to bring in more western ideas- modernize and create a constitution

Austria

Multi-ethnic empire (Germans, Czechs, Hungarians, Slovaks, Poles, Italians)

Most affected by rising nationalist tide- and gov’t feared recognizing ANY group would spell end of empire. (Generally successful until 1840s)

Also against creation of a “German State” feared they would lose German pop.

German Confederation (Bund)

Purpose was to guarantee individual member states would take joint action to prevent disorder in German states (which is a new entity) Led- and controlled by Austria- their preemptive strike against growing Prussian dominance of German affairs

Carlsbad Decrees

Big source of Nationalism were student groups and secret societies. Metternich had them Banned (only makes them more radical)

Competing with Austria for leadership of the German States. Frederick William III promised a German constitution- but created a Council of State (which had strong administrative efficiency, but did not limit the king) Advisory councils open to Junkers only

Ruled by Hohenzolleren dynasty

Aggressive expansion

After 1815 liberals had hoped Prussia would lead them to unity- and were disappointed in strong conservatism displayed

The most liberal policy in Prussia, designed to spur econ growth. Lowered/eliminated tariffs between the various German states to give them access to raw materials and markets. By 1833 most (other than Austria) had joined. Prussia is economically liberal, NOT politically

Parliament shares power with the king. Both Houses (lords and commons) dominated by major landowners.

Tories: conservatives, aristocrats. Had defeated Napoleon (Nelson and Wellington), repealed habeus corpus, wanted to keep press censored and outlaw mass meetings

Whigs: More liberal, industrial middle class. Unhappy, but needed to come together to be more effective- hesitant to “join hands” with the lower classes

1815 Halted import of foreign grain (which was cheaper) to protect landowners. Really benefitted those already wealthy at expense of lower classes

HUGELY unpopular

Louis XVIII (younger bro of XVI) restored to the throne. France was still the most liberal state in Europe- king accepted Napoleonic Code, recognized property rights of people who had bought property during the revolution.

Died 1824 (childless)

Charter of 1814: Presented as a “gift” from the king (NOT a right) Created a legislature, which could be overruled by the king, allowed freedom of press and assembly, at will of the king

Youngest Brother. Ultraroyalist. Wanted to restore the ancien regime as completely as possible. 1829 cancelled charter and dismissed legislature for disagreeing with him- leading to another round of revolution in France

Bourbon Ferdinand VII restored to the throne after Napoleon’s defeat. Conservative (2 state controlled newspapers, no foreign papers or books allowed) Middle class liberals created secret societies (copying France)

1823 military officers attempt a coup- rebellion crushed by French Army (100,000 sons of St. Louis) Supported by Austria, Russia, and Prussia

1820. Naples was unhappy about Austrian rule. Carbonari (another secret society- “Charcol Burners”) and army began to demand a constitution. Rebellion spread to Piedmont Sardinia. Austria steps in to supress. (again with support of others)

Italian Nationalism awakened by Napoleon and Congress of Vienna- this is when they start to unify

Had been part of Ottoman empire since 15th century- but had maintained their own cultural identity. More secret societies. Revolted in 1821, led by Alexander Ypsilanti (Greek patriot and general in Russian Army) Russia supported revolt- Austrian opposed (bad precedent)

Greek situation popular with Europeans- saw them as fighting oppression. 1827 Eng, Fr, Rus sent troops- which forced Ottomans to give in. (Battle of Navarino)

The “Eastern Question” Ottoman empire clearly declining- who will step into the vacuum being created in the region. Austria and Russia both want to expand into Balkans- Nationalists want to see independent countries.

Greece recognized as independent 1830

On the upswing Withdraw from Concert

of Europe in 1822, don’t like conservative nature, shows they are open to change.

1828 lifted newspaper censorship

1830 abolished slavery in British colonies

But most gov’t policies still geared towards what was good for wealthy.

Began with reform in criminal and religious codes. Whigs developing support in middle class. Earl Grey (yes, like the tea) 1st Whig Prime Minister in 1830.

Anglicans had been given preferential treatment in gov’t since 1600s.

Catholic Emancipation Act 1829 - gave full rights to RC

1819 there was an anti-corn law demonstration in St. Peter’s field in Manchester. Gov’t called in troops to disperse (Cavalry Charge)- wounded 100s- killed several (inc. women and children)

Parliament created new laws to restrict public meetings

Fundamental Change to electoral system. Increased suffrage by 800k (still had to own property) Redistribute seats in parliament to reflect population shifts to growing industrial areas.

Suffrage increased from 6%-12%. Eliminate “Rotten Bouroughs” House of Commons more powerful than House of Lords.

1830s-40s saw increase in organized protest against corn laws. Parades, pamphlets, speeches.

Not revolutionary- more respectable. Led by Richard Cobden and John Bright. Irish potato famine made situation even more severe.

Corn Laws repealed in 1846 (by Robert Peel)

Factory Act 1833- no child labor under age 9

Mines Act 1842: No children under 14 in mines

10 hour act 1843: 10 hour days for women and children

Eliminated imprisonment for debt

Created “workhouses” institutions for support of destitute. Disease and crime ridden.

Nationalistic and liberal in Nature- fighting perceived conservative oppression

Liberal Revolution Charles X was

Ultraroyalist- actively trying to restore absolutism.

Repudiated Charter of 1814- censored press.

July 26th spontaneous uprisings began in streets of Paris- gov’t collapsed- Charles forced into exile

Once again – issues in France will inspire liberals, radicals, and nationalists in other countries. “When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold”.

Not looking to go radical- wanted to reaffirm a constitutional monarchy

Duc d’Orleans (cousin of king- Cadet branch of Bourbon family) “elected” king by legislature. He re-established the charter of 1814, made the tri-color the official flag of France.

Dressed like an “ordinary man”(hats and suits, not crowns and robes)- careful not to appear overly aristocratic

Increased suffrage by about 100,000 people (still only those with $$) but a sign that the upper bourgeoisie is in control of France, rather than old conservative order, pre-1789 is never coming back

Nationalist Austrian Netherlands had been merged

with Holland in 1815 to create a stronger border state against France.- but the people were too different (agri/industry, Protestant/Catholic etc..) Inspired by the the French in 1830- the “Belgians” rose in Brussels and demanded independence. King William of Holland tried to get help from great powers to put down rebellion- but no one really cares- Belgium officially recognized as a constitutional monarchy under Leopold Saxe-Coburg (uncle of Queen Victoria).

Nationalist One reason Austria

didn’t want to get involved in Belgium was that they had their own problems- Northern Italy was full of Anti-Austrian uprisings.

French refused to give Austria assistance- hoped Austria would flounder and they could step in.

Parma, Modena, Papal states all calling for Austria to leave. Asked French for help- but they aren’t willing to go that far (balance of power, don’t want to tick Austria off) Austria takes them out one at a time- not very difficult, but a pain, and costs resources.

Passionate revolutionary – organized “young Italy” movement (secret society) dreamed of uniting Italy and restoring her glory.

“Resurgence” of Italian spirit- his dream to make Italy a great power again.

Nationalistic Revolted against

Russia in 1830. Began in Warsaw with student groups- then spread to aristocrats (resented foreign intrusion) Russia crushed (with full support of other great powers) Tsar Nicholas I abolished Polish constitution- 1000s executed/killed

Organic Statute of 1832 declared Poland to be “and indivisible and insoluable” part of the Russian Empire

Revolutions of 1848: the “Springtime of the Peoples”

Even more widespread than 1830. Both Liberal (want a larger voice in gov’t) and Nationalist (anger with multi-ethnic empires)

Watershed event of 1800s- every country (except Eng. And Russia) have one- and they are all failures, can’t agree on goals

France 1848

Liberal (again). Economic downturn started in 1846- people blamed gov’t, working and lower middle classes convinced Louis Philippe not liberal enough- they wanted expansion of suffrage.

February Revolution: Radical Republicans (led by Louis Blanc) overthrow the king and declare France’s Second Republic. Reforms: Abolish death penalty for political crimes, supported universal suffrage. Created National Workshops to guarantee full employment.

Radicals popular with people- but a more moderate National assembly elected in April.

June Days June 23rd- gov’t (which is

more liberal than radical at this point) decided workshops are too expensive- closes them down.

Leads to an uprising in Paris- army called out to crush them. 10,000 killed- 12,000 arrested

Like the terror- seems no one has full control

Tensions in desires for change between liberals and radicals- so they can’t keep a plan going, leads to a conservative backlash.

December- Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew) elected president- will lead to conservative dictatorship and 2nd empire

Prussia

Liberal and Nationalist Liberals want a constitutional monarchy with guaranteed rights for citizens- Nationalists want to unite

Germany. Major demonstrations in 1848 (not outright

violence) King Frederick William IV agrees to begin to work for a united Germany

Frankfurt Assembly

800 delegates come together to discuss writing a constitution. No political experience- and no mandate (cannot force king/princes to agree to what they decide)

Disagreement between middle and working classes caused tension- Fred. William decided to bail

King offended by the idea of a constitution that limited his power- declined based on divine right. Said German people could not “create” a country- and if they tried, he would not accept a “crown from the gutter”.

Humiliation of Olmutz

A German Confederation already exists- the Bund- but it’s led by Austria, which Prussia has never liked.

After Frankfurt assembly- Austria sends Prussia a message demanding they stop trying to unify German states- which they find offensive- and they quit the Bund.

.

Prussia and Austria are becoming enemies

Austria

Nationalist Vulnerable, declining

empire. Germans only 25% of population- but had total control of gov’t and “official” culture. Austrian gov’t absolutist and reactionary- there is no room for calm dissent.

Hungary

Nationalist movement led by Louis Kossuth- demand creation of an Austrian “commonwealth”- where various nationalities will have their own legislatures, but will remain part of the empire. (not all that radical)

Emperor Ferdinand I promised Hugary a legislature (to begin in 1866) their own army, and some autonomy over foreign policy

But then

Bohemia Czech nationalists demand

same deal- and protest violently when it doesn’t come immediately- and then Slavs further east Start up as well. But then Germans demanded protection of their special status.

The gov’t sense division among nationalities- and moved in to strike. Smashed rebellions- although damage will cause emperor Ferdinand to abdicate in favor of his nephew Franz Joseph. No lasting reforms

Prague Conference: Austroslavism- autonomy within empire.

Italy Also rising against Austria

as attempts for unification continue. Sardinia is becoming “leader” of movement- but as yet most cannot agree on what “Italy” should look like. Papal states a particular problem.

Fresh off issues in east- Austria not in the mood to play games- smacked down.

Lack of unity undermined rebellion- afraid of being too radical- lack of leadership and administrative ability

King of Sardinia forced to abdicate as punishment- but really brought other parts of Italy on to Sardinia’s side- made them the leaders of unification movement.

Evaluation of 1848

Liberals and Nationalists made some gains, and gain exposure- but were not successful. Movements were spontaneous (shows anger just under the surface) and not well planned- mostly among urban population.

Closed era of popular revolution which had begun in 1789