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Advanced Placement Human Geography UNIT 4: POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF SPACE Session 1
Advanced
Placement
Human
Geography
UNIT 4:POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
OF SPACE
Session 1
Political geography is the study of the political
organization of the planet, a constantly changing
collage of countries that once were kingdoms or
parts of empires, or perhaps scatterings of
independent tribes.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
One thing to remember:
Almost from the beginning of history, humans have
divided their living space into political units or territories.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
TERRITORIAL DIMENSIONS
OF POLITICS
Political Map of the World
The emphasis of the map
below is on the political
organization of the world’s
countries.
The modern state system reflected on the
world map is the product of a political-
territory order with European roots.
At the core of the system are the concepts of:
territoriality
sovereignty
the “nation-state”
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE
WORLD MAP
What EXACTLY is politics?
Politics is basically all about
power.
Who has the power to
make decisions?
How did they get the
power?
What challenges do
leaders face from others?
THE CONCEPT OF TERRITORIALITY
What interests geographers?
Geographers are interested in the politics of place—how
land space is organized according to who asserts
power over what areas.
THE CONCEPT OF TERRITORIALITY
What is territoriality?
It involves efforts to control pieces of the earth’ssurface for political and social ends.
The rules of territoriality reflect attitudes towardland and territory as defined by the politicalculture of a place.
THE CONCEPT OF TERRITORIALITY
Political culture is the
collection of political
beliefs, values, practices
and institutions that
serves as the basis of
government.
THE CONCEPT OF TERRITORIALITY
Boundaries are invisible
lines that mark the extent
of a state’s territory and
the control that its
leaders have.
THE NATURE AND MEANING OF
BOUNDARIES
What determines the location of
boundaries?
Physical features
Rivers
Shores
Mountains
Negotiations or war with neighboring regions
or countries
THE NATURE AND MEANING OF
BOUNDARIES
Boundaries completely
surround an individual
state to mark its outer
limits, giving it a
distinctive shape.
THE NATURE AND MEANING OF
BOUNDARIES
Because boundary lines
mark the place where two
or more states come into
direct contact, they have
the potential to create
conflict among them.
THE NATURE AND MEANING OF
BOUNDARIES
Frontiers
Historically, frontiers rather
than boundaries separated
states.
A frontier is a geographic
zone where no state
exercises power.
A boundary is a thin,
imaginary line.
AB
OU
T F
RO
NT
IER
S…
Example of Frontiers France and England fought over
frontier areas in North America
during the French and Indian War.
Frontier land has all but
disappeared from earth. Only
Antarctica and the Arabian
Peninsula have significant neutral
zone areas.
AB
OU
T F
RO
NT
IER
S…
Physical Boundaries
Physical features are easy to
see so they often make good
boundaries.
However, they are not always
permanent or reliable.
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Example of Physical
Boundary
Mountains
limit contact between people living
on opposite sides
usually have sparse populations
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Example of Physical Boundary
Deserts
Generally prove to be reliable and
relatively permanent
Common in Africa and Asia
Often have boundaries that are
difficult to spot in reality
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Example of Physical
Boundary
Rivers, lakes, and oceans
Most commonly used as
boundaries
Visible and relatively unchanging
Boundaries typically set in the
middle of the water (median-line
principle)
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Example of Physical
Boundary
Ocean boundaries cause
problems because states
generally claim that the
boundary lies not at the
coastline but out at sea.
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Example of Physical
Boundary
The U.N. Law of the Sea
standardized territorial limits
for most countries at 12
nautical miles and gave rights
to fish and other marine life
within 200 miles.
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Example of Physical
Boundary
Water boundaries are typically
set in the middle of the water
since they are visible and
relatively unchanging. This
follows the practice known as
the median-line principle.
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Cultural Boundaries
Cultural boundaries are
also called consequent
boundaries.
Cultural boundaries can be
based on:
Religion
Language
Ethnicity
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Cultural Boundaries
Example of religious boundary:
The Partition of Pakistan
from India in 1947
The borders for Pakistan were
drawn around Muslim portions
of the subcontinent, in an
effort to separate Muslim from
Hindus. Conflicts between the
two groups persist today.
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Cultural Boundaries
Example of language boundary:
Boundaries in Europe have
been historically important
since cultural identities are
often based on language.
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Cultural Boundaries
Example of ethnic boundary
After World War I the Allied Leaders
tried to redraw the map of Europe
based on ethnic lines.
They carved several small ethnically -
based states, including Bulgaria,
Hungary, Poland, and Romania from
the large empire of Austria-Hungary.
Cultural Boundaries
Important term: “Balkanization”
The term comes from the
situation that occurred in the
Balkans area, which was once
united as Yugoslavia. The
country fell apart during the
1990s into several ethnically
based countries.
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Cultural Boundaries
The Balkans are also an
example of a region that
formed a shatter belt.
Shatter belts (defined) are zones of
great cultural complexity containing
many small cultural groups who
find refuge in the isolation created
by rough terrain.
Shatter belts are often areas of
cultural tension that spread to
other areas.
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The Balkans
This area between the Adriatic and Black Seas has historically
diverse ethnicities that were combined into one country called
“Yugoslavia” after World War I. The union lasted until the
1990s when ethnic tensions exploded, leading to the creation
of new ethnically-based small states, a process called
“balkanization.”
Geometric Boundaries
These are imaginary lines that
generally have a good reason
behind their creation.
Example:
North and South Korea along
the 38th parallel
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S38th Parallel
Territorial Morphology
Describes the following about states:
shapes
sizes
relative locations
Helps to determine opportunities and
challenges faced by a country
SHAPES, SIZE, AND RELATION
LOCATIONS OF STATES
Shape affects:
cultural identity
social unity
the ease or difficulty that
government has in ruling its
subjects
SHAPES, SIZE, AND RELATION
LOCATIONS OF STATES
Distance from
the center is
about the same
to any
boundar y.
Shape is s imilar
to a ci rc le .
Shape promotes
ef fect ive
communication.
COMPACT
STATES
Example: France
A prorupted
state is
compact with a
large projecting
extension.
Prorupted
states of ten
exist in order to
reach a natural
resource.
PRORUPTED
STATES
Example:
Democratic Republic
of the
Congo
An elongated
state has a
long and
narrow shape.
These states
tend to have
communication
and
transpor tation
problems. This
is especial ly a
problem i f the
capital c i ty is
not central ized.
ELONGATED
STATE
Example:
Chile
A fragmented
state has
several
discont inuous
pieces of
terr itory.
Any state
composed of
is lands is
fragmented.
A state is also
fragmented i f a
piece of the
terr itory is
separated by
another state.
FRAGMENTED
STATES
Example:
Indonesia
A s tated that
completely
sur rounds
another s tate is
a per forated
s tate.
PERFORATED
STATES
Example:
South Africa
Examples of Shapes of States
Political geography
Politics
Politics of place
Territoriality
Political culture
Boundaries
Frontier
Physical boundaries
Cultural boundaries
Geometric boundaries
Balkanization
Shatter belt
Territorial morphology
Compact state
Prorupted state
Elongated state
Fragmented state
Perforated state
KEY TERMS TO REVIEW
FROM THIS SESSION
Advanced
Placement
Human
Geography
UNIT 4:POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
OF SPACE
Session 2
MORE ABOUT THE
TERRITORIAL DIMENSIONS
OF POLITICS
Exclaves
Small bits of territorythat lie on coastsseparated from thestate by the territory ofanother state
Example: Cabinda, partof Angola separated byanother country, theDemocratic Republic ofthe Congo
Enclaves
Landlocked within another
country, so that the
country totally surrounds it
Example: Nagorno-
Karabakh
an enclave of Armenian
Christians surrounded by
Muslim Azerbaijan
Region of major tension
between Azerbaijan and
Armenia
SHAPES OF STATES CREATED BY
BOUNDARIES CAN CREATE…
States’ sizes vary greatly
Largest: Russia
6.5 million square miles
11% of Earth’s surface
Smallest: Microstates such as Liechtenstein,
Andorra, and San Marino
SIZE OF STATES
Liechtenstein
Liechtenstein is one of the world’s smallest states, called a
“microstate.” It only encompasses a few square miles and is
tucked in between two relatively small states, Switzerland and
Austria.
Advantages
Although it depends on
location, large size
increases the chances
of having important
natural resources
mineral ores
fertile soil
Disadvantages
Location can affect
accessibility of natural
resources.
Examples: Russia and
Canada
So far north that much of
their land is frozen
Parts of the countries
impossible to do farming or
mining
LARGE STATES
Advantages
They are more likely to have a homogeneous
population so conflict is minimized.
They may also wield power beyond their size.
Example:
Britain, with its many natural and human
resources
SMALL STATES
Size alone is not critical in determining a
country’s power and stability, but it is a
contributing factor.
SIZE OF STATES
The significance of size and shape as
factors in national well-being can be
modified by a state’s location, both
absolute and relative.
ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE LOCATION
ABSOLUTE LOCATION
Advantage: Iceland has a compact shape.
Disadvantage: Its location at 65° N latitude means that most of
the country is uninhabited. Settlement is confined to the
coastlines.
Example of country affected
by its absolute location:
ICELAND
Landlocked states, those lacking ocean frontage and
surrounded by other states are at a disadvantage for:
Trade
Sea resources
Transportation
Communication
RELATIVE LOCATION
Some Examples
LANDLOCKED STATES
Asia:Nepal
Mongolia
Laos
Bhutan
Africa:Chad
Botswana
Rwanda
Zimbabwe
South
America:
Paraguay
Bolivia
Former
Soviet Union:Moldova
Uzbekistan
Belarus
Sometimes relative location
can be an asset for a state.
Example: Singapore
At the crossroads of
international travel that links
East Asia to South Asia
Used its location to build
industry and communication
links
One of the most prosperous
states in the world today
RELATIVE LOCATION
FUNCTIONS
OF
BOUNDARIES
Historically, states and empires
have built walls to mark the
limits of their governmental
control.
The Berlin Wall
The Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China
The Great Wall as we see it today was built during the Ming Dynasty
that ruled from the 13th to 17th centuries C.E. A much earlier wall was
built starting in the 3rd century B.C.E., but little of that older wall
remains today. For centuries, the wall served as the northern boundary
of the Empire of China.
Today, boundaries still mark the limits of state
jurisdiction.
Boundaries also serve as symbols of
sovereignty, the ability of the state to carry
out actions or policies within its borders
independently from interference either from
the inside or the outside.
BOUNDARIES
The shape of a country’s territory comes to
represent a national consciousness, or
nationalism.
Modern nationalism is a sense of unity with
fellow citizens and loyalty to the state to
promote its culture and interest over those of
other nations.
BOUNDARIES AND NATIONALISM
Many modern countries divide their interiors
into sections marked by internal boundaries.
Examples:
United States: 50 states
Canada: 10 provinces, 2 federal territories,
and one self-governing homeland
INTERNAL BOUNDARIES
Since Word War II, almost
half of the world’s
sovereign states have been
involved in border disputes
with their neighbors.
The more neighbors a state
has, the greater the
likelihood of conflict.
BO
UN
DA
RY
DIS
PU
TE
S
Positional (definitional) disputes
These occur when states argue about wherethe border actually is located.
Example: The boundary between Argentina andChile
It follows the crest of the of the Andes Mountains andthe watershed, which do not always coincide.
CATEGORIES OF BOUNDARY DISPUTES
Territorial disputes
These arise over the ownership of a
region, usually around mutual borders.
Conflicts arise if people of one state
want to annex territory whose population
is ethnically related to them.
CATEGORIES OF BOUNDARY DISPUTES
Territorial disputes
20th century example:
German invasion of Czechoslovakia
and Poland, areas with German
minorities
This type of expansionism is called
irredentism.
CATEGORIES OF BOUNDARY DISPUTES
Resource (allocational) disputes
These disputes involve natural resources that
lie in border areas.
Resources include:
mineral deposits
fertile farmland
rich fishing groups
Example: The U.S. and Canada have feuded
over fishing grounds in the Atlantic Ocean.
CATEGORIES OF BOUNDARY DISPUTES
Functional (operational) disputes
These arise when neighboring states cannot
agree on policies that apply in a border area.
Example: the ongoing immigration debate
between the U.S. and Mexico
CATEGORIES OF BOUNDARY DISPUTES
EVOLUTION OF THE
CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL
PATTERN
His
tory
ha
s s
ee
n m
an
y
diffe
ren
t typ
es
of
po
litica
l org
an
iza
tion
s.
City-states
Empires
Caliphates
Kingdoms
Feudalism
In today’s world, power is territorially
organized into states, or countries.
STATES
What do states do?
They define who can and cannot use weapons and
force.
They include institutions that help to turn political
ideas into policy.
They exercise sovereignty, the ability to carry out
actions or policies within their borders.
STATES
Nations A group of people bound
together by a common
political identity
Nation-states
Refers to a state whose
territorial extent coincides
with that occupied by a
distinct nation or people
NATIONS V. NATION-STATES
VA
RIA
TIO
NS
OF
TH
E
NA
TIO
N-S
TA
TE
A binational or multinational state is
one that contains more than one
nation.
Example: The Former Soviet Union
When the country fell apart in 1991, it fell along ethnic
boundaries into independent nation-states. Today Russia
(one of the former soviet republics) remains a large
multinational state that governs many ethnic groups.
VA
RIA
TIO
NS
OF
TH
E
NA
TIO
N-S
TA
TE
Stateless nations are a people
without a state.
A stateless nation. The Kurds have had a national
identity for many centuries, but they have never had a
state. Instead 20 million Kurds are spread in an area
that crosses the borders of six countries: Turkey,
Syria, Iraq, Iran, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.
Exclaves
Enclaves
Landlocked states
Boundaries
Sovereignty
Nationalism
Internal boundaries
Positional disputes
Territorial disputes
Irredentism
Resource (allocational) disputes
Functional disputes
States
Nations
Nation-states
Stateless nations
KEY TERMS TO REVIEW
FROM THIS SESSION
Advanced
Placement
Human
Geography
UNIT 4:POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
OF SPACE
Session 3
MORE ON THE EVOLUTION
OF THE CONTEMPORARY
POLITICAL PATTERN
Two important geographical clues to
understanding how states are organized are its core area(s) and the size and
functions of its
capital city.
THE ORGANIZATION OF STATES
Most of the early nation-states grew from core
areas, expanding outward along their
frontiers.
Growth generally stopped when they bumped
into other nation-states, causing them to
define boundaries.
CORE AREAS
Today most European countries still have the same
core areas, and many countries in other parts of the
world also have well defined core areas.
Examples:
Paris Basin in France
Japan Kanto plain, centered on Tokyo
CORE AREAS
Core areas can be identified on a map by examining:
population distributions.
transportation networks.
As you travel away from the core area into a state’s
periphery (outlying areas):
towns get smaller.
there are fewer factories.
open land is more common .
CORE AREAS
States with more than one core are
known as multicore states.
This can be problematic.
Example: Nigeria
Nigeria’s northern core is primarily Muslim.
The southern core is primarily Christian.
To compensate for the country’s tendency to separate, the capital city was moved from Lagos to Abuja.
REGIONAL DIFFERENCES THREATEN THE EXISTENCE OF THE STATE!
CORE AREAS
Nigeria’s Core Areas
Nigeria was a British colony in West Africa until its independence in
1960, but its borders encompass numerous ethnic groups with clear
cultural differences.
A multicore character is NOT always problematic for
a country.
Example: The United States
Primary core: Northeastern coastBoston to D.C.
Secondary core: West coastSan Diego to San Francisco
Other cores: Chicago and Atlanta
CORE AREAS
In most states the capital city not only houses the
government, but serves as the economic and cultural
center as well.
TH
E C
AP
ITA
L C
ITY
Primate City
Must have great influence
in the country in terms of
Politics
Culture
Economics
Forward Capital
Serves as a model for
a country’s economic
development and
future hopes
Example: Brasilia,
Brazil
THE CAPITAL CITY
ELECTORAL GEOGRAPHY
In democracies an important connection
between citizen and state is the electoral
process, the methods used in a country for
selecting its leaders.
Example: United States People may vote directly
for a president and representatives to their
legislatures.
Example: Great Britain People may vote only for
legislators who in turn select the prime minister.
ELECTORAL GEOGRAPHY
Electoral geography is the study of how
the spatial configuration of electoral
districts and voting patterns reflect and
influence social and political affairs.
ELECTORAL GEOGRAPHY
Electoral Geography and
The United States
Boundaries separate 435
legislative districts, with each
electing one representative to the
lower house of the legislature—the
U.S. House of Representatives.
The U.S. Census, a count of the
population, is conducted every 10
years. Afterwards, boundaries are
redrawn to ensure that
representation is fair.
ELECTORAL GEOGRAPHY
Electoral Geography and the United States
Boundaries for districts are usually drawn by state
legislatures.
There the political party in control—either Democrats
or Republicans—usually attempts to redraw
boundaries to improve the chances of its supporters
to win seats, a process called gerrymandering.
ELECTORAL GEOGRAPHY
Republican
Mascot
Democrat
Mascot
Gerrymandering originated in
1812 from the shape of an
electoral district in
Massachusetts while Elbridge
Gerry was governor.
A political cartoon gave certain
animal features and the district
was shaped like a salamander.
OR
IGIN
OF
GE
RR
YM
AN
DE
RIN
G
Political Cartoon
Gerrymandering
continues to be an
issue today.
Minority/majority districting involves
rearranging districts to allow a minority
representative to be elected.
This occurred in North Carolina after 1990 census.
Justice Department ordered North Carolina’s 12th
District to redraw its proposed boundaries in order to
allow for the election of a black representative.
MORE ON GERRYMANDERING…
Minority/majority districting involves
rearranging districts to allow a minority
representative to be elected.
This action resulted in a Supreme Court case in which
the Justice Department was accused of reverse
discrimination.
The Supreme Court ruled that the district lines has to
be redrawn according to Justice Department
standards.
MORE ON GERRYMANDERING…
Several cases involving racial gerrymandering were
brought to the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1990s.
2001: The Court ruled that race MAY be a factor in
redistricting, but NOT the “dominant and controlling”
one.
Result: There has been a substantial increase in the
number of Black and Latino representatives in the
U.S. House of Representatives.
MORE ON GERRYMANDERING…
WH
Y D
O G
EO
GR
AP
HE
RS
CA
RE
AB
OU
T G
ER
RY
MA
ND
ER
ING
?
The important thing for
geographers is that voting
patterns can help reinforce a
sense of regionalism and can
shape a government’s
response to issues in the
future.
COLONIALISM
AND IMPERIALISM
The modern state is the basic concept that
people owe allegiance to a state and the
people it represents rather than to its leader.
European expansion during the 17th, 18th, and
19th centuries spread the new type of
organization to:
the Americas
Asia
Africa
THE MODERN STATE
Usually colonies, or dependent areas, were
created first by the Europeans.
They were given fixed and recorded boundaries
where none had formally existed before.
In most cases, the new divisions were not based
on meaningful cultural or physical lines but on
the limits of the colonizing empire’s power.
COLONIES
The European colonization of Africa and Asia
is often termed imperialism, or empire
building, and it characterized the political
landscape during the 19th and 20th centuries.
IMPERIALISM
Africa
Asia
Most African and Asian colonies became
independent after World War II, partly
because the war greatly weakened the
ability of European countries to maintain
their overseas possessions.
IMPERIALISM
As former colonies gained
independence, they kept the idea
of the state to organize their new
political systems.
They often retained the borders
established by their former
European rulers.
Consequently, states’ borders many
times ignored cultural differences
among populations.
GAINING INDEPENDENCE
AN INCREASING NUMBER OF STATES…
1776: About 35 empires, kingdoms, and
countries existed in the entire world.
Since 1945: The number increased to
about 200 nations as a result of
independence movements.
1991: The dissolution of the Soviet
Union created independent states in
Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
Late 1990s: Several new states were
created in the Balkans from Yugoslavia.
Former Soviet States in
Central Asia
Until 1991 states like Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Armenia,
Georgia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan
were part of the Soviet Union. When the Soviet Union fell
apart, 15 independent nation-states were created.
FEDERAL AND
UNITARY STATES
Stable, clearly bounded territory
Well-developed institutions
Effective administrative framework
Productive core area
Influential capital city
CHARACTERISTICS OF A
WELL-INTEGRATED STATE
Every state has multiple
levels of authority, though
the geographic distribution
of power varies widely.
CA
TE
GO
RIE
S O
F S
TA
TE
S
A unitary system concentrates allpolicy-making powers in onecentral geographical place.
Historically, most Europeangovernments were highlycentralized and even though localgovernments developed, they hadno separate powers.
As a result, most Europeangovernments today remain unitarystates.
UNITARY SYSTEM
Europe
A confederal system spread the power
among many sub-units (such as states)
and has a weak central government.
Most attempts at a confederal system
have not been long-lasting (e.g.
Confederate States of America).
CONFEDERAL SYSTEM
The modern government of
Switzerland has very strong
sub-governments and comes close
to a modern confederation.
CONFEDERAL SYSTEM
A federal system divides the power between
the central government and sub-units.
Federalism accommodates regional interests
by allowing for diverse needs and preferences
but ALSO features a central government that
is strong enough to keep the countries from
falling apart.
Examples: United States
Canada
Australia
FEDERAL SYSTEM
ABOUT POLITICAL SYSTEMS TODAY…
All political systems fall on a continuum from
the most concentrated amount of power to
the least. Unitary governments may be
placed on the left side, according to the
degree of concentration; confederal
governments are placed to the right; and
federal governments fall in between.
Core areas
Capital cities
Periphery
Multicore states
Primate city
Forward capital
Electoral process
Electoral geography
Gerrymandering
Minority/majority districting
Racial gerrymandering
Modern state
Colonies
Imperialism
Well-integrated state
Unitary system
Confederal system
Federal system
KEY TERMS TO REVIEW
FROM THIS SESSION
Advanced
Placement
Human
Geography
UNIT 4:POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
OF SPACE
Session 4
MODERN CHALLENGES
TO THE
NATION-STATE CONFIGURATION
Nation-states have always had their
challenges, both internal and external, but
today new supranational forces are at work
that have led some to believe that the nation-
state political configuration itself may be
changing.
NATION-STATES ARE CHANGING
Supranational organizations are cooperating
groups of nations that operate on either a
regional or international level.
They establish rules that their members must
follow.
Examples:
European Union (regional)
United Nations (international)
SUPRANATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
A recurring set of forces affects all
nation-states: centripetal forces that
unify them and centrifugal forces that
tend to fragment them.
Centripetal forces bind together the people of
a state, giving it strength.
One of the most powerful centripetal forces is
nationalism, or identities based on
nationhood.
CENTRIPETAL FORCES
How is nationalism promoted?
Use of symbols
Flags
Rituals
Holidays
Institutions
Schools
Armed forces
Religions
Transportation and communication systems
National broadcasting companies
CENTRIPETAL FORCES
Centrifugal forces oppose centripetal forces.
They destabilize the government and
encourage the country to fall apart.
Examples:
Governments are not well organized.
Weak institutions fail to provide support
for the government.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
Strong institutions may also challenge thegovernment for the loyalty of the people.
Example: Creation of the USSR in 1917
Leaders grounded the new country in the ideologyof communism.
The state also forbid the practice of RussianOrthodoxy, the traditional religion.
Church membership dropped, but the religiousinstitution never disappeared.
When the USSR dissolved, the church reappearedand has since regained its strength.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
Nationalism can be a destabilizing force,
especially if different ethnic groups within the
country have more loyalty to their ethnicity
than to the state or government.
These loyalties can lead to separatist
movements.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
Separatist movements occur when
nationalities within a country
demand independence.
Example: Basques of northern
Spain
CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
What characteristics
encourage separatist
movements?
Peripheral location
Social inequality
Economic inequality
CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
One reaction states have had to
centrifugal force is devolution, or
the decentralization of decision-
making to regional governments.
Example: Britain has devolved
power to the Scottish and Welsh
parliaments in an effort to keep
peace with Scotland and Wales.
London still is the geographic center of
decision-making for the country.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
DEVOLUTION:ETHNIC, ECONOMIC, AND
SPATIAL FORCES
Ethnic forces
Economic forces
Spatial forces
TYPES OF DEVOLUTIONARY FORCES
ETHNIC FORCES
If a state contains strong
ethnic groups with identities
that differ from those of the
majority, it can threaten the
territorial integrity of the state
itself.
Ethnonationalism is the
tendency for an ethnic group to
see itself as a distinct nation
with a right to autonomy or
independence.
ETHNIC FORCES
Example of ethnic devolutionary
forces: Quebec
Most French Canadians live in the
province of Quebec.
This concentration has created a
large base for an independence
movement.
If ethnically French people were
scattered throughout the country,
their sense of identify would be
diluted and the devolutionary force
would be weaker.
Economic inequalities may destabilize a
nation-state, particularly if the inequalities are
regional.
Example: Italy
The “Ancona Line,” an invisible line extending from
Rome to the Adriatic coast at Ancona, separates the
more prosperous north from the southern parts of
Italy.
ECONOMIC FORCES
Economic Devolutionary Forces
in Italy and Spain
Geographically, southern Italy and most of Spain lie outside the
European core, creating economic devolutionary forces within the two
nation-states.
Spatially, devolutionary events most often occur on the margins of the state.
What promotes spatial devolution? Distance
Remoteness
Peripheral location
This is especially true if the following separate thelocation from the center of power: Mountains
Water
Desert
SPATIAL FORCES
Example: Puerto Rico
The U.S. claims Puerto Rico as a territory and has offered it
recognition as a state.
Puerto Ricans have consistently voted against statehood.
Puerto Rico is an island in the Caribbean and it is spatially
isolated from the rest of the U.S.
SPATIAL FORCES
CHANGING GEOPOLITICAL
CONCERNS
Geopolitics is the study of the spatial and
territorial dimensions of power
relationships within the global political -
territorial order.
WHAT IS GEOPOLITICS?
FriedrichRatzel was a geographer
who theorized that a state
compares to a biological organism
with a life cycle from birth to
death, with a predictable rise and
fall of power.
This field became controversial
after Hitler used this principle to
justify the growth of the German
state by attacking weaker states
and aggressively promoting
German nationalism.
FRIEDRICH RATZEL
British geographer Sir Halford
Mackinder concerned himself with
power relationships surrounding
Britain’s global empire.
Naval power was responsible for
British power.
Mackinder believed, however, that
land-based power would ultimately
rule the world.
TH
E H
EA
RT
LA
ND
TH
EO
RY
His theory stated that Eurasia was the
“pivot area.”
When the Soviet Union emerged as a
super power after World War II, the
heartland theory attracted a great deal
of support.
TH
E H
EA
RT
LA
ND
TH
EO
RY
Eurasia
TH
E R
IML
AN
DT
HE
OR
Y• In 1944, Nicholas Spykman
challenged the Heartland Theory in
his book, The Geography of Peace.
• Spykman argued that the Eurasian
rim, not its heart, held the key to
global power.
• What is the rimland? It is a large
swath of land that encircles the
heartland, roughly touching oceans
and seas.
WHAT
DOES THE
RIMLAND
INCLUDE?
• The rimland includes:
• China
• Korea
• Japan
• Southeast Asia
• India
• Arabian Peninsula
• Europe
• This area is unlikely to fall under any one
superpower’s control, an IMPORTANT key
to keeping a global, geopolitical balance of
power.
With increasing globalization, geopolitics has
been reinvigorated.
The study of geopolitics was dominated by the
Cold War from 1945 to 1991.
GEOPOLITICS
The Cold War was the competition between twosuperpowers—the U.S. and Soviet Union—for controlof land spaces all over the world.
With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the U.S.was left as the only superpower in a rapidly changingworld that is being redefined.
GEOPOLITICS
Russia
China
Europe
EMERGING FORCES IN TODAY’S WORLD
Suprational organizations
Centripetal forces
Centrifugal forces
Separatist movements
Devolution
Ethnic forces
Ethnic groups
Ethnonationalism
Ethnic devolutionary
forces
Spatial devolutionary
forces
Geopolitics
Heartland Theory
Rimland Theory
Cold War
Superpower
KEY TERMS TO REVIEW
FROM THIS SESSION
Advanced
Placement
Human
Geography
UNIT 4:POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
OF SPACE
Session 5
SUPRANATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS: CHANGING
THE MEANING OF SOVEREIGNTY
Supranational organizations are not new, but
their nature is changing.
This could have implications for the
sovereignty of individual states.
SUPRANATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Concert of Europe was an effort to restore a
balance of power in Europe after the fall of
Napoleon Bonaparte.
League of Nations: Although the global effort
to prevent further world wars failed, the
League of Nations was an attempt to form a
lasting international organization.
HISTORIC EXAMPLES OF
SUPRANATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
The original charter for the U.N. was signed in
1945 by its 49 members.
Currently, there are 192 member states of
the U.N.
Membership is voluntary, and the
organization plays an important part in
geopolitics.
UNITED NATIONS
United Nations Headquarters in
New York City
The U.N. changes the nature of sovereignty by
applying the concept to an organization with
collective membership, not just to individual
nation-states.
UNITED NATIONS
Flag of the
United Nations
An important power of the U.N. is that its memberscan vote to establish a peacekeeping force in a“hotspot” and request states to contribute militaryforces.
The body responsible for making the peacekeepingdecisions is the Security Council. Its permanentmembers are:
U.S.
Britain
France
China
Russia
UNITED NATIONS
U.N. forces are supposed to remain neutral,
and they usually have restrictions on their
abilities to use weapons.
U.N. Forces have been sent to:
Eastern Europe
the Middle East
Sub-Saharan Africa
UNITED NATIONS
Despite its limitations,
the United Nations is a
forum where most of the
states of the world can
meet and vote on issues
without resorting to war.
UN
ITE
D N
AT
ION
S
The U.N. includes many sub-organizations
that:
promote the general welfare of the world’s
citizens.
monitor world trade.
aid world trade and other economic contacts.
UNITED NATIONS
Examples of U.N. sub-organizations:
The World Bank
The International Court of Justice
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization)
UNITED NATIONS
RE
GIO
NA
L
OR
GA
NIZ
AT
ION
S
Regional organizations
have been formed for
several reasons:
Military
Economic
Social or cultural
Political
REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Example: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO)
NATO was formed during the Cold War with 14
European members, the U.S. and Canada.
An opposing alliance—the Warsaw Pact—
began in 1955 and was composed of the
Soviet Union and 6 Eastern European
countries.
REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Example: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO)
The Warsaw Pact was disbandedfollowing the breakup of the SovietUnion.
NATO expanded after the dissolution ofthe Warsaw Pact to include many of itsformer members.
REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Other examples:The Organization of American States (OAS)
was created to promote social, cultural,political, and economic links among memberstates in the Western Hemisphere.
The Arab League was founded to promote theinterests and sovereignty of countries in theMiddle East.
REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
The European Union is a
regional organization that
promises to redefine the
meaning of sovereignty.
All the countries of Europe are
deeply affected by a trend
toward integration.
THE
EUROPEAN
UNION
Integration is a process that encourages
states to pool their sovereignty in order
to gain political, economic, and social
clout.
Integration binds states together with:
common policies
shared rules
THE EUROPEAN UNION
The organization has gone through severalname changes, but until 1991 its goals wereexclusively economic.
The Maastricht Treaty created the modernorganization and gave it authority in newareas:
monetary policy
foreign affairs
national security
transportation
the environment
THE EUROPEAN UNION
The Maastricht Treaty established three pillars
(spheres of authority) for the E.U.:
Trade and other economic matters, including
economic and monetary union into a single currency,
and the creation of the European Central Bank
Justice and home affairs, including policy governing
asylum, border crossing, immigration, and judicial
cooperation on issues involving crime and terrorism
Common foreign and security policy, including joint
positions and actions, and common defense policy
THE EUROPEAN UNION
The E.U. has set European
monetary policy, or the
control of the money
supply.
Today the euro has
replaced old national
currencies, although there
are some exceptions:
Britain
Sweden
THE EUROPEAN UNION
The power to setbasic interest ratesand other fiscal(monetary) policiesis being passed fromnational banks andgovernments to theEuropean MonetaryUnion.
THE EUROPEAN UNION
DIFFICULTIES FACED BY THE EU
There are many difficult issues faced by the
European Union:• Organizational: It is difficult to operate 27
countries smoothly.
• Expansion: Many former communist countries
had weak economies at the end of the 20th
century.
• Border protection: Older member states worry
that immigrants from the east will flood their
labor markets.
Supporters of the E.U. fear that its
difficulties will overshadow the
benefits of:
common markets
currencies
political policies
defense
DIFFICULTIES FACED BY THE EU
The EU has recently tried to establish a
European Constitution, which would
recognize the E.U.’s sovereignty.
However, countries such as France and
the Netherlands, were not supportive and
voted it down in 2005.
DIFFICULTIES FACED BY THE EU
2007: The European Council decided to
start negotiations on a Reform Treaty as
a replacement for a constitution.
DIFFICULTIES FACED BY THE EU
The European Union
FORCES OF CHANGE: GLOBALIZATION, DEMOCRATIZATION,
AND RELIGIOUS POLITICS
There are a growing number of
commonalities among the nations of
the world, a process known as
globalization.
GLOBALIZATION
More nations are turning toward some
form of popular government.
Democracy is the existence of
competitive elections that are
regular
free
fair
In other words, an incumbent
government could be defeated.
DEMOCRATIZATION
Civil liberties (e.g. freedom
of belief, speech, and
assembly)
Rule of law that provides
equal treatment of citizens
and due process
Neutrality of the judiciary
and other checks on the
abuse of power
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIBERAL
DEMOCRACIES
Open civil society that allows citizens to
lead private lives and mass media to
operate independently from government
Civilian control of the military that restricts
the likelihood of the military seizing control
of the government
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIBERAL
DEMOCRACIES
Countries that have elections but miss
qualities such as civil liberties and the rule of
law are known as illiberal democracies.
Examples:
Russia
Nigeria
Indonesia
ILLIBERAL DEMOCRACIES
Political scientist Samuel Huntington
asserts that the modern world is now in
a “third wave” of democratization that
began in the 1970s.
DEMOCRATIZATION AND
SAMUEL HUNTINGTON
The First Wave developed
gradually over time, beginning
with late 18th century
revolutions, such as those in the
United States and France.
WA
VE
S O
F
DE
MO
CR
AT
IZA
TIO
N
The Second Waveoccurred after the allied
victory in World War II.
It continued until the 1960s
and was characterized by
de-colonization across the
globe.
WA
VE
S O
F
DE
MO
CR
AT
IZA
TIO
N
The Third Wave is
characterized by the defeat
of dictators and totalitarian
rulers from South America to
Eastern Europe to some
parts of Africa.
WA
VE
S O
F
DE
MO
CR
AT
IZA
TIO
N
South America
Eastern Europe
Africa
The loss of legitimacy by both right and left
wing authoritarian regimes has led to
democratization.
The expansion of an urban middle class in
developing countries has also been a
contributing factor.
WHY HAS DEMOCRATIZATION
OCCURRED?
There has been a new emphasis on “human
rights” by the U.S. and the European Union.
The “snowball” effect When one country in a
region becomes democratic, it influences
others to do so.
WHY HAS DEMOCRATIZATION
OCCURRED?
The greatest obstacle
is poverty.
It blocks citizens from
participating in
government.
OBSTACLES TO DEMOCRATIZATION
HU
NT
ING
TO
N’S
STA
ND
AR
D
FO
R G
AU
GIN
G
DE
MO
CR
AT
IC S
TA
BIL
ITY
Democracy may be declared
when a country has had at
least two successive peaceful
turnovers of power.
Many political economists today declare
that the economic competition between
capitalism and socialism that dominated
the 20th century is now part of the past.
MARKETIZATION
What type of market economy is likely to be most successful in today’s world?
Will it be one that allows for significant control fromthe central government –a “mixed economy”?
Will it be an economy that does not allow muchcontrol from the central government—a pure marketeconomy?
MARKETIZATION
Marketization is the term that describes the
state’s re-creation of a market in which
property, labor, goods, and services can all
function in a competitive environment to
determine their value.
Privatization is the transfer of state-owned
property to private ownership.
MARKETIZATION
Because central political control of economies
has decreased during the 20th century, some
believe that market economies promote the move
toward the democratization of political
institutions.
However, China and Russia have developed
capitalist economies even though their
governments have remained highly authoritarian.
MARKETIZATION
Fragmentation occurs when
there are divisions based on
ethnic or cultural identity.
A few year ago nationalism
seemed to be declining in favor
of increasing globalization.
RE
VIV
AL
OF
ET
HN
IC O
R
CU
LT
UR
AL
PO
LIT
ICS
The politicization of religion (the use of
religious principles to promote political ends
and vice versa) has dominated world politics
in the early 21st century.
REVIVAL OF ETHNIC
OR CULTURAL POLITICS
Samuel Huntington argues that the most
important and dangerous conflicts in the
future will be based on clashes of
civilizations, NOT on socioeconomic or
even ideological differences.
REVIVAL OF ETHNIC
OR CULTURAL POLITICS
Huntington divided the world into culture
regions that threaten world peace: The West
The Orthodox world (Russia)
Islamic countries
Latin America
Africa
The Hindu world
The Confucian world
The Buddhist world
Japan
REVIVAL OF ETHNIC
OR CULTURAL POLITICS
Some believe that Huntington
underestimated the importance of cultural
conflicts WITHIN nations.
CRITICISM OF HUNTINGTON
The revival of ethnic or cultural
politics tends to emphasize
differences among nations rather
than commonalities.
REVIVAL OF ETHNIC
OR CULTURAL POLITICS
Concert of Europe
League of Nations
Peacekeeping force
Security Council
World Bank
International Court of Justice
UNESCO
NATO
Warsaw Pact
OAS
Arab League
European Union
Maastricht Treaty
Fiscal policies
Globalization
Democratization
Civil liberties
Rule of law
Liberal democracies
I lliberal democracies
Marketization
Market economy
Privatization
Fragmentation
Politicalization of religion
KEY TERMS TO REVIEW
FROM THIS SESSION
