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UNIT 4 SATELLITE ACCESS:
CODE-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)
Code-division multiple access (CDMA) is scheme in which a number of users can occupy all of the
transponder bandwidth all the time. Therefore, individual carriers may be present simultaneously
within the same rf bandwidth, but each carrier carries a unique code waveform (in addition to the
information signal) that helps to differentiate them at the receiver.
SSMA
In CDMA, the carrier is modulated in the normal way by the information waveform and then it is
again modulated by the code waveform. The second modulation is done to spread the spectrum
over the available rf bandwidth. Therefore, CDMA are also known as spread-spectrum multiple
access (SSMA).
Waveforms Used:
CDMA can be used with analog as well as digital signals. Let the information signal is a polarNRZ waveform which is shown in Fig 1 and the elements are called bits.
Fig 1: The information signal (Polar NRZ)
Let the code waveform is also a polar NRZ signal, as sketched in Fig.2. The pulses are called
chips and they vary randomly between and . This randomness is an essential feature inspread-spectrum systems. The modulation used here is binary phase shift keying (BPSK).
Fig 2: The code signal (Polar NRZ)
Implementation:
The commonly used methods to spread the spectrum i.e., to implement CDMA are
i. Direct sequence spread spectrum (DS/SS)
ii. Frequency Hoping spread spectrum (FH/SS)
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DIRECT- SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM
In Fig. 3, is an NRZ binary information signal, and is a NRZ binary code signal. These two
signals form the inputs to a multiplier (balanced modulator), the output of which is proportional to
the product .
Fig 3: A basic CDMA system
This product signal is applied to a second balanced modulator, the output of which is a BPSK signal
at the carrier frequency. It is assumed that the carrier is the uplink frequency, and hence the uplink
carrier is described by
-------- (1) The corresponding downlink carrier is
-------- (2) At the receiver, an identical generator is synchronized to the of the downlink carrier. This
synchronization is carried out in the acquisition and tracking block in the receiver side. The
transmitted is a polar NRZ type waveform, and it is synchronized with the locally generated
transmitted . Therefore
Now, the output of the multiplier is
-------- (3)
This gives the BPSK signal which is transmitted.
THE CODE SIGNAL
A binary code is carried by the code signal It has special properties needed for the
implementation of CDMA. The binary symbols in the codes are known as chips.
Clock control:
A clock controls the chip generation. The speed of this clock gives the chip rate in chips per second.
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Denoting the clock speed by , the chip period is the reciprocal of the clock speed:
-------- (4)
Since the waveform is periodic, the sequence of N chips will be repeated for each period. The
periodic time for the waveform is
-------- (5)
Code generation:
The codes are generated using binary shift registers and associated linear logic circuits. The circuit
for a three-stage shift register that generates a sequence of N= 7 chips is shown in Fig.4 a.
Fig 4: Code generation
Fig shown is a 3-stage shift register circuit that generates a sequence of N=7 chips. The exclusive OR
is given feedback occurs from stages and it provides input to the shift register. All the chips are
clocked at the clock rate . The generator starts with all stages holding binary 1s, and the
following states are as shown in the table in Fig. 4 a. and the code waveform generated is shown in
Fig. 4.b.
Maximal Sequence Codes
Since the generated codes are of maximum length that can be generated they are known maximal
sequence or m-sequence codes. In fig 4.b, the maximal length sequence is 7chips. Therefore, the
maximum sequence that can be generated by a code generator employing an n-stage shift register
is,
-------- (6)
Pseudo-Noise codes (PN codes):
The code exhibits noiselike properties since binary 1s and 0s are randomly distributed in that code.
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Therefore, the codes are also known as PN codes. The important features of codes are given below,
1. The number of binary 1s is given by
-------- (7)
and the number of binary 0s is given by
-------- (8)
2. The dc offset determines the carrier level relative to the peak value;
-------- (9)
where {
3. The total number of maximal sequences that can be generated by an n-stage shift register
is given by ------- (10)
where , is known as Euler’s -function,
The Euler’s –function is given as,
-------- (11)
where ,…, are the prime factors of N.
For example, for
The prime factors of 255 are 3, 5, and 17, and hence
() (
) ()
The total number of maximal sequences that can be generated by an eight-stage code
generator is therefore
As a somewhat simpler example, consider the case when n 3. In this instance, N7.
There is only one prime factor, 7 itself, and therefore
And
In this case there are only two distinct maximal sequences.
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4. Autocorrelation property of
The autocorrelation function is a measure of comparison between the time-shifted version
and the unshifted version of .
Fig 5: a) Autocorrelation function generator
b) Autocorrelation waveform
Autocorrelation function generator is shown in Fig. 5a , in that the waveform and its a
shifted version are multiplied and the output is averaged by the integrator. The
integrator removes the time-t dependence and thus the output is independent of time, but it
will depend on the time lead or lag introduced by .
The autocorrelation function waveform obtained from the circuit is shown in Fig 5.b. When
, the two waveforms are coincide and the output is maximum. If there is any shift in
time from , position either advance or delay, it will decrease the output voltage. In a m-
sequence code waveform, the autocorrelation function decreases linearly from the maximum
value (unity in this case) to a negative level 1/N, as shown in Fig. 5.b.
ACQUISITION AND TRACKING:
ACQUISITION OF A CARRIER
The acquisition circuit is shown in Fig. 6. This circuit utilizes the autocorrelation function.
⇒ Multiplier
The output from the first multiplier is given by,
[] -------- (12)
where information modulation(BPSK)
Fig 6: Acquisition of a carrier in a CDMA system
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⇒ BPF
The BPF which is present next to the multiplier has a passband centered on . It does the
amplitude averaging function for the code signal product by rejecting high-frequency contents.
-------- (13)
⇒ Envelope detector and τ shift
TRACKING CIRCUIT
The delay lock loop circuit which is a form of tracking circuit is shown in Fig 7.
Fig 7: Delay lock loop and the waveform at the adder
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SPECTRUM SPREADING AND DESPREADING
Consider BPSK spectrum with as the bit rate. The main lobe of the power-density spectrum
occupies a bandwidth extending from to .This is sketched in Fig. 8a. If is the
modulation signal, then the power density spectrum is extended by to as
sketched in Fig. 8b. Since the code signal has periodicity, its spectrum density is a line function.
Therefore, the signal occupies wider bandwidth for constant carrier powers. Hence its spectrum
density will be reduced. In direct-sequence spread-spectrum systems, the chip rate determines the
bandwidth. They have a chip rate which is much greater than the information bit rate i.e.,
. Therefore power density is spread over the bandwidth determined and it is reduced approximately
in the ratio of .
Fig 8 : Spectrum for a BPSK signal : (a) without spreading (b) with spreading
Despreading function is a function used to store the spectrum of the wanted signal after the
spreading operation in the transmitter. This function is performed by the code signal . By using
this despreading function; interference is reduced in the spread spectrum technique. Fig 9 shows
the spectrum of two signals on which despreading function is to be performed. Here, the interfering
signal which is not spread is an unwanted signal and the desired DS/SS signal is the signal to be
restored.
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Fig 9 : (a) Spectrum of an interfering, nonspread signal along with the spread desired signal; (b) the
effect of the de-spreading operation on the desired signal resulting in spread of the interfer
ADVANTAGES OF CDMA:
CDMA offers several advantages for satellite networking, especially
1. CDMA is highly resistant to interference and therefore satellite spacing can be reduced
considerably without reducing the signal quality.
2. Spread spectrum systems are resistant to multipath noise.
3. Synchronization between stations in the system is not required in the CDMA system.
Therefore, a station can access the system at any time.
4. Small antennas can be employed without any interference problem from adjacent satellites.
5. Additional traffic could be accommodated with acceptable reduction in performance.
6. This technique offers a highly secure form of communication.
DISADVANTAGES
The main disadvantage is the low throughput efficiency.