Unit 4: Motivation and Emotion (Week 5)

CHAPTER

8 Motivation and Emotion

Copyright ©Pearson Education 2013


Diversity-UniversalityDiversity-

Universality

Stability-ChangeStability-Change

Mind-BodyMind-Body

Nature-NurtureNature-Nurture

Person-SituationPerson-Situation

Enduring Issues

How do motives and emotions affect behavior, and how are they affected by the external environment?




Universality


Mind-BodyMind-Body



Enduring Issues

Are motives and emotions inborn or acquired?




Universality


Mind-BodyMind-Body



Enduring Issues

Do motives and emotions change significantly over the life span?




Universality


Mind-BodyMind-Body



Enduring Issues

To what extent do individuals differ in their motivations and emotions?




Universality


Mind-BodyMind-Body


Person-SituationPerson-Situation How do motives and emotions arise from, and in turn affect, biological processes?

Enduring Issues

Specific need or desire, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement, that prompts goal-directed behavior otive



Feeling, such as

fear, joy, or

surprise, that

underlies behavior

motion

Perspectives on Motivation



LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast instincts, drive-reduction theory, and arousal theory (including the Yerkes-Dodson law) as explanations of human behavior. Distinguish between primary and secondary drives, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and summarize Maslow’s hierarchy of motives.

Instincts

Instinct theory was popular in the early 20th century, but was ultimately disputed because:• Most important human

behavior is learned.

• Human behavior is rarely rigid, inflexible, unchanging, and common to all, as is the case with instincts.

• Ascribing every conceivable human behavior to a corresponding instinct explains nothing.



Drive Reduction Theory

Need: Requirement of material (e.g., food, water) essential for survival

Drive: Need creates state of tension or arousal

Drive-reduction theory: Attempts to reduce the unpleasant state of tension and return the organism to homeostasis



Primary drives: Unlearned drives that are based on a physiological state

Secondary drives: Learned drives that are not based on a physiological state

Primary and Secondary Drives



Arousal Theory

Behavior stems from the desire to maintain an

optimum level of arousal

Sometimes level of arousal

is reduced.

Other times level of arousal

is increased.



Arousal Theory

Yerkes-Dodson law: The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated before performance deteriorates

Simple task = increase level of arousal Complex task = reduce level of arousal



Sensation Seeking

• Thrill-seeking behavior• Not explained by arousal

theory• Zuckerman: A basic

motivation, some aspects of which are inherited and neurologically based



Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior that stems from the enjoyment derived from the behavior itself

Extrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment



A Hierarchy of Motives

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Higher motives only emerge after lower level motives are satisfied

Physiological Needs

Safety Needs

Belongingness Needs

Esteem Needs

Self-Actualization Needs

Source: Adapted from Motivation and Personality by Abraham H. Maslow. Copyright © 1970. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ

Hunger and Thirst



Biological and Emotional Factors

Hunger and thirst are influenced by:

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the areas of the brain that are involved in hunger and describe the role of glucose, leptin, and ghrelin in determining a biological need for food. Distinguish between the biological need for food and the experience of hunger (including the role of incentives).

Internal cues

External cues



Biological Factors

Hunger is stimulated internally through the brain’s complex monitoring of:• Fats

• Carbohydrates

• Glucose (a simple sugar)

• Various hormones



Incentives (i.e. cooking aromas)

Emotional factors

Cultural factors

Social factors

Other Factors that Stimulate Hunger

11

22

33

44



Eating Disorders and Obesity

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: List the symptoms that are used to diagnose anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, muscle dysmorphia, and obesity. Describe the people who are most likely to develop these disorders and the most likely causes of them.

Anorexia nervosa • Approximately 1% of

adolescents suffer from anorexia nervosa.

• About 90% of them are white upper- or middle-class females.

• Over 10% of those with anorexia nervosa die as a result of the disorder.

Bulimia nervosa • Approximately 1-2%

of all adolescent females have bulimia nervosa.

• Upper- and middle-class women are most at-risk.

Muscle dysmorphia • It is more common

in young males.



Obesity

• Obesity has increased more than 50% in the last decade.

• More than two-thirds of Americans are overweight or obese.

• The obesity statistics for American youth are displayed to the right.

• There really is no “quick fix” for weight loss.

• Our bodies appear to be genetically “set” to maintain a certain weight.

– Set-point theory

Applying Psychology



The Slow (but Lasting)

Fix for Weight Gain1. Check with your doctor before

you start to make sure your weight loss program will be safe.

2. Increase your body’s metabolism through regular exercise.

3. Modify your diet.

4. Reduce external cues that encourage you to eat undesirable foods.

5. Set realistic goals.

6. Reward yourself – in ways unrelated to food – for small improvements.

Sex



Sexual motivation is

similar to, and different from, other primary

drives.

Biological Factors

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe how sexual motivation is both similar to and different from other primary drives. Identify the factors (biological and nonbiological) that affect sexual motivation.

SimilarSex is considered a primary drive because it is unlearned and is a physiological state.

DifferentSex is vital only to the survival of the species, not to the survival of the individual.



Biological Factors

Testosterone (the primary male sex hormone)– Baseline levels associated with frequency of sexual

behavior/satisfaction in males and females

Pheromones– Some evidence that they are secreted in the sweat

glands of the armpits and in the genitals– May influence sexual attraction

Brain– Limbic system and insula: involved in sexual

excitement

Sexual response cycle– Typical sequence of events characterizing sexual

response in males and females



Sexual Response Cycle

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the sexual response cycle and how it differs formen and women. Briefly explain what is meant by the statement that “research indicates that the sex lives of most Americans differ significantly from media portrayals.”

1. Excitement: Beginning of arousal

2. Plateau: Physical changes continue

3. Orgasm: Rhythmic contractions in vagina/penis muscles; male ejaculates

4. Resolution: Final phase, body returned to normal state• Refractory period: Time period when males

cannot have another orgasm



Cultural and Environmental Factors

Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biology.

• Sight and smell• Moral beliefs• Culture of origin• Age• Gender equality



Michael, Gagnon, Laumann, & Kolata (1994) study of 3,432 people aged 18-59.

Patterns of Sexual Behavior Among AmericansPatterns of Sexual Behavior Among Americans

Twice a week or more:

about 1/3

A few times a month: 1/3

A few times a year or not

at all: 1/3

Approx. 15 minutes

Vaginal intercourse:

over 90%

Married couples: more

satisfied and had sex more often than unmarried

persons (see also Waite

& Joyner, 2001)

Males: 6

Females: 2

17% of the men, 3% of the women: sex with over 20

partners

Men: about 25%

Women: about 15%

Average duration of intercourse

Average duration of intercourse

Median number of

partners over the lifetime

Median number of

partners over the lifetime

Percentage who

committed adultery

Percentage who

committed adultery

Frequency of sex

Frequency of sex

Preferred form of sexPreferred

form of sex

Satisfaction with sex lifeSatisfaction with sex life



Gender Differences in Sexuality

Men• Men are more

interested in sex than are women.

• Aggression, power, dominance, and assertiveness are more closely linked to sex among men than among women.

Women• Women are more

likely than men to link sex to a close, committed relationship.

• Women’s sexuality is more open to change over time.



Sexual Orientation

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize the research evidence for and against a biological basis for sexual orientation.

What determines sexual orientation?

NaturePrimarily influenced by genetics

NurtureA result of early learning and socialization

CombinationLikely explanation probably involves a combination of the two

Other Important Motives



Other Important Motives

• Stimulus motives: Unlearned motives that prompt us to explore or change the world around us– Exploration– Curiosity– Manipulation– Contact

• Aggression• Achievement • Affiliation



Exploration and Curiosity

• Sparked by the new and unknown

• Directed toward no more specific goal other than “finding out”

• Not unique to humans

• Disagreement about the nature and causes of curiosity

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Briefly describe the major stimulus motives: exploration, curiosity, manipulation, and contact.



Manipulation and Contact

• Limited to primates, who have agile fingers and toes

• Manipulation: An active process

• Contact: Can be either active or passive

• Harlow (1958) and Harlow & Zimmerman (1959): Studies with monkeys demonstrating the human need for contact



Aggression

Behavior aimed at doing harm to others; also, the motive to behave aggressively

Theories:• Innate drive

• A vestige of our evolutionary past that is triggered by pain or frustration

• Social learning

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the role of learning as a determinant of aggression including evidence for gender and cultural differences in aggressive behavior.



Aggression: Culture and Gender

• Collectivist societies have lower levels of aggression.

• Across cultures, males at every age are more aggressive than females.

• Higher levels of aggression in males may be due to socialization as well as biological factors.



Achievement

Achievement motive: The need to excel and to overcome obstacles

Three separate but interrelated achievement-oriented behaviors:• Work orientation• Mastery • Competitiveness: Tends to

interfere with achievement

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the components of achievement behavior and the characteristics of people who are high in achievement motivation. Explain the factors that affect the affiliation motive and the likelihood that a person will express their need for affiliation.



Affiliation

Affiliation motive: The need to be with others

• Common to humans and likely to be especially strong when people feel threatened

• Has an evolutionary basis according to some theorists

• Expression of need depends on a number of factors

Emotions



Fear

Surprise

Disgust

Anger

Sadness

Anticipation

Joy

Acceptance

Plutchik’s Eight Basic Emotions

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Discuss the evidence for a set of basic emotions that are experienced by all humans.

Basic Emotions

11

22

33

44

55

66

77

88



Primary and Secondary Emotions

Primary emotions • Are evident in all

cultures • Contribute to survival • Are associated with

distinct facial expressions

• Are evident in nonhuman primates

Secondary emotions• Are subtle combinations

of primary emotions• Are not found in all

cultures



Stimuli cause physiological changes in our bodies, and emotions result from those physiological changes.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast the James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, and cognitive theories of emotion.

Theories of Emotion

Cognitive theoriesCognitive theories

Cannon-Bard theoryCannon-Bard theory

James-Lange theoryJames-Lange theory



The experience of emotion occurs simultaneously with biological changes.


Theories of Emotion






Emotional experience depends on one’s perception or judgment of a situation.


Theories of Emotion




Communicating Emotion



LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain the importance of facial expressions in communicating emotion and identify the areas of the brain that are responsible for interpreting facial expressions. Describe the role of body language, gestures, and personal space in communicating emotions.

• We convey more emotional information in the way we express words, not in the words we use.

• Facial expression seems to communicate the most among nonverbal channels of communication.

• Evolutionary psychologists believe that facial expression served an adaptive function, enabling our ancestors to compete for status, win mates, and defend themselves.

Voice Quality and Facial Expression



How the Brain Reads the Face

• Activity in the amgydala and insula in the brain are critical for the release of emotions.

• These same areas of the brain also play an important role in our ability to correctly interpret facial expressions.



Body Language, Personal Space, and Gestures



Gender and Emotion

Men and women:• Don’t necessarily differ in their

physiological experience of emotion• May react to the same situation with

very different emotions

Women:• Are more likely to express their

emotions than men• Are more likely to express emotions

strongly and seek help

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize the research evidence regarding gender and cultural differences in emotion, the role of “display rules,” and whether it is advantageous to express anger as opposed to “holding it in.”

Gender



Culture and Emotion

• Universalist position: The face looks the same across cultures for specific emotions.

• Culture-learning position:Members of a culture learn the appropriate facial expressions for emotions.

• Display rules: Culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why expressions of emotion are appropriate.

Culture

Acknowledgments

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skydiving ©istockphoto.com/Aleksander Trankov

3 woman looking at scale ©istockphoto.com/Lise Gagne

4 baby w/ bottle ©istockphoto.com/Photo studio FD

4 fancy house ©istockphoto.com/Andrea Hill

5 girl crying ©istockphoto.com/Jesus Ayala

5 depressed teenager ©istockphoto.com/Aldo Murillo

6 happy woman ©istockphoto.com/bo1982

6 sad woman ©istockphoto.com/Silver Spiral Arts

6 angry man ©istockphoto.com/Hakimata Photography & Makeup

7 neck pain ©istockphoto.com/Martin Novak

8 woman rock climbing ©istockphoto.com/Greg Epperson

9 man and baby ©istockphoto.com/Barbara Sauder

11 girl chewing fingers: fear ©istockphoto.com/jlmatt

11 woman with hands over face: shame ©istockphoto.com/Soubrette

11 child: shyness ©istockphoto.com/elkor

12 child drinking water ©istockphoto.com/VARDHAN

12 person rock climbing ©istockphoto.com/Greg Epperson

13 head ©istockphoto.com/Angel Herrero de Frutos

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13 food - burger & fries ©istockphoto.com/Adolfo Lazo

14 young woman dancing happily ©istockphoto.com/Justin Horrocks

14 young woman sleeping happily ©istockphoto.com/Justin Horrocks

15 Figure 8.1: The Yerkes-Dodson law Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 261

16 snowboarder ©istockphoto.com/Ben Blankenburg

17 girl on swing ©istockphoto.com/HooRoo Graphics

17 doctor giving child candy ©istockphoto.com/killerb10

18 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Adapted from Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 262

20 hungry ©istockphoto.com/Neil Wysocki

20 bowl ©istockphoto.com/Jill Chen

20 dish of noodles ©istockphoto.com/Jamesmcq24

21 Figure 8.3: Physiological factors regulating appetite and body weight

Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 264

22 cooking ©istockphoto.com/Sean Locke

22 icon: wanted sign Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from ©istockphoto.com/andynwt

24 Figure 8.4: Rising obesity among American youth Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 267

25 person exercising ©istockphoto.com/Overprint

25 scrap of paper ©istockphoto.com/Trevor Hunt

29 sex feet arousal ©istockphoto.com/Rapid Eye Media

29 sex feet climax ©istockphoto.com/Rapid Eye Media

29 sex feet post ©istockphoto.com/Niko Guido

30 Figure 10.3 From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 2/e p. 409

Figure 10.4 From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 2/e p. 409

31 woman jumping into a man's arms ©istockphoto.com/Yuri Arcurs

32 Figure 8.6: Frequency of sexual behavior around the world Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 271

34 restroom doors - gender symbols ©istockphoto.com/k-libre

37 kid looking at bug ©istockphoto.com/Barssé

37 girl reaching for soda ©istockphoto.com/maska82

37 punch through wall ©istockphoto.com/Sami Suni

37 girl raising her hand ©istockphoto.com/bonniej graphic design

37 Singapore swim class ©istockphoto.com/arturbo

38 cat looking around a door ©istockphoto.com/tirc83

38 kid looking at bug ©istockphoto.com/Barssé

39 girl reaching for soda ©istockphoto.com/maska82

40 punch through wall ©istockphoto.com/Sami Suni

41 globe w/ flags ©istockphoto.com/Stay Media Productions

41 silhouettes - hate fighting TrapdoorMedia

42 girl raising her hand ©istockphoto.com/bonniej graphic design

43 Singapore swim class ©istockphoto.com/arturbo

45 Figure 8.7: Plutchik's eight basic emotions Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 279

46 crowd ©istockphoto.com/adisa

47 Figure 8.10: James-Lange Theory Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 281

48 Figure 8.10: Canon-Bard Theory Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 281

49 Figure 8.10: Cognitive Theory Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 281

51 icon: helmet ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun

51 couple hugging ©istockphoto.com/ODonnell Photograf

52 Illustration: profile with brain From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 2/e p. 70

53 little girl hugging and kissing little boy ©istockphoto.com/Nicolesy, Inc. | Nicole S. Young

53 couple in kitchen ©istockphoto.com/Denis Raev

53 couple on couch ©istockphoto.com/Lev Olkha

54 woman expressing feelings to a man ©istockphoto.com/Lokibaho

55 woman facial expressions ©istockphoto.com/ZoneCreative

56 Open Your Book - textbook cover Shutterstock

56 Open Your Book - textbook background From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 213-214

56 Open Your Book - open textbook From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 114-115

58 topbar: cactus ©istockphoto.com/Lee Daniels

58 topbar: wooden board ©istockphoto.com/andynwt

58 text messaging ©iStockphoto.com/Freeze Frame Studio, Inc.

59 topbar: helmets ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun

59 topbar: athletic field ©istockphoto.com/Jamie Otterstetter

60 tabletop of stationery ©istockphoto.com/Stuart Burford

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